What are the main results of the revolution of October 1917. February Revolution: briefly

Plan

Introduction.

1. Ideological attitudes communists in relation to culture.

2. The state and development of the culture of the USSR in the 20-30s:

2.1) creative organizations and unions;

2.2) literature and art;

2.3) education and science;

Conclusion.

IV. Bibliography

Introduction

The Soviet period is a complex and contradictory phenomenon in the development of not only our history, but also culture. The 20th century gave the fatherland brilliant scientists and researchers, talented artists, writers, musicians, directors. There were numerous creative associations, art schools, trends, trends, styles.

However, it was in the 20th century that a totalized socio-cultural system was created in Russia, the distinguishing features of which were ideological control over the spiritual life of society, manipulation of consciousness, the destruction of dissent, the physical destruction of the color of the Russian scientific and artistic intelligentsia. In a word, culture Soviet period was controversial. It showed both positive and negative phenomena. In its assessment, it is necessary to observe the principle of objectivity, the exclusion of any ideological predilections. In this vein, it is necessary to analyze the culture of Russia in the twentieth century.

The topic of my essay was the cultural development of the country in the 20-30s. Distinctive feature Soviet period of cultural history is a huge role in its development of the party and the state. Party and state established full control over the spiritual life of society.

The tasks of the country's economic development required technically competent, skilled workers. However, development National economy created a certain material base for culture. Lenin said that Russia must make a giant leap to catch up with the developed countries. For us, this cultural revolution is now enough to turn out to be a completely socialist country, but for us this cultural revolution presents incredible difficulties, both of a purely cultural nature (for we are illiterate) and of a material nature (for in order to be cultural, a certain development is necessary). material means of production, we need a known materialbase)”.1

In 1918, Lenin, in a conversation with K. Zetkin, defined the tasks of art in Soviet society: “Art belongs to the people. It must have its deepest roots in the very depths of the broad working masses. It must be understood by these masses and loved by them. It must unite the feeling, thought and will of these masses, raise them. It should awaken the artists in them and develop them.”

Writers and poets, artists and musicians were called upon to educate the people with their art in the spirit of selfless devotion to the proletarian revolution and hatred for the old world of violence and slavery.

Lately Scientific research cultural development of the country have become highly relevant. The study of the cultural art of Russia, undoubtedly, helps to understand the social situation and problems facing it. But there is also Feedback: it is impossible to absolutely accurately understand the modern culture of Russia without taking into account certain social changes that have taken place in the country over the past decades.

The ideological attitudes of the communists

in relation to culture

At the beginning of the twentieth century, V.I. Lenin formulated the most important principles of the attitude of the Communist Party to creative activity which formed the basis of the cultural policy of the Soviet state. In work “Party Organization and Party Literature”(1905) V. I. Lenin argues that the desire of some creative people to be “outside” and “above” the class struggle is untenable, since “... to live in society and be free from society is impossible”.2The class approach to culture is the defining principle of the communists to the cultural heritage and ongoing cultural processes. The main goal of culture, according to V.I. Lenin, is not service “... to the jaded heroine, not to the bored and obese "top ten thousand", but to the millions and tens of millions of working people who make up the color of the country, its strength, its "future 3. Thus, culture and, in particular, such a sphere of it as art, must become “part of the general proletarian cause”, express the interests of this class.

The Marxist concept contained the idea of ​​the relationship between the world-historical mission of the proletariat and the prospects for the development of culture: to what extent the proletariat as a revolutionary class will express the interests of society as a whole, assimilate, rework, develop “... everything that was valuable in more than two thousand years of development of human thought and culture 4 to this extent depends on its development. Hence the conclusion follows that humanistic, in the full sense of the word, becomes that culture that is generated by a class fighting for its liberation. “ Revolutionary class, - wrote V.I. Lenin, - by the mere fact that it opposes another class, it appears from the very beginning as a class and how representative of the whole society”.5

At the same time, Lenin drew attention to the following extremely important circumstance: From the point of view of the basic ideas of Marxism, the interests community development higher than the interests of the proletariat, the interests of the entire working-class movement as a whole are higher than the interests of an individual section of workers or individual elements of the movement”.6

A serious task of the cultural revolution was proclaimed to familiarize the people with cultural values, change their consciousness, re-educate the person himself. “ Before,- said V.I. Lenin, - the whole human mind, all its genius, created only in order to give some all the benefits of technology and culture, while depriving others of the most necessary - enlightenment and development. Now all the wonders of technology, all the achievements of culture will become the property of the whole people, and henceforth never will the human mind and genius be turned into means.violence, into means of exploitation…”.7

The state took over the financing of all branches of culture: education, logistics, all kinds of art, establishing the strictest censorship of literature, theater, cinema, educational institutions, etc. A coherent system of indoctrination of the population was created. Facilities mass media, being under the most severe control of the party and the state, along with reliable information, they used the method of manipulating the consciousness of the population. The idea was instilled in the people that the country was a besieged fortress, and only those who defended it had the right to be in this fortress. The constant search for enemies is becoming a distinctive feature of the activities of the party and the state.

In communist ideology special place is related to the individual. A system of socio-political myths is being created, the desired is presented as reality. Gorky's "Man - it sounds proud!" But in fact, the personality is devalued, the main thing is the collective, the collective opinion, and the personality is only a means to achieve the global goal - building communism and implementing the world socialist revolution. A person is just a “cog” in solving these problems. Hence, all the ideological work was aimed at the formation of such a “cog”. Even morality began to be considered in line with the solution of the problems of building communism.

