What sciences does geography interact with. On the connection of modern geography with other sciences
Geography and its subspecies. Like any science in the world, modern geography does not exist and does not develop separately, by itself. It is supplemented by knowledge from other sciences, and enriches them, in turn, with the achievements of learned geographers. Let's start with the fact that geography is divided into physical and socio-economic. Most often, cultural geography is additionally distinguished as a subsection of science, political geography, and some other, smaller branches.
Physical sphere in geographical science. physical geography very close to the natural sciences: physics, chemistry, biology, geology, cartography (that is, the science of displaying space using maps and models). Sometimes branches of geography in the scientific world are called sciences close to it - climatology, hydrology, oceanologists, cryology (that is, sciences that study purely climate, oceans, water, ice and glaciers of the Earth) and so on.
Closer to social sciences. Economic geography can already be included in the block of social and economic disciplines: it is close to economics, social science, urban studies (and this latest science O big cities planet and in general about urban planning and urban formation), history National economy, stories Agriculture.
Politics, culture and military. The section of political geography is close to such sciences as sociology and political science, statistics, and often and much it intersects with such a discipline as history.
Today, scientists sometimes began to single out such a concept as cultural geography, which studies the characteristics of culture in various countries and regions. She is close to humanities such as cultural studies, linguistics, ethnology, ethnopsychology, for example. Mention scientists and military geography, which is close in a number of sciences with military history, military strategy and tactics, military statistics and other militaristic branches.
1.2. STRUCTURE AND PLACE OF ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL GEOGRAPHY IN THE SYSTEM OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE
Before talking about the place of economic and social geography in the system of scientific knowledge, let us determine the place of geography itself in this system and consider the causes and process of the emergence of economic and social geography.
So, determining the place of geography among other sciences, I. Kant pointed out that there are two ways of grouping, or classifying, objects and phenomena for the purpose of studying them - logical and physical. The classification of objects and phenomena on a temporal basis is the sphere of history, and their classification on a territorial basis is the sphere of geography. The famous philosopher B. M. Kedrov saw the specifics of geography in the application of a special research method. N. N. Baransky pointed to the property of "territoriality" as main criterion"geographical" of this or that object. In his opinion, not everything that can be depicted on a map is geographical, but everything that cannot be depicted on it obviously does not belong to the field of study of geography.
Of particular note are the significant differences in the degree of formalization of these sciences. For example, if mathematics and geometry in their calculations do not take into account the properties and qualities of the objects they operate on (mathematics does not care what to count, and geometry - what to measure), and the specifics of objects do not affect the results of calculations, then in geography, history and a number of others scientific fields, the situation is different.
In geography and history, time and distance "pass" into each other. Time can be measured in kilometers, and distance - in hours and days (how can one not recall the four-dimensional continuum "space - time"). Moreover, the units of measurement should optimally correspond to the objectives of the study and the parameters of the objects under study. In the socio-geographical sciences, the distance (and, consequently, the accessibility of an object) is more often expedient to determine not even in meters and kilometers, but in hours, generations, and even ... rubles. Thus, the distances from the city of Perm to the cities of Kungur and Chusovoi along railway differ by 1.3 times based on mileage (100 and 130 km, respectively), and 2 times if we compare the time spent (2 and 4 hours). And even if the costs of time are equalized (Dog. Chusovoy launched a high-speed train, which is on the way for 2 hours), then in terms of fare Chusovoy remained less accessible than Kungur by 1.5 times. Thus, the choice of a specific indicator for measuring distance depends on the tasks facing the researcher.
For example, the Yanomami tribe (Venezuela) lives in the upper reaches of the Orinoco, in areas south of the village of Esmeralda. From modern world the tribe is separated by 300 km (to the center of the province of Puerto Ayacucho) and as much as ... 5 thousand years (the tribe lives in the Stone Age). And how “long” these 300 km turned out to be if the tribe was discovered only in 1965!
Geography, as a single scientific discipline, studies territorial systems (geosystems), that is, forms of territorial organization of society and nature as a whole, and their individual elements. The object of the study is the geographical shell, in which the ecumene stands out - the object of knowledge of economic and social geography. The main integrating principle is theoretical geography with its own subject of knowledge - geographical space. Therefore, in the system of geographical sciences, integral branches are especially distinguished, revealing the features of the territorial organization of integral natural or social systems (complexes) - landscape science and economic and social geography.
