An integral part of any literary work They are able to make the text unique and individually author's. In literary criticism, such means are called tropes. You can learn more about what trails are by reading this article.

Fiction could not exist without various figures of speech, which give the works a special style. Any author, whether a poet or a prose writer, constantly uses tropes to help convey his own thoughts and emotions that he wants to express in his creation. It is a large number of tropes that differ from other types of author's texts. So, let's talk in more detail about the means of speech expressiveness themselves: what they are, what types exist, which of them are most often used, what are their functions and features.

Let's find out what paths are. Tropes are those that make the text more expressive and lexically diverse. There are many types of these means: metaphor, metonymy, personification, hyperbole, synecdoche, parcellation, litote, epithet, comparison and others. Let's discuss these paths in more detail. There are really a lot of them in the Russian language, so some scientists tried to single out several such means of expression, from which all the others originated. So, after a series of studies, it was found that the "main" tropes are metaphor and metonymy. However, there is no single classification of means of speech expressiveness, since scientists could not determine a single trope from which all the others were formed.

Let us explain the meaning of the paths listed above.

Metaphor is a hidden comparison, such figure of speech, which helps to match several objects with each other without the help of the words "like", "same as", "similar to something", and so on.

Metonymy is the substitution of one word for another according to the principle of "adjacency".

Personification is the assignment of human qualities to inanimate objects.

Hyperbole is an exaggeration of any properties of an object.

Epithets are special paths. In literature, they occupy a very important place, as they characterize the features of an object: size, color. If we are talking about something animated, then this trope can clarify the character, appearance.

Parceling is one of the ways to focus on the desired part of the sentence by separating it from the main sentence.

Now you have an idea of ​​what trails are and what they are. This knowledge can be useful to you not only for analysis, but also for creating your own author's texts. Keeping in mind the expressive function of tropes, you can easily diversify the vocabulary of your work with bizarre turns that will make it individual and unique.

So, knowing what paths are, you can create your own literary masterpieces that will turn out to be as unusual and individual as possible!

In Russian, additional expressive means are widely used, for example, tropes and figures of speech.

Tropes are such speech turns that are based on the use of words in figurative meaning. They are used to enhance the expressiveness of the writer or speaker.

Tropes include: metaphors, epithets, metonymy, synecdoche, comparisons, hyperbole, litotes, paraphrase, personification.

Metaphor is a technique in which words and expressions are used in a figurative sense based on analogy, similarity or comparison.

And my tired soul is embraced by darkness and cold. (M. Yu. Lermontov)

An epithet is a word that defines an object or phenomenon and emphasizes any of its properties, qualities, signs. Usually an epithet is called a colorful definition.

Your thoughtful nights transparent dusk. (A S. Pushkin)

Metonymy is a means of replacing one word with another on the basis of adjacency.

The hiss of frothy goblets and punch blue flames. (A.S. Pushkin)

Synecdoche is one of the types of metonymy - the transfer of the meaning of one object to another on the basis of the quantitative relationship between them.

And it was heard until dawn how the Frenchman rejoiced. (M.Yu. Lermontov)

Comparison is a technique in which one phenomenon or concept is explained by comparing it with another. Comparative conjunctions are usually used in this case.

Anchar, like a formidable sentry, stands alone in the whole universe. (A.S. Pushkin).

Hyperbole is a trope based on the excessive exaggeration of certain properties of the depicted object or phenomenon.

For a week I won’t say a word to anyone, I’m all sitting on a stone by the sea ... (A. A. Akhmatova).

Litota, the opposite of hyperbole, is an artistic understatement.

Your spitz, lovely spitz, is no more than a thimble ... (A.S. Griboyedov)

Personification is a means, which is based on the transfer of the properties of animate objects to inanimate ones.

Silent sadness will be consoled, and joy will reflect friskyly. (A.S. Pushkin).

Paraphrase - a trope in which the direct name of an object, person, phenomenon is replaced by a descriptive turn, which indicates the signs of an object, person, phenomenon not directly named.

"King of beasts" instead of a lion.

Irony is a technique of ridicule, containing an assessment of what is ridiculed. In irony there is always a double meaning, where the true is not directly stated, but implied.

So, in the example, Count Khvostov is mentioned, who was not recognized by his contemporaries as a poet because of the mediocrity of his poems.