In line with the class struggle, bourgeois culture was constantly opposed to the new, proletarian culture. In contrast to bourgeois culture, the new, socialist culture, in the opinion of the Communists, should express the interests of the working people and serve the tasks of the class struggle of the proletariat for socialism. From these positions, the communists also determined their attitude to the cultural heritage of the past. The new culture, in their opinion, absorbs the democratic elements of the old, overcoming its reactionary sides in a long struggle. Many values ​​were excluded from the cultural process. The special storages contained the works of writers, artists and other representatives of culture that were not pleasing to the communists. Noble estates were destroyed, temples, churches and monasteries were destroyed, the connection of times was destroyed.

In my opinion, as applied to culture, the idea of ​​class struggle and cultural revolution is false. It is always associated with the destruction of cultural values. More preferable is the evolutionary path of development. In the 1930s, the party-state leadership of culture took the form of a crude administrative dictate. The mass repressions of the 1930s and early 1950s led to irreparable losses in the field of culture and affected the moral attitude of society. The change in the socio-economic and political conditions of people's lives was considered by the communists in unity with cultural transformations. The tasks of the country's economic development required technically competent, skilled workers. At the same time, the development of the national economy created a certain material base for culture.

A distinctive feature of the Soviet period in the history of culture is the enormous role played by the party and the state in its development. The party and the state have established complete control over the spiritual life of society. Marxism-Leninism is an absolute truth that everyone should accept, and whoever disagrees with this must be re-educated or isolated from society.

State and development of the culture of the USSR

in the 20-30s

2.1 creative organizations and unions

The class approach to culture was primarily reflected in the activities of the Proletcult. This is a mass organization that united more than half a million people, of which 80 thousand worked in the studios. Proletkult published about 20 magazines and had branches abroad. In its most complete form, the concept of a special proletarian culture was formulated by A.A. Bogdanov, under whose influence were other figures of Proletkult. He believed that the culture of each class is isolated, closed and cannot be understood and used by representatives of other classes. The task was put forward to create an independent proletarian culture, free from any "class impurities" and "layers of the past." The views of A. A. Bogdanov were shared by V. F. Pletnev, F. I. Kalinin and others. works of art, which revealed a connection with the national liberation movement. The idea of ​​denying cultural heritage is most fully expressed in V. Kirillov’s program poem “We”:

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“We are at the mercy of the rebellious terrible hops,

Let them shout to us: “You are the executioners of beauty”,

In the name of our tomorrow - we will burn Raphael,

Let's destroy museums, trample flowers on art!”

The decisive steps in continuing the mistakes of the proletcult were taken in October 1920, when the All-Russian Congress of Proletcults adopted a resolution rejecting the wrong and harmful attempts to invent a special, proletarian culture. Participation in the cause of public education on the basis of Marxism was recognized as the main direction in the work of proletarian organizations. The views of proletarian theorists were criticized by V.I. Lenin, A.V. Lunacharsky, M.N. Pokrovsky, N.K. Krupskaya, Ya.A. Yakovlev.

Another very influential creative team was RAPP (Russian Association of Proletarian Writers). Organizationally, the association took shape at the First All-Russian Congress of Proletarian Writers in Moscow in October 1920. different years The leading role in the association was played by L. Averbakh, F. V. Gladkov, A. S. Serafimovich, V. I. Panferov and a number of others. Calling for a struggle for high artistic skill, arguing with the theoreticians of Proletkult, the RAPP, at the same time, remained on the point of view of proletarian culture. In 1932 the RAPP was dissolved.

The artistic life of the country in the first years of Soviet power is striking in its diversity and abundance of literary and artistic groups. Only in Moscow in the 1920s. there were more than 30 of them. Among them:

"Forge" (founded in 1920),

"Serapion brothers" (1921),

"Moscow Association of Proletarian Writers" - MAPP (1923),

"Left Front of the Arts" - LEF (1922),

"Pass" (1923), etc.

Many writers were apolitical in their convictions. Thus, in the manifesto of the Serapion Brothers association, the independence of artistic creativity from politics and ideological convictions was proclaimed. However, the work of the Serapions, among whom were N. S. Tikhonov, K. A. Fedin, M. M. Zoshchenko, V. A. Kaverin, went beyond the scope of this declaration.

In April 1932, the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks adopted a resolution "On the restructuring of literary and artistic organizations", which provided for their dissolution and the creation of unified creative unions. In August 1934, the Writers' Union of the USSR was formed. The very first congress ordered the workers of Soviet art to use exclusively the method of socialist realism, the principles of which are party spirit, communist ideology, nationality, "the depiction of reality in its revolutionary development." Along with the Union of Writers, the Union of Artists, the Union of Composers, etc. later arose. For guidance artistic creativity and control over it under the government was formed by the Committee for Arts.

Thus, the Bolshevik Party completely placed Soviet literature and art at the service of communist ideology, turning them into an instrument of propaganda. From now on, they were intended to instill Marxist-Leninist ideas in the minds of people, to convince them of the advantages of a socialist coexistence, of the infallible wisdom of the party leaders.