The development of the world community radically transforms space, changing its parameters. An example of this is the process of implosion (contraction, escape) major cities. Big cities much closer to each other than to their suburbs. So, it is sometimes much easier to get through to get through or send a letter, and even more so to transfer money, to communicate via the lines of the global network with Moscow, Paris, London than with a suburban village.
That is why the system of geographical sciences, based on the "object - method" tandem, is divided into four branches, distinguished by special methods (mathematical geography, centrography, cartography, etc.), scale of research (from global to local), time frame (historical paleogeography, engineering, design, planning and forecasting) and features of the object of study (military, political, confessional geography, etc.). The industries that are part of the first branch focus on the possibilities of applying each of the methods in different areas and, therefore, are more formalized. In the branches and directions of the fourth branch of geography, the features and properties of the objects under study are taken into account to the greatest extent. The sciences that make up this branch, which include economic and social geography, are formalized to the least extent.
There are two points of view on the process of formation of economic and social geography. According to one, this science arose in the depths of economic geography as an attempt to sociologize, ecologize and humanize the latter. Another point of view focuses on the formation of economic and social geography initially in the form of an independent discipline that responds to a specific public request - to harmonize the goals and objectives of economic and social development.
Under the name "economic and social geography", the scientific branch was included in the list of sciences of the State Committee for Science and Technology of the USSR in 1976.
Economic and social geography in the process of historical development has been integrated into a holistic science, which has its own subject of knowledge - territorial social systems of different types and levels, a common methodology and a variety of research methods. The integrity of science presupposes a complex internal structuring, due to the need for a comprehensive knowledge of all forms of the spatial organization of society, all aspects and facets of territorial social systems. Thus, the structuring of economic and social geography is also determined by its entry into a constructive period of development, when practice requires not only a deep study of the territorial differentiation of people's life, but also the development of a mechanism for its improvement.
At the beginning of the XXI century. economic and social geography has become the most important and most dynamic of the geographical sciences, having great importance to optimize the development and location of society, improve its spatial organization.
The integration feature of economic and social geography is also reflected in the name of science.
The first component of economic and social geography is economical geography. This science studies the laws and features of the territorial (spatial) organization of the productive forces, the formation and development of territorial production and intersectoral complexes. She explores territorial combinations natural resources, forms of organizing people's lives and social production, primarily from the point of view of increasing labor productivity and the efficiency of production itself. The methodology and practice of economic zoning, the theory of economic regions and energy production cycles have received international recognition. As part of economic geography, the geography of industry, agriculture, transport, construction, etc. is successfully developing.
The results of studies of physical and geographical disciplines are included in the sphere of interests of economic geography only as information about natural conditions and resources (means of production or conditions of production). The population is analyzed only from the point of view of the reproduction of labor resources, and of all types of social relations, economic geography considers only production ones.
The scope of research, the object and subject of the second component of science are less clearly defined - social geography. For example, E.B. Alaev proposes to separate economic geography and social geography not according to the objects of research, but according to the approach and final result. In his opinion, social geography studies the spatial processes and forms of organization of people's lives and social production, primarily from the point of view of a person - taking into account the conditions of his work, life, rest, personal development and reproduction of life.
An alternative position is taken by S. Ya. Nymmik. On the one hand, she focuses on the approaches and results of the activities of social geography, and on the other hand, highlights the specific object of her research. According to S. Ya. Nymmik, social geography studies the territorial patterns of industries, combinations of production and consumption of tangible and intangible goods created by society in the interests of physical and spiritual development people, and the geographic differences in the way of life formed on this basis.
Rice. 1.5. The relationship of economic and social geography with other sciences
More consistent is the point of view of A. A. Anokhin, who proposes as a subject of study of social geography territorial social systems.
Social geography studies the spatial forms of organization of people's lives (societies) and their behavior, explores regional types of lifestyle. It approaches the knowledge of nature as an aesthetic and recreational (and not just industrial) value. Production is considered by this science from the standpoint of people's satisfaction with the conditions and content of labor, and also as the basis for meeting the material and spiritual needs of society. In addition, the sphere of interests of social geography includes the entire set of social (and not just industrial) relations in individual regions.