Count Khvostov, a poet beloved by heaven, was already singing with immortal verses of the misfortune of the Neva banks. (A.S. Pushkin)

Stylistic figures are special turns that go beyond the necessary norms for creating artistic expressiveness.

It is necessary to emphasize once again that stylistic figures make our speech information redundant, but this redundancy is necessary for the expressiveness of speech, and therefore, for a stronger impact on the addressee.

These figures include:

And you, arrogant descendants…. (M.Yu. Lermontov)

A rhetorical question is such a structure of speech in which the statement is expressed in the form of a question. A rhetorical question does not require an answer, but only enhances the emotionality of the statement.

And over the fatherland of enlightened freedom will the longed-for dawn finally rise? (A. S. Pushkin)

Anaphora - repetition of parts of relatively independent segments.

As if you curse the days without a light,

As if gloomy nights scare you ...

(A. Apukhtin)

Epiphora - repetition at the end of a phrase, sentence, line, stanza.

Dear friend, and in this quiet house

The fever hits me

Can't find me a place in a quiet house

Near peaceful fire. (A.A. Blok)

Antithesis - artistic opposition.

And the day, and the hour, both in writing and orally, for the truth yes and no ... (M. Tsvetaeva)

An oxymoron is a combination of logically incompatible concepts.

You - who loved me with falsehood of truth and truth of lies ... (M. Tsvetaeva)

Gradation - grouping homogeneous members sentences in a certain order: according to the principle of increasing or decreasing emotional and semantic significance

I don’t regret, I don’t call, I don’t cry ... (With A. Yesenin)

Silence - a deliberate interruption of speech, based on the guess of the reader, who must mentally finish the phrase.

But listen: if I owe you ... I own a dagger, I was born near the Caucasus ... (A.S. Pushkin)

Polyunion - the repetition of the union, perceived as redundant, creates the emotionality of speech.

And for him resurrected again: and the deity, and inspiration, and life, and tears, and love. (A. S. Pushkin)

Unionlessness is a construction in which unions are omitted to enhance expression.

Swede, Russian, cuts, stabs, cuts, drumming, clicks, rattle ... (A.S. Pushkin)

Parallelism is the identical arrangement of speech elements in adjacent parts of the text.

Some houses are as long as the stars, others as long as the moon .. (V. V. Mayakovsky).

Chiasmus is a cross arrangement of parallel parts in two adjacent sentences.

Automedons (coachman, charioteer - O.M.) are our strikers, our troikas are indomitable ... (A.S. Pushkin). Two parts complex sentence in the example, in order of arrangement of the members of the sentence, they are, as it were, in a mirror image: Subject - definition - predicate, predicate - definition - subject.

Inversion - reverse order words, for example, the location of the definition after the word being defined, etc.

At the frosty dawn under the sixth birch, around the corner, by the church, wait, Don Juan... (M. Tsvetaeva).

In the above example, the adjective frosty is in the position after the word being defined, which is the inversion.

To check or self-control on the topic, you can try to guess our crossword

Materials are published with the personal permission of the author - Ph.D. O.A. Maznevoy

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The figurative and expressive means of the language allow not only to convey information, but also to clearly and convincingly convey thoughts. Lexical expressive means make the Russian language emotional and colorful. Expressive stylistic means are used when an emotional impact on listeners or readers is necessary. It is impossible to make a presentation of oneself, a product, a company without the use of special language tools.

The word is the basis of figurative expressiveness of speech. Many words are often used not only in the direct lexical meaning. The characteristics of animals are transferred to a description of the appearance or behavior of a person - clumsy like a bear, cowardly like a hare. Polysemy (polysemy) - the use of a word in various meanings.

Homonyms are a group of words in the Russian language that have the same sound, but at the same time carry a different semantic load, serve to create a sound game in speech.

Types of homonyms:

• homographs - words are spelled the same, they change meaning depending on the stress set (lock - lock);
• homophones - words when written differ in one or more letters, but are perceived the same way by ear (the fruit is a raft);
• homoforms - words that sound the same, but at the same time refer to different parts of speech (I'm flying in an airplane - I'm flying a runny nose).

Puns - used to give speech a humorous, satirical meaning, betray sarcasm well. They are based on the sound similarity of words or their ambiguity.