Artists and writers who met these requirements received large fees, Stalinist and other bonuses, dachas, creative business trips, trips abroad and other benefits from the Bolshevik leadership.

2.2 literature and art

The fate of those who did not submit to the communist dictate was, as a rule, tragic. V concentration camps, the dungeons of the NKVD killed the most talented representatives of Soviet culture: O. Mandelstam, who wrote the poem “We live under us without smelling the country ...”, I. Babel, who vividly described the events civil war in the work "The First Horse", directed by V. Meyerhold, journalist M. Koltsov. Of the members of the Writers' Union alone, 600 people were repressed. Many cultural figures, such as the writer A. Platonov, artists P. Filonov, K. Malevich and others, were deprived of the opportunity to publish their books and exhibit paintings. Many outstanding works created in those years did not reach the reader and viewer immediately. Only in 1966 was the novel by M. A. Bulgakov “Master and Margarita” published, in 1986-1988 “Juvenile Sea”, “Pit” and “Chevengur” by A. P. Platonov were published, in 1987 “Requiem” was published A. A. Akhmatova.

The paths of ideological and political self-determination and the life destinies of many people of art were not easy in this critical era. For various reasons and in different years, great Russian talents turned up abroad, such as: I.A. Bunin, A.N. Tolstoy, A.I. Kuprin, M.I. Tsvetaeva, E.I. Zamyatin, F.I. Chaliapin, A.P. Pavlova, K.A. Korovin and others. Before others, he realized the impossibility for himself to live and work outside the Motherland A.N. Tolstoy, who returned from emigration in 1922.

Literary and art magazines played an important role in the artistic life of the country. New magazines such as:

“New world”,

"Red New"

"Young guard",

"October",

"Star",

"Print and Revolution".

Many outstanding works of Soviet literature were published for the first time on their pages, critical articles were published, and heated discussions were held. The production of newspapers, magazines and books increased. In addition to all-Union and republican newspapers, almost every enterprise, factory, mine, state farm published its own large-circulation or wall newspaper. Books were published in more than 100 languages ​​of the world. There was radiofication of the country. Broadcasting was carried out by 82 stations in 62 languages. There were 4 million radio points in the country. A network of libraries and museums developed.

By the mid-30s, new works appeared. M. Gorky's novel "The Life of Klim Samgin" (1925-1936) is published. Sholokhov's novel "Quiet Don" (1928-1940) tells the problem of man in the revolution, his fate. The image of Pavel Korchagin, the hero of N. Ostrovsky's novel How the Steel Was Tempered (1934), became a symbol of heroism and moral purity. The theme of industrialization is reflected in the works of L. Leonov “Sot”, M. Shaginyan “Hydrocentral”, V. Kataev “Time forward”, I. Ehrenburg “Without taking a breath”. Many works were dedicated national history. These are “Peter I” by A. Tolstoy, “Death of Vazir-Mukhtar” by Y. Tynyanov, M. Bulgakov’s drama “The Cabal of the Holy” and “ Last days” A.S. Pushkin.

Brilliant examples of poetry were given in their work by S. Yesenin, A. Akhmatova, O. Mandelstam, B. Pasternak. M. Zoshchenko, I. Ilf and E. Petrov successfully worked in the genre of satire. The classics of Soviet children's literature were the works of S. Marshak, A. Gaidar, K. Chukovsky, B. Zhitkov.

Cultural ties with foreign countries developed. Foreign trips were made by S. Yesenin, V. Mayakovsky. The works of M. Gorky, V. Mayakovsky, A. Tolstoy, V. Ivanov, K. Fedin, I. Ehrenburg, B. Pilnyak, I. Babel were published abroad. A. Tolstoy, B. Pasternak, M. Sholokhov, I. Ehrenburg, M. Koltsov, V. Vishnevsky, A. Fadeev participated in the work of the I and II World Congresses of Writers in Defense of Culture in 1935 in Paris and in 1937 in Valencia .

Many theater groups. The Bolshoi Drama Theater in Leningrad, the first artistic director of which was A. Blok, played an important role in the development of theatrical art. V. Meyerhold, the theater. E. Vakhtangov, Moscow Theater. Moscow City Council.

By the mid-20s, the emergence of Soviet dramaturgy, which had a huge impact on the development of theatrical art, dates back. The major events of the theatrical seasons of 1925-1927. steel "Storm" V. Bill-Belotserkovsky in the theater. MGSPS, “Love Yarovaya” by K. Trenev at the Maly Theater, “The Rupture” by B. Lavrenev at the Theater. E. Vakhtangov and at the Bolshoi Drama Theatre, “Armored Train 14-69” by V. Ivanov at the Moscow Art Theater. The classics occupied a strong place in the theater repertoire. Attempts to read it again were made both by academic theaters (A. Ostrovsky's Hot Heart at the Moscow Art Theater) and by the "leftists" ("The Forest" by A. Ostrovsky and N. Gogol's "Inspector General" at the V. Meyerhold Theater).

If the drama theaters rebuilt their repertoire by the end of the first Soviet decade, the main place in the activities of opera and ballet groups was still occupied by the classics. The only big luck in reflection contemporary theme was the production of R. Glier's ballet "Red Poppy" ("Red Flower").