The third component of economic and social geography is a branch of the natural geographic sciences that investigate the natural resource basis for the development of society. Among them, the most complex and integral character stands out landscape science, the subject of research of which are territorial natural complexes.
Of the three components of economic and social geography, two sciences - economic geography and social geography - are of an obvious social nature, and only one - landscape science - is a natural science. Consequently, economic and social geography is a social science located at the intersection of social, natural and technical disciplines (Fig. 1.5).
The integrity of geographical science is manifested through the commonality of the object of study, the relationship and interdependence of the subject of knowledge, general methodology and theory, general scientific approaches and principles of knowledge, general geographical expeditions, geographical education etc.
Economic and social geography is connected with the natural sciences through the branches of physical geography - climatology, hydrology, meteorology, soil science, biogeography, etc. However, interesting results are also obtained by the direct use of natural science methods in the study of social processes (for example, "social physics").
The sphere of knowledge of economic and social geography includes the processes of interaction between society and nature, which are the object of study of a whole group of scientific disciplines. Among them are the geography of natural resources, geographical ecology, economic climatology, economic soil science, etc.
As an integral part of geographical science, economic and social geography is one of the social sciences. In its development, it is based on a system of philosophical, economic, social, historical and political science knowledge. Its ties are especially close with dialectics and logic, which serve as a theoretical and methodological guideline for socio-geographical research.
Economic and social geography traditionally interacts with the economy. Spatial analysis of territorial combinations of productive forces, processes of material reproduction in the regional and state levels brings economic and social geography closer to micro- and macroeconomics.
In the process of development of economic and social geography, its relations with sectoral economies, including the economy of industry, agriculture, construction, transport, trade, housing and communal services, etc., have strengthened.
Special connections have developed between economic and social geography and sociology through studies of territorial communities of people (societies), systems of urban and rural settlement, the social situation in regions, cities and villages, conditions, level and quality of life of the population, etc.
V last years XX century strengthened the relationship of economic and social geography with environmental science. This allows a new approach to solving territorial problems of rational nature management, protection environment and improving the health of the population.
Democratization of Russian society and scientific achievements political science contributed to the revival of political geography, geopolitics and political regionalism. Relevant research in the fields of regional, ethno-and economic psychology, regional economics, district planning, etc.
Increased attention to the development of procedures for territorial planning and forecasting, the study of the processes of regional management and local self-government brings economic and social geography closer to the theory and practice of management, cybernetics, informatics, and econometrics. Geographers carry out socio-economic zoning, identify objectively existing regions, their boundaries, analyze the structure and functions of the economy, take Active participation in the development of regional policy, concepts, forecasts, plans and programs for the socio-economic development of territories.
Economic and social geography is closely related to technical disciplines. In his research activities it not only relies on the achievements of scientific and technological progress, but also widely uses new technologies and tools. This interaction is especially closely traced in the example of economic geography and its branch divisions - the geography of industry, agriculture, transport, infrastructure (service), etc. A necessary component of economic and social geography is the study of the fundamentals of production technologies in the relevant fields of activity.
Technological progress leads to the emergence of new technologies and the expansion of the resource base of production and people's livelihoods, as well as to a change environmental situation, the evolution of the principles and forms of territorial organization not only of individual industries, but of society as a whole. As a result, the spatial pattern of the economy of various regions of the planet is changing. The use of modern technical information is especially important in the study of the territorial organization of productive forces, the design of energy production cycles and geotechnical systems, and the development of regional forecasts and programs.
Rice. 1.6. Scientific disciplines as part of economic and social geography
The development of technology and tools of labor is changing the nature of occupations and the way of life of people (from gathering, hunting and cattle breeding to handicraft and industrial production and further to tertiary and quaternary activities). Accordingly, the forms of population settlement also evolve, acquiring new features and demonstrating previously unknown trends. These, for example, include new features of urbanization (“retreating”, sub- and exurbanization), implosion (rapprochement) of large cities, etc.
A whole system of socio-geographical sciences has been formed, which are closely interconnected and at the same time have a certain independence. As part of economic and social geography, the following scientific disciplines are distinguished: economic, social, political, cultural, recreational, medical, behavioral, military geography; geography of the population, services, natural resources, etc. (Fig. 1.6).