Synonyms - describe the same concept from different angles, have a different semantic load and stylistic coloring. Without synonyms, it is impossible to build a vivid and figurative phrase; speech will be oversaturated with tautology.

Synonym types:

• full - identical in meaning, used in the same situations;
• semantic (semantic) - designed to give shade to words (conversation-conversation);
• stylistic - have the same meaning, but at the same time refer to different styles of speech (finger-finger);
• semantic-stylistic - have a different shade of meaning, refer to different styles of speech (do - bungled);
• contextual (author's) - used in the context used for a more colorful and multifaceted description of a person or event.

Antonyms - words have the opposite lexical meaning, refer to the same part of speech. Allows you to create bright and expressive phrases.

Tropes are words in Russian that are used in a figurative sense. They give speech and works imagery, expressiveness, are designed to convey emotions, vividly recreate the picture.

Trail definition

	Definition
Allegory	Allegorical words and expressions that convey the essence and main features of a particular image. Often used in fables.
Hyperbola	Artistic exaggeration. Allows you to vividly describe properties, events, signs.
Grotesque	The technique is used to satirically describe the vices of society.
Irony	Tropes that are designed to hide the true meaning of the expression through light mockery.
Litotes	The opposite of hyperbole - the properties and qualities of the subject are deliberately underestimated.
personification	A technique in which inanimate objects are attributed the qualities of living beings.
Oxymoron	Connection in one sentence of incompatible concepts (dead souls).
paraphrase	Description of the item. A person, an event without a precise name.
Synecdoche	Description of the whole through the part. The image of a person is recreated by describing clothes, appearance.
Comparison	The difference from metaphor is that there is both what is being compared and what is being compared with. In comparison, unions are often present - as if.
Epithet	The most common figurative definition. Adjectives are not always used for epithets.

Metaphor is a hidden comparison, the use of nouns and verbs in a figurative sense. There is always no object of comparison in it, but there is something with which they are compared. There are short and extended metaphors. Metaphor is aimed at an external comparison of objects or phenomena.

Metonymy is a hidden comparison of objects by internal similarity. This distinguishes this trope from a metaphor.

Syntactic means of expression

Stylistic (rhetorical) - figures of speech are designed to enhance the expressiveness of speech and works of art.

Types of stylistic figures

The name of the syntactic construction	Description
Anaphora	The use of the same syntactic constructions at the beginning of adjacent sentences. Allows you to logically highlight a section of text or a sentence.
Epiphora	The use of the same words and expressions at the end of adjacent sentences. Such figures of speech give the text emotionality, allow you to clearly convey intonations.
Parallelism	Construction of neighboring sentences in the same form. Often used to reinforce a rhetorical exclamation or question.
Ellipsis	Deliberate exclusion of an implied member of a sentence. Makes speech more lively.
gradation	Each subsequent word in the sentence reinforces the meaning of the previous one.
Inversion	The arrangement of words in a sentence is not in direct order. Reception allows you to enhance the expressiveness of speech. Give the phrase a new sound.
Default	Conscious understatement in the text. It is designed to awaken deep feelings and thoughts in the reader.
Rhetorical address	Emphasized appeal to a person or inanimate objects.
A rhetorical question	A question that does not imply an answer, its purpose is to attract the attention of the reader or listener.
Rhetorical exclamation	Special figures of speech to convey expression, tension of speech. Make the text emotional. Grab the reader's or listener's attention.
polyunion	Repeated repetition of the same unions to enhance the expressiveness of speech.
Asyndeton	Intentional omission of unions. This technique gives dynamism to speech.
Antithesis	Sharp opposition of images, concepts. The technique is used to create a contrast, it expresses the author's attitude to the event being described.

Tropes, figures of speech, stylistic means of expression, phraseological statements make speech convincing and vivid. Such turnovers are indispensable in public speaking, election campaigns, rallies, presentations. In scientific publications and official business speech, such means are inappropriate - accuracy and persuasiveness in these cases is more important than emotions.

trails

- Trope- allegory. In a work of art, words and expressions used in a figurative sense in order to enhance the figurativeness of the language, the artistic expressiveness of speech.