In countries Western Europe and America were made by L.V. Sobinov, A.V. Nezhdanova, N.S. Golovanov, the troupe of the Moscow Art Theater, the Chamber Theater, the Studio. E. Vakhtangov, Quartet of ancient Russian instruments

The musical life of the country in those years is associated with the names of S. Prokofiev, D. Shostakovich, A. Khachaturian, T. Khrennikov, D. Kabalevsky, I. Dunaevsky and others. Young conductors E. Mravinsky, B. Khaikin came to the fore. Musical ensembles were created, which later glorified the domestic musical culture: the Quartet. Beethoven, the Grand State Symphony Orchestra, the State Philharmonic Orchestra, etc. In 1932, the Union of Composers of the USSR was formed.

The growth of the popularity of cinema was facilitated by the appearance of domestic sound films, the first of which were in 1931 “The Ticket to Life” (directed by N. Eck), “One” (directed by G. Kozintsev, L. Trauberg), “Golden Mountains” (directed by S. Yutkevich). The best films of the 30s told about contemporaries (“Seven Brave”, “Komsomolsk” by S. Gerasimov), about the events of the revolution and the civil war (“Chapaev S. and G. Vasiliev, “We are from Kronstadt” by E. Dzigan, “Deputy Baltics” by I. Kheifets and A. Zarkhi, a trilogy about Maxim directed by G. Kozintseva and L. Trauberg). The musical comedies by G. Alexandrov "Merry Fellows", "Circus" belong to the same time.

In 1936, the title of People's Artist of the USSR was established. The first to be awarded were K. S. Stanislavsky, V. I. Nemirovich-Danchenko, V. I. Kachalov, B. V. Shchukin, I. M. Moskvin, A. V. Nezhdanova.

As in other forms of art, the method of socialist realism was approved in painting. Paintings by B. Ioganson (“Interrogation of a Communist”), B. Grekov and his school, dedicated to military subjects, portraits of M. Nesterov, P. Korin, I. Grabar, works by A. Deineka, praising a healthy, strong man, were considered the highest achievement of Soviet artists. . Ceremonial portraits of the leaders of the people were widely spread.

Soviet sculptors focused on creating monuments depicting V.I. Lenin, I. V. Stalin, other leaders of the party and state. In each city there were several monuments to the leaders. The sculptural group "Worker and Collective Farm Woman", created by V. Mukhina, depicting two steel giants, was considered a masterpiece of monumental art of that time.

2.3 education and science

Continuation
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Membership renewed Russian Academy Sciences in international organizations. Domestic scientists participated in international conferences, in foreign scientific expeditions. The first official speech of scientists Soviet Russia abroad there was a report by N.I. Vavilov and A.A. Yachevsky at the International Congress on the Control of Cereal Diseases in 1921 in the USA. Joint scientific research was launched: V.I. Vernadsky and then young D.V. Skobeltsin worked at the Radium Institute in Paris, V.V. Bartold participated in the creation of the Turkological Institute in Istanbul, and the German-Russian Medical Journal began to appear. The 200th anniversary of the Russian Academy of Sciences was widely cancelled. More than 130 scientists from 25 countries came to the anniversary celebrations.

A bright page in the annals of Soviet science was the development of the Arctic. In the autumn of 1933, the Chelyuskin transport ship, on which the expedition headed by the famous scientist O.Yu. Schmidt, having fallen into ice compression and after almost five months of polar drift, having sunk, crushed by ice. 101 people, including 10 women and two children, landed on the ice floe and continued to study the climate, currents, chemistry and biology of the Chukchi Sea. In April 1934 Soviet pilots removed the Chelyuskinites from the ice floe. For this, the pilots were the first in the country to receive the title of Hero. Soviet Union.

From May 1937 to February 1938, four scientists continued to drift on an ice floe in the Arctic Ocean under the guidance of I.D. Papanin.

In 1937, the crew of pilots headed by V.P. Chkalov made the world's first non-stop flight across the North Pole from the USSR to the USA, covering over 12,000 km in 63.5 hours.

Continuing the development of the theory of space flights, K.E. Tsiolkovsky. A study group was formed jet propulsion(GIRD), which included F.A. Zander, A.G. Kostikov, the creator of the world's first jet weapon, famous during the war years "Katyusha". In the summer of 1933, the group launched the first liquid-fuel rocket. The beginning of the study of the stratosphere belongs to the same time. On September 30, 1933, the first Soviet stratospheric balloon "USSR" rose to a height of 19 km, thereby setting a world record. On January 30, 1934, the second Soviet stratospheric balloon Osoaviakhim-1 rose to a height of 22 km. The flight ended tragically - the death of the crew.

A major breakthrough was made by Soviet physicists in the field of atomic nucleus. The research of scientists contributed to the creation of Soviet atomic weapons and nuclear power plants in the future.

The activities of the largest Russian physiologist I.V. Pavlov and his students. Based on the scientific research of Academician S.V. Lebedev in the Soviet Union, for the first time in the world, the production of artificial rubber was organized. Academician A.N. Bach was created and successfully developed new science- biochemistry. Discoveries in the field of astronomy were made by the Armenian scientist V.A. Ambartsumyan.