Each scientific discipline has its own subject of knowledge - a specific phenomenon of the territorial social system. Thus, the subject of study of economic geography is territorial economic systems, social geography - social systems, population geography - settlement systems, political geography - political systems, etc.
The level of development of scientific disciplines varies significantly, which is associated with the social order, the peculiarities of historical development, the depth and effectiveness of research. As already noted, the most ancient and historically developed is economic geography.
The enhanced humanization of geographical research contributed to the formation of the geography of the population and settlements, which studies the territorial systems of settlement of different taxonomic ranks. As part of the geography of the population, the geography of cities (geo-urban studies), the geography of the rural population (geo-rural studies), the geography of migrations, the geography of labor resources, etc.
The priority direction in the structure of socio-geographic research was the study of territorial social systems- the object of knowledge of social geography. The latter focuses on the patterns and features of the territorial organization of people's lives, in terms of such concepts as conditions, style, image and quality of life of the population. The development of social geography contributes to the formation of new scientific disciplines - behavioral geography, social ecology, geography of science and education.
Of particular relevance is political geography, which studies the structure and functioning of territorial political systems as spatial forms of organization of the political activity of society. Political and geographical research covers a wide range of issues, including the political situation in the world and regions, the geopolitical position of countries, the essence of regional politics, the relationship between the center and the periphery, etc. Research on the processes of territorial alignment of political forces in the world and Russia has been updated. This played the role of a catalyst in the formation of electoral geography.
Service geography is actively developing, studying territorial service systems. These systems are distinguished by their complex structure and specific features. They cover the processes of production of services and their consumption and therefore include elements of social, industrial, market, ecological, spiritual, recreational and other types of infrastructure.
In the structure of economic and social geography, recreational, medical, military, veterinary, confessional and other areas are effectively functioning.
According to the territorial (spatial) scale, the entire system of social geography is divided into geoglobalistics, regional studies, regional studies and local history. Each of these areas is characterized by integrality and complexity. Each scale of research differs in the level of generalization, the specifics of methodological approaches and methods of cognition.
Research methods have formed separate scientific directions, which contributed to the emergence of socio-economic and mental cartography, mathematical geography and other disciplines.
Each spatial level of knowledge (world community, integral grouping, country, region, city, village, etc.) is the subject of study of the entire set of scientific disciplines of economic and social geography. In this totality, it is possible to single out cross-cutting scientific directions that reveal certain aspects and aspects of the functioning of territorial social systems of different hierarchical levels (Fig. 1.7).
Economic and geographical the direction covers a wide range of issues of the territorial organization of macro-, meso- and microeconomics, the distribution of productive forces, the formation of territorial-production combinations (complexes).
Demographic and geographical the direction explores the processes of population reproduction and its resettlement, features of town formation, urbanization and ruralization, regional aspects of migration, etc.
natural economic direction studies spatio-temporal processes of interaction between nature and society, nature and economy, regional aspects of resource use, etc.
Rice. 1.7. Scientific directions of economic and social geography
Socio-geographical the direction studies the processes of the territorial organization of the social sphere, social, social, cultural, behavioral, psychological, spiritual aspects of people's life, the level, quality, style and way of life of the population.
Political-geographical direction explores geopolitical and managerial processes, features of the formation of state and regional policy, territorial features political activity population.
Socio-ecological direction studies the processes of relations of territorial communities of people (societies) with the surrounding natural, economic, social and spiritual environment.
These scientific directions permeate with their research all the processes of the spatial organization of society, the formation and development of territorial social systems. The boundaries between the directions are blurred, which suggests the presence of many transitional forms.
Everything structural units economic and social geography are aimed at the knowledge and transformation of the object under study in a certain time interval. In this regard, economic and social geography is divided into historical, modern and predictive. The presence of the latter indicates the constructive nature of the scientific discipline.
complex internal structure economic and social geography reflects the exploratory nature and relevance of this science. The study of individual aspects and processes of the spatial organization of society and the development of territorial social systems takes place under the auspices of the integration of scientific disciplines and directions and the formation of an integral science - social geography.
Widely using the achievements of related sciences, economic and social geography simultaneously enriches them with the results of its own research and consolidates the entire system of scientific knowledge.
Geography for me has always seemed to be one of the first sciences on a level with mathematics and the same physics. Its significance is no less and in life it may well come in handy. But how does geography stand out from other sciences and what connections does it have with them?