The main types of trails:

- Metaphor

- Metonymy

- Synecdoche

- Hyperbola

- Litotes

- Comparison

- paraphrase

- Allegory

- personification

- Irony

- Sarcasm

Metaphor

Metaphor- a trope that uses the name of an object of one class to describe an object of another class. The term belongs to Aristotle and is associated with his understanding of art as an imitation of life. Aristotle's metaphor is in essence almost indistinguishable from hyperbole (exaggeration), from synecdoche, from simple comparison or personification and likening. In all cases, there is a transfer of meaning from one to another. The extended metaphor has spawned many genres.

An indirect message in the form of a story or figurative expression using comparison.

A figure of speech consisting in the use of words and expressions in a figurative sense on the basis of some kind of analogy, similarity, comparison.

There are 4 “elements” in the metaphor:

An object within a specific category,

The process by which this object performs the function, and

Applications of this process to real situations, or intersections with them.

Metonymy

- Metonymy- a type of trail, a phrase in which one word is replaced by another, denoting an object (phenomenon) that is in one or another (spatial, temporal, etc.) connection with the object, which is indicated by the replaced word. The replacement word is used in a figurative sense. Metonymy should be distinguished from metaphor, with which it is often confused, while metonymy is based on the replacement of the word “by contiguity” (part instead of the whole or vice versa, representative instead of class or vice versa, receptacle instead of content or vice versa, etc.), and the metaphor is "by likeness". Synecdoche is a special case of metonymy.

Example: "All flags are visiting us", where the flags replace the countries (the part replaces the whole).

Synecdoche

- Synecdoche- a trope consisting in naming the whole through its part or vice versa. Synecdoche is a type of metonymy.

Synecdoche is a technique that consists in transferring meaning from one object to another on the basis of quantitative similarity between them.

- "The buyer chooses quality products." The word "Buyer" replaces the entire set of possible buyers.

- "The stern moored to the shore."

The ship is meant.

Hyperbola

- Hyperbola- a stylistic figure of explicit and intentional exaggeration, in order to enhance expressiveness and emphasize the thought said, for example, “I said this a thousand times” or “we have enough food for six months.”

Hyperbole is often combined with other stylistic devices, giving them the appropriate coloring: hyperbolic comparisons, metaphors, etc. (“the waves rose like mountains”)

Litotes

- Litotes , lithotes- a trope that has the meaning of understatement or deliberate mitigation.

Litota is a figurative expression, a stylistic figure, a turnover, which contains an artistic understatement of the size, strength of the meaning of the depicted object or phenomenon. Litota in this sense is the opposite of hyperbole, therefore it is called differently inverse hyperbole. In litotes, on the basis of some common feature, two heterogeneous phenomena are compared, but this feature is represented in the phenomenon-means of comparison to a much lesser extent than in the phenomenon-object of comparison.

For example: “A horse the size of a cat”, “A person’s life is one moment”, etc.

Here is an example of a lita

Comparison

- Comparison- a trope in which one object or phenomenon is likened to another according to some common feature for them. The purpose of comparison is to reveal in the object of comparison new properties that are important for the subject of the statement.

Night is a well without a bottom

In comparison, the following are distinguished: the compared object (object of comparison), the object with which the comparison takes place. One of the distinguishing features of the comparison is the mention of both compared objects, while the common feature is not always mentioned.

paraphrase

- Paraphrase , paraphrase , paraphrase- in the style and poetics of tropes, descriptively expressing one concept with the help of several.

Paraphrase - an indirect reference to an object by not naming it, but describing it (for example, “night luminary” = “moon” or “I love you, Peter's creation!” = “I love you, St. Petersburg!”).

In paraphrases, the names of objects and people are replaced by indications of their characteristics, for example, “writer of these lines” instead of “I” in the author’s speech, “fall into a dream” instead of “fall asleep”, “king of beasts” instead of “lion”, “one-armed bandit” instead of "slot machine", "Stagirite" instead of Aristotle. There are logical paraphrases (“the author of Dead Souls”) and figurative paraphrases (“the sun of Russian poetry”).

Allegory

- Allegory- conditional representation of abstract ideas (concepts) through a concrete artistic image or dialogue.

As a trope, allegory is used in fables, parables, morality; v fine arts it is expressed by certain attributes. Allegory arose on the basis of mythology, was reflected in folklore, and was developed in the visual arts. The main way of depicting allegory is a generalization of human concepts; representations are revealed in the images and behavior of animals, plants, mythological and fairy-tale characters, inanimate objects, which acquire a figurative meaning

Example: the allegory of "justice" - Themis (a woman with scales).