Developed physical science(A.F. Ioffe, D.V. Skobeltsin, S.I. Vavilov, I.E. Tamm, P.L. Kapitsa), mathematics and theoretical mechanics (S.N. Bernstein, I.M. Vinogradov, S. L. Sobolev), agricultural science (I.V. Michurin, D.N. Pryanishnikov, N.I. Vavilov), history (M.N. Pokrovsky, B.D. Grekov, S.V. Bakhrushin, M. N. Tikhomirov, M.N. Druzhinin, M.V. Nechkina, A.M. Pankratova, S.D. Skazkin, E.V. Tarle). Humanitarian sciences were completely idealized, that is, scientists could write only what corresponded to the Marxist-Leninist ideology and party guidelines. In fact, such sciences as sociology and social psychology were banned. The Russian school of genetics was subjected to destruction and physical extermination.

However, the strengthening of the command-administrative system, the tightening of control led to a narrowing of the amount of information coming from abroad. Personal contacts with foreigners and stay abroad became reasons for undeserved accusations in espionage of Soviet citizens. The control over the departure of scientists and representatives of culture abroad was tightened.

A lot of work has been done to eradicate illiteracy. In 1913, Lenin wrote: “Such a wild country in which the masses of the people were so robbed in terms of education, light and knowledge, there is not a single country in Europe like that, except for Russia.”8On the eve October revolution about 68% of the adult population could not read and write. Especially bleak was the situation in the countryside, where the illiterates were about 80%, and in the national regions the proportion of illiterates reached 99.5%.

On December 26, 1919, the Council of People's Commissars adopted a decree "On the elimination of illiteracy among the population of the RSFSR", according to which the entire population from 8 to 50 years old was obliged to learn to read and write in their native or Russian language. The decree provided for the reduction of the working day for students with the preservation of wages, the organization of registration of the illiterate, the provision of premises for classes of educational programs, the construction of new schools. In 1920, the All-Russian Extraordinary Commission for the Elimination of Illiteracy was created, which existed until 1930 under the People's Commissariat of Education of the RSFSR.

The school experienced enormous financial difficulties, especially in the first years of the NEP. 90% of schools were transferred from the state budget to the local one. As a temporary measure, in 1922, tuition fees were introduced in cities and urban-type settlements, which were set depending on the well-being of the family. As the country's economic situation generally improved, government spending on education increased; patronage assistance from enterprises and institutions to schools has become widespread.

According to the 1926 census, the proportion of the literate population doubled compared to pre-revolutionary times and amounted to 60.9%. There was a noticeable gap in the level of literacy between urban and rural areas - 85 and 55% and between men and women - 77.1 and 46.4%.

Raising the educational level of the population had a direct impact on the process of democratization high school.

Decree of the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR of August 2, 1918 “On the rules for admission to higher educational institutions of the RSFSR proclaimed that everyone who has reached the age of 16, regardless of citizenship and nationality, gender and religion, was admitted to universities without exams, it was not required to provide a document on secondary education. The advantage in enrollment was given to the workers and the poorest peasantry. In addition, starting from 1919, workers' faculties began to be created in the country. At the end of the recovery period, graduates of workers' schools made up half of the students admitted to universities. By 1927 the network of higher educational institutions and technical schools of the RSFSR consisted of 90 universities (in 1914 - 72 universities) and 672 technical schools (in 1914 - 297 technical schools). By 1930 capital appropriations for schools had grown more than 10 times as compared with 1925/26. During this period, almost 40 thousand schools were opened. On July 25, 1930, the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks adopted a resolution “On universal mandatory primary education”, which was introduced for children 8-10 years old in the amount of 4 classes.

By the end of the 1930s, the heavy legacy of tsarism - mass illiteracy - had been overcome. According to the 1939 census, the percentage of literate people aged 9-49 in the RSFSR was 89.7%. Differences between the city and the countryside, between men and women in terms of literacy remained insignificant. Thus, the literacy of men was 96%, women - 83.9%, urban population - 94.9%, rural - 86.7%. However, there were still many illiterates among the population over 50 years of age.

Music education became accessible to the people. And a lot of talents that came out of the working environment got free access to music schools, colleges and conservatories. Begins to develop and amateur music. In factory and factory clubs, in parts of the Red Army and Navy, choir and drama circles, brass bands, folk instrument orchestras are being created. Musical dramatizations are staged on politically hot topics.

A great contribution to the organization of public education and enlightenment, to the development of pedagogy was made by N.K. Krupskaya, A.S. Bubnov, talented teachers A.S. Makarenko, P.P. Blonsky, S.T. Shatsky.

By the end of the 1930s, there were more than 10 million specialists in the USSR, including about 900 thousand people with higher education. There were twice as many engineers with higher education than in the USA. However, their level of qualification remained significantly lower.

The culture of the USSR followed its own, special path, largely determined by the Communist Party. In the 1930s, Soviet science switched to a planned system. Numerous scientific institutions sprang up on the periphery. Branches of the Academy of Sciences were created in the Transcaucasian republics, in the Urals, Far East, In Kazakhstan. The Party demanded that science serve the practice of socialist construction, have a direct impact on production, and contribute to the strengthening of the country's military might.

Conclusion

The 20-30s went down in the history of our country as a period of the “cultural revolution”, which meant not only a significant increase, compared with the pre-revolutionary period, in the educational level of the people and the degree of their familiarization with the achievements of culture, but also the undivided triumph of the Marxist-Leninist doctrine , the transformation of literature and art into an institution of influence on the masses. One of the main features of this period is the all-encompassing party-state control over the spiritual life of society in order to form a communist-type person, to introduce into the mass consciousness the only unified ideology that justifies and justifies all the actions of the regime.