Geography among sciences
It is known that any science is connected with the others. Geography is no exception. If you delve into its study, you can understand that it is associated with:
- physics;
- medicine;
- mathematics;
- biology;
- history;
- ecology;
- cartography;
- sociology and others.
Interestingly, the correlation of geography and some other sciences can cause the formation of an entirely new discipline. For example, geochemistry, geophysics and even medical geography.
Geography with physics and biology
We can say that physics is the desired science about nature. Without knowledge in the field of physics, it is difficult to explain the principle of the origin of wind, to explain the essence of pressure in the atmosphere, or even how the relief forms of a glacier are formed.
I'll move on to biology. The connection between these two sciences is the most obvious. After all, they are studying nature. The difference is that biology includes the study of the entire living world, while geography deals with its abiotic components. The combination of geography and biology is called biogeography. In fact, these are all sciences about nature, but with different directions.
Geographical connection with the sciences
I'll start with mathematics, it has a very close relationship with geography. After all, no one can learn how to use a map without the simplest knowledge in mathematics. The manifestation of the connection of these sciences lies in the calculation of the scale, the determination of any distance on the map, or the consideration of demographic indicators, etc.
Now I want to turn to history. It is connected with economic geography as well as social geography. To study the economy and population of a country, one cannot do without history.
Since we are talking about economics, I will analyze its connection with our science. There is even a dedicated discipline called economic geography. She analyzes various problems with the distribution of forces of production and also issues of urbanization.
Recreational geography has broad connections with other sciences, especially with geographical sciences, and primarily with economic geography, population geography, physical geography, and medical geography.
1. Economical geography considers recreational activities, tourism, TRS as an element of the economic system, as a branch of the economy, studies the impact of recreation on the territorial structure of the country, region. Engaged in zoning of tourism, substantiates the capacity of recreational areas, taking into account demand and economic efficiency, determines the optimal degree of extensiveness, and in
intensity of use of the territory in terms of economic feasibility, optimizes the territorial organization of services in recreational areas,
resolves issues of intersectoral "competition" in the regions
tourism development.
2. Population geography examines the impact of recreational activities on the settlement system. It is known that tourism is a significant city-forming factor of our time. Population geography studies recreational flows - a kind of population migration.
3. physical geography deals with the assessment of natural recreational resources, determines the stability of natural complexes (landscapes) to recreational loads, studies such important properties territorial agricultural complexes, as their recreational comfort and capacity, based on the socio-economic standards of recreational activities. In addition, physical geography develops issues related to the protection of nature in connection with the development of recreation, that is, issues of maintaining the sustainability of wildlife in conditions of mass tourism.
4. medical geography, studies the influence of the natural environment and regional conditions of life, work and recreation on the health of the population, as well as the geographical distribution of individual diseases. She plays a big role in the study of biomedical aspects of recreational activities. Its role is especially important in the study of the psycho-physiological comfort of recreation and tourism, the medical and biological effectiveness of recreation in a particular area.
Many non-geographical sciences are engaged in the study of the problems of recreational activities in various aspects. Recreational geography benefits from research sociology, social psychology, general psychology and human physiology. In this respect, the results sociological research on issues such as the structure of the use of free time, the volume and structure of recreational needs for different social and age groups of people.
Recreational geography is based on the results of studies of those sections of specific economies that study consumer types of human activity as an integral part of all social reproduction. The importance of scientific cooperation with the latter is due to the fact that, ultimately, the economic capabilities of society determine the scale and structure of the organization of recreational activities, the development of its material and technical base, and regulate the relationship between recreational needs and the totality of recreational goods and services produced.
Recreational geography is associated with such scientific and applied disciplines as district planning, urban planning, which, in the course of district planning and urban planning and design work, solve the problems of regional planning and organization of recreation areas. Recreational geography, together with other geographical sciences, equips district planners and designers with a set of knowledge about the geographical situation in a particular projected area.
The tasks of modern recreational geography can be reduced to two main directions. First among them - the identification of regularities in the territorial organization of recreational services as an emerging specific branch of the national economy and its constituent various taxonomic levels of territorial-systemic formations. Second direction - further development of recreational raionology: study of conditions and factors, regularities and signs of raion formation, substantiation of the taxonomic system of recreational formations, drawing up a program for characterizing recreational areas, establishing essential features of their typology.