Allegory of time controlled by wisdom (W. Titian 1565)

The qualities and appearance attached to these living beings are borrowed from the actions and consequences of what corresponds to the isolation contained in these concepts, for example, the isolation of battle and war is indicated by means of military weapons, the seasons - by means of the flowers, fruits or occupations corresponding to them, impartiality - by means of scales and blindfolds, death through clepsydra and scythes.

personification

- personification- a type of metaphor, transferring the properties of animate objects to inanimate ones. Very often, personification is used in the depiction of nature, which is endowed with certain human features, for example:

And woe, woe, grief!
And the bast of grief was girded ,
Feet are entangled with bast.

Or: the personification of the church =>

Irony

- Irony- a trope in which the true meaning is hidden or contradicts (opposed) to the explicit meaning. Irony creates the feeling that the subject matter is not what it seems.

According to Aristotle, irony is “a statement containing a mockery of those who really think so.”

- Irony- the use of words in a negative sense, directly opposite to the literal. Example: “Well, you are brave!”, “Smart-smart ...”. Here positive statements have a negative connotation.

Sarcasm

- Sarcasm- one of the types of satirical exposure, caustic mockery, the highest degree of irony, based not only on the increased contrast of the implied and expressed, but also on the immediate intentional exposure of the implied.

Sarcasm is a harsh mockery that can open with a positive judgment, but in general it always contains a negative connotation and indicates a lack of a person, object or phenomenon, that is, in relation to what it is happening.

Like satire, sarcasm involves the fight against hostile phenomena of reality through ridiculing them. Ruthlessness, sharpness of exposure - distinguishing feature sarcasm. Unlike irony, sarcasm expresses the highest degree of indignation, hatred. Sarcasm is never a characteristic technique of a comedian who, revealing the funny in reality, depicts it always with a certain amount of sympathy and sympathy.

Example: You have a very smart question. Are you a true intellectual?

Tasks

1) Give short definition word trope .

2) What kind of allegory is shown on the left?

3) Name as many types of trails as you can.

Thank you for your attention!!!

Every day we are faced with a mass of means of artistic expression, we often use them in speech ourselves, without even meaning it. We remind mom that she has golden hands; we remember bast shoes, while they have long gone out of general use; we are afraid to get a pig in a poke and exaggerate objects and phenomena. All these are paths, examples of which can be found not only in fiction, but also in oral speech each person.

What is expressiveness?

The term "paths" comes from the Greek word tropos, which in translation into Russian means "turn of speech". They are used to give figurative speech, with their help, poetic and prose works become incredibly expressive. Tropes in literature, examples of which can be found in almost any poem or story, constitute a separate layer in modern philological science. Depending on the situation of use, they are divided into lexical means, rhetorical and syntactic figures. Tropes are widespread not only in fiction, but also in oratory, and even everyday speech.

Lexical means of the Russian language

Every day we use words that in one way or another decorate speech, make it more expressive. Vivid tropes, examples of which are countless, are no less important than lexical means.

• Antonyms- Words that are opposite in meaning.
• Synonyms- lexical units that are close in meaning.
• Phraseologisms- stable combinations, consisting of two or more lexical units, which, according to semantics, can be equated to one word.
• Dialectisms- words that are common only in a certain territory.
• Archaisms - obsolete words, denoting objects or phenomena, modern analogues of which are present in the culture and everyday life of a person.
• historicisms- terms denoting objects or phenomena that have already disappeared.

Tropes in Russian (examples)

At present, the means of artistic expression are magnificently demonstrated in the works of the classics. Most often these are poems, ballads, poems, sometimes stories and novels. They decorate speech and give it imagery.

• Metonymy- substitution of one word for another by adjacency. For example: At midnight on New Year's Eve, the whole street went out to let off fireworks.
• Epithet- a figurative definition that gives the subject an additional characteristic. For example: Mashenka had magnificent silk curls.
• Synecdoche- the name of the part instead of the whole. For example: A Russian, a Finn, an Englishman, and a Tatar study at the Faculty of International Relations.
• personification- the assignment of animate qualities to an inanimate object or phenomenon. For example: The weather