The revolution made all the treasures of culture and art the property of the working people. The doors of palaces, museums, theaters and concert halls opened wide for the people. Unusual spectators and listeners came here: - workers and peasants, Red Guards and sailors. “The new viewer turned out to be extremely theatrical; he came to the theater not in passing, but with trepidation and expectation of something important, unprecedented. He treated the actor with some touching feeling. Musical creativity, opera, theater and concert life, musical education, and mass amateur musical performances grew and developed.

The works of those years were called upon to promote the cultural growth of the people, to awaken and raise new, young creative forces from its depths. Although the party and the state established complete control over the spiritual life of society, its goal was to raise the spirit of culture among the masses, to awaken a craving for art, while at the same time not letting go of control. V.I. Lenin said: "It should awaken artists in them and develop them."

The cultural development of this period is very ambiguous, which leaves questions for reflection to this day. Although he was deeply marked in the development of the country in relation to other states.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

"The Cultural Revolution and the Spiritual Process". S.A. Krasilnikov, L.F. Mass, V.L. Soskin. In the collection "Historians answer questions." Moscow - Moscow Worker - 1998

"Culturology". Tutorial edited by M.A. Bart. Moscow - Moscow State University -1996

“Political system 20-30s”. Yu.S. Borisov, V.M. Kuritsyn, Yu.S. hwang. In the collection "Historians answer questions." Moscow - Moscow Worker - 1999

"Soviet culture and Russian reality". V.A. Ponomarev. Moscow - "Drofa" - 1997

"Those difficult 20-30 years." Yu.S. Borisov. In the collection "Pages of the History of Soviet Society". Moscow - Political Literature Publishing House - 1992

Soviet culture in the 20-30s of the twentieth century

The revolutionary events split the intelligentsia and the creative environment into those who left their homeland and those who, having accepted the revolution, actively participated in the creation of a new culture. The Cultural Revolution was the most important condition for building socialism:

Training of personnel is being developed through the Communist University. Sverdlov;

A network of public cultural and educational, literary and artistic organizations is being created;

Active work is underway to establish a dialogue with representatives of the old intelligentsia;

A system of education and upbringing is being formed as part of the creation of a unified labor school;

Work is underway to form a worker-peasant intelligentsia;

The system of scientific institutions of tsarist Russia is being revived, along with the involvement of more than 800 scientists and specialists in scientific cooperation;

A whole trend appears in literature in which the revolution occupies a special place - A. Blok, A. Bely, V. Mayakovsky, F. Gladkov, A. Serafimovich, A. Fadeev;

The priority of universal human values ​​over class values ​​was defended in their work by M. Bulgakov, M. Tsvetaeva, O. Mandelstam, A. Tolstoy and B. Pasternak stood apart.

Decree of April 23, 1932 ᴦ. ʼʼOn the restructuring of literary and artistic organizationsʼʼ numerous associations were liquidated. Instead of them in 1934 ᴦ. The Union of Soviet Writers was created.

One of the basic tasks in building a new society was the task of educating a person. In September 1918 ᴦ. the reorganization of the public education system began. Canceled tuition fees, organized labor school of two stages with a term of study of 5 years and 4 years. In 1920 ᴦ. An emergency commission for the elimination of illiteracy was created, the result of which was the elimination of illiteracy as early as 1930 ᴦ.

In 1930 ᴦ. introduced universal primary education. New school organized on pre-revolutionary traditions. In the field of education, all experiments were prohibited. It was carried out on the basis of strict discipline, schedule. Textbooks were compiled in accordance with state standard. Decrees of the Council of People's Commissars and the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks of May 15, 1934 established elementary School(grades 1-4), incomplete secondary school (grades 1-7), secondary (grades 1-10). The ideological leadership was carried out by experienced party and Komsomol workers.

The technological revolution in production required an increase in the number of competent specialists. For this reason, in 1933-1937. to raise the educational level of workers, systems of workers' schools and vocational courses were established.

Technical and agricultural universities were opened, on-the-job education became widespread. The practice of obtaining education by young people who do not have primary education for further study at universities.

In 1925 ᴦ. The Academy of Sciences of the USSR was transferred from Leningrad to Moscow. In 1929 ᴦ. the All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences was established, headed by N.I. Vavilov. Branches of the Academy of Sciences were created in the Union republics and regions of the RSFSR. More than 850 research institutes (NIIs) have been established.

The party leadership paid great attention to the defense branches of production and scientific developments in this area. Numerous design bureaus and research institutes developed new models of tanks (A. A. Morozov, M. I. Komkin, Zh. Ya. Kotin), aircraft (A. N. Tupolev, S. V. Ilyushin, N. N. Polikarpov, A.S. Yakovlev), small arms (V.A. Degtyarev, F.V. Tokarev).

A.P. Alexandrov created a unique protection of the Navy ships from magnetic waves.

Great success was achieved by Soviet scientists who worked in the fundamental and theoretical fields of science: physicists -P. L. Kapitsa, atomic nucleus I. V. Kurchatov, G. N. Flerov and others, semiconductor physicists - A.F. Ioffe.