The development of a methodology for the transition from empirical territorial patterns to standards is one of the most promising and main tasks of recreational geography.
An important task of recreational geography is to give an idea of the types and forms of recreational activities, of the specific territorial and recreational systems of Russia and foreign countries, i.e. satisfy the cognitive needs of potential recreational migrants.
Initially, like any of the scientific disciplines, at the initial stage of its development, geography was merged with other branches of social life (syncretism) - with philosophy, mythology, etc. Gradually, its isolation as scientific knowledge takes place. However, in the early stages of its development, Geography was also closely connected with other scientific knowledge: travelers described new lands in terms of nature, agriculture, ethnography, etc. Those. geography developed together with biology, zoology, ethnography, etc., and the scientists of that time were "encyclopedic scientists." Transitional disciplines emerged as geobotany, biogeography, historical geography, etc. Thus, the processes of differentiation of science (reverse integration processes at the present time) received their development.
In our time, due to the progressive complication of the system of scientific knowledge, both geography in general and each geographical discipline in particular interact with a huge number of different sciences.
All the views of geographers have always been influenced by the methodological guidelines of other sciences. In general, three sources of the strongest impacts can be identified:
1. Natural sciences, where physics came to the fore in terms of developing the most convincing paradigm scientific explanation(most high level theorizing knowledge).
2. Sociology and related sciences.
3. History - which had a significant impact on the thinking of geographers (an introduction along with spatial thinking and temporal or historical).
The nature of the Earth is organized at least at three levels simultaneously: complex, component and elementary.
The latter, the level of material bodies and processes, is also studied by other natural sciences. The geographer studies a certain component as if by itself, in conjunction with other components of the geographic envelope, while others natural Sciences study their patterns of functioning and development. However, in the future, it became necessary to have information about the nature and pace of the processes, to establish the relationship between them and the factors that affect them. There was a change from the descriptive nature of geography to the essential one, in which the need arose for in-depth knowledge specifically about the processes (example: not just describe the leveling surface as a result of abrasion, but know the nature and pace of development of coastal destruction processes).
Geography enriches Social sciencies new materials and ideas. The study of specific manifestations of the interactions of society and nature, both on a regional and global scale, is of general methodological significance, although geographers will own the main role in the study. The geomethod is considered by the philosopher B.M. Kedrov as a methodological role of geography.
The peculiarity of the interaction of geography with other sciences was as follows. Almost until the middle of the 20th century, there was a close connection between geography and history. This connection was displayed at many levels of teaching geographical disciplines. Recently, the links between geography and environmental knowledge have grown markedly, more and more attention is being focused on the interaction of society with the environment.
Recently, there has also been an active mathematization of geographical disciplines. Important incentives here are the development of space geography and the need for geographical monitoring of the environment, the development of international statistical systems and the relevance of integrating demographic, socio-economic and political information. The need to build complex mathematical and cartographic models for the development of the NTC and socio-economic territorial complexes also requires the use of a mathematical apparatus.
There is a close connection between geography and computer science - the development of GIS is a vivid example of this. It was at the intersection of ethical sciences that the possibility arose of automating cartography, processing space information, creating geoportals and spatially distributed geographic data banks.
The most important result of the informatization of geographical knowledge is the gradual consolidation, and in the future, the integration of geographical disciplines based on the information paradigm. Modern research must certainly be carried out on a general scientific basis, which is directly related to computer science, and through it to mathematics, cybernetics, systematic approach and synergy.
The creation of databanks and GIS acquires basic significance for such integration of geographical knowledge. It is the generality of the construction of the latter for any theory that can become new general program for all geographical disciplines.
At the same time, computer science in a number of cases makes it necessary to seriously correct the very methodological principles of geographical knowledge. Geographical problems of classification, taxonomy, zoning, when solving them on an information basis, require rethinking and further improvement of the methodological and theoretical coverage of geography.
New approaches closely related to the theory of informatization, systems analysis and synergetics have led to the realization of interrelated geographical processes: spatial organization, spatial management and self-management or self-organization of systems. These processes can be found in any geographical process - population migration, land use, location of industries, etc.
It must be emphasized that geography is a science with a high ideological potential, closely connected with the entire system of culture. Geography largely forms the public consciousness (geographical picture of the world).