In the mid-1930s, the ʼʼbig styleʼʼ, characteristic of countries with a totalitarian regime, established itself in the culture of the USSR. Its main features were the scale, splendor, exaggerated optimism.

The main task of ʼʼ big styleʼʼ had an impact on the attitude and behavior of large masses of people. This style was supposed to fix the stability and strength of Soviet power in the minds of the people. It was expressed in mass processions, parades and festivities, where the achievements of the people under the leadership of the CPSU were glorified.

Has been revised Russian history, which began to be presented as a series of continuous victories, the successor of which was the Communist Party.

Special attention devoted to cinematography. A constellation of talented directors and film actors created works that had the strongest impact on the consciousness and behavior of a new person. Members of the Central Committee, as a rule, personally viewed new films.

The new union of writers, painting and sculpture were under the strictest control of the party and organs. Cultural figures were given the necessary assistance in word, deed and finance. As a result, many masterpieces of culture, literature and art were created in the country during this period, which amaze with their talent and remain relevant to this day.

Results of cultural development:

Significant progress has been made in eradicating illiteracy;

There is an upsurge of the creative intelligentsia;

New creative associations are being created and old ones are being revived;

There are many classical works included in the treasury of world culture.

But at the same time, culture has become a part of state policy, falling under strict control of the party and the state.

Soviet culture in the 20-30s of the twentieth century - the concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Soviet culture in the 20-30s of the twentieth century" 2017, 2018.

20-30s years. With the victory of the October Revolution, the authorities began to implement a cultural policy designed to create a new culture based on the Marxist-Leninist ideology. W adachi - the elimination of illiteracy, the development of science, the establishment of communist ideology .. This policy of the state was called the cultural revolution. November 9, 1917 was created by the state commission on education, to control culture.

The main task was the elimination of illiteracy. After a series of experiments (circles, likpunkts), by the end of the 20s, the education system was rebuilt: education became available to workers and peasants, schools were declared state. institutions, education became free, the school was separated from the church, formed higher education system. the ideological basis of education - Marxism - was approved.

In science, the task is to restore the scientific potential of the country and involve scientists in solving the problems of socialist construction. Communications were restored. Scientists with international research centers. (Pavlov, Vernadsky, Vavilov).

The literature noted the work of Yesenin (love for the Motherland), Mayakovsky (revolution, contemporary issues). But many writers emigrated (Nabokov, Bunin, Tsvetaeva (returned)). In 1934 in order to strengthen the ideological leadership and control of the party over writers in the country, writers' organizations were closed and a single Union of Writers of the USSR under the chairmanship of Gorky.

Similar unions were created for composers, cinematographers, and artists. The repressed were: I. Babel, N. Zabolotsky. The publication of works was prohibited A. Akhmatova, M. Bulgakov. Introduced state (Stalinist) prizes in the field of literature and art. Artists were elected to legislative bodies, cities, streets, ships, theaters, clubs, etc. were named after them. Art. In addition to the Association of Traveling Exhibitions, there were: the Association of Artists of Revolutionary Russia, the Society of Moscow Artists (Grekov, Deineki)

Theatre. In 1920, Meyerhold led the "Theatrical October" movement. He wanted to make the theater political, agitational, but was not understood even in 1939. repressed. The theater was dominated by the traditions of the pre-revolutionary theater.

Rachmaninov and Chaliapin emigrated.

In August 1919 The photo and film industry was nationalized. The All-Russian Photographic Film Department was created. There was a sound film. In 1925 Esenstein's historical-revolutionary films appeared, and Alexandrov's comedies.

One of the areas of cultural construction in the USSR were clubs, palaces of culture and libraries, museums. Club institutions began to be created according to prof. Sign (houses of scientists, architects, teachers, actors). In November 1917, a All-Russian Collegium for Museums and Monument Protection. The export of exhibits of artistic and museum value from the country was prohibited. In the 20-30s, the construction of the metro, the All-Union Agricultural Exhibition, the Moscow-Volga Canal began.

40s. Since 1943 the government increased spending on culture. Boarding schools were established evening schools. The enrollment of girls in universities has expanded, the period of study has been reduced.

The leading theme of the works of the war years was heroism and patriotism. It was the poetry of Olga Bergolts, the music of Dmitry Shostakovich (7th (Leningrad) Symphony), articles, essays, stories, L. Leonov, A. Tolstoy, K. Simonov, M. Sholokhov, and others.

In the post-war period, the 6th and 7th symphonies by S. Prokofiev, the 9th and 10th by D. Shostakovich were written. Opera creativity developed - "The Tale of a Real Man" by S. Prokofiev.

Theatre. Popular actors were part of the front-line brigades that went to the front.

The cinema created documentaries. The war years became a new stage in the development of Soviet cinema art. The first feature film about the Great Patriotic War was "Secretary of the District Committee" directed by I. Pyryev. V post-war years filmmakers have created a number of excellent films. director S. Gerasimov based on the novel by A. Fadeev "The Young Guard".

V fine arts during the Second World War, many canvases of painters: "Execution" by A Serov, "Defense of Sevastopol" by A. Deineka, "Mother of a Partisan" by S. Gerasimov.

V 50- x years. developed rapidly public education. In 1958, a law was passed, instead of 7-year education, universal 8-year education was introduced. The term of study in secondary school was increased to 11 years. In 1956, the state abolished tuition fees in universities.

The network of scientific institutions has expanded. Dozens of scientific research institutes were created in the system of the USSR Academy of Sciences, scientific centers in the union republics. They were equipped with the latest equipment.

Scientists have made progress Kurchatov,. Sakharov. Landau, Sobolev). In 1957, scientists led by Queen created the world's first intercontinental ballistic missile, and on April 12, 1961, the first man went into space - Yu.A. Gagarin.

The founders of physics N.G. bass and A.M. Prokhorov in 1954-1955 created the first quantum generator (laser). In 1964 they were awarded the Nobel Prize. In medicine (Vishnevsky, Kupriyanov)

The network of cultural and educational institutions increased, as did the number of books, newspapers, and magazines. New literary and art magazines appeared: Young Guard, Youth, Moscow, Our Contemporary, Novy Mir. Significant works appeared Leonova, Sholokhova and others. There was a great interest in poetry S. Yesenina, M. Tsvetaeva, A. Akhmatova ( 30-40s not published).

The control of the party apparatus over the activities of the artistic intelligentsia did not weaken. The fate of the novel turned out to be dramatic B.L. Pasternak"Doctor Zhivago" (marked Nobel Prize in 1958), a number of works D.D. Shostakovich. All this became the soil dissidence - e The first rise occurred in the second half of the 1960s. Human rights activists who demanded compliance with the Constitution organized actions in defense of human rights: they distributed leaflets, assisted political prisoners, and so on. In 1968, a small group of dissidents came to Red Square to protest against the introduction of troops into the territory of Czechoslovakia. This act was the reason for the intensification of repressions against dissidents.

In the visual arts in the 50-80s, the themes of the heroism of the Soviet people, peaceful life were expressed in the work V. Serov, T. Yablonskaya, A. Plastov.. In the genre of sculpture Worked E. Vuchetich, N.. Konenkov. In the 1960s and 1980s, a new generation of artists appeared: Savitsky, I. Glazunov.

Musical art developed: symphonies, oratorios, cantatas, instrumental works, romances, songs. Created in the 50-80s. musical compositions meant qualitatively new stage in the development of musical culture. S. Prokofiev the 7th symphony was written, D. Shostakovich - 10th and 15th symphonies. Ballet Khachaturian Spartak has become a classic. Songs were famous Dunayevsky. Pakhmutova, V. Solovyov-Sedogo.. Popular performers are L. Utesov, I. Kobzon, M. Magomaev, A. Pugacheva, E. P'ekha, L. Leshchenko.

In the 90s years change social order, the economic crisis in the country had a negative impact on the development of science, culture and art in Russia. Due to insufficient state funding, many scientific programs were curtailed, thousands of qualified scientific specialists moved to work in foreign scientific institutions.

The state was unable to provide funding for such areas in the arts as cinematography, theaters, etc. But the development of democratic principles in society, the abolition of ideological dictate, the removal of censorship gave literary and art workers the opportunity to realize their creative ideas. This opened up prospects for the development of literature and art in the future.



This is the second revolution in a row, which is also called the Bourgeois-Democratic.

Causes

100 years later, historians claim that February Revolution was inevitable, since there were many reasons that caused it - defeat at the fronts, the difficult situation of the workers and peasants, famine, devastation, political lack of rights, the decline in the authority of the autocratic government and its inability to carry out reforms.

That is, almost all those problems that remained unresolved after the first revolution, which took place in 1905.

Democratic reforms in Russia, with the exception of small concessions made by the Manifesto on October 17, 1905, remained unfinished, so new social upheavals were inevitable.

move

The main events of the February Revolution took place rapidly. At the beginning of 1917, interruptions in food supplies to big cities Russia intensified, and by mid-February, due to a shortage of bread and rising prices, workers began to strike en masse.

Bread riots broke out in Petrograd - crowds of people smashed bread shops, and on February 23 a general strike of Petrograd workers began.

Workers and women with the slogans "Bread!", "Down with the war!", "Down with the autocracy!" took to the streets of Petrograd - a political demonstration marked the beginning of the revolution.

Every day the number of striking workers, who were the driving force of the struggle, was growing, led by the Bolshevik Party. The workers were joined by students, employees, artisans, as well as peasants demanding a redistribution of land. For several days, a wave of strikes swept over Petrograd, Moscow and other cities of the country.

© photo: Sputnik / RIA Novosti

Executions and arrests were no longer able to cool the revolutionary fervor of the masses. Every day the situation became more and more aggravated, taking on an irreversible character. Government troops were put on alert - Petrograd was turned into a military camp.

The outcome of the struggle predetermined the mass transition of soldiers on February 27 to the side of the rebels, who occupied the most important points of the city, government buildings. The next day the government was overthrown.

In Petrograd, the Soviet of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies and the Provisional Committee of the State Duma were created, which formed the Provisional Government.

The power of the Provisional Government was established in Moscow on March 1, and within a month already throughout the country.

Results

The new government proclaimed political rights and freedoms, including speech, assembly, press and demonstrations.

Class, national and religious restrictions were abolished, the death penalty, military field courts, a political amnesty was announced, an eight-hour working day was introduced.

The workers received the right to restore democratic organizations banned during the war years, to create trade unions and factory committees.

However, the main political issue of power remained unresolved - dual power was formed in Russia, which further split Russian society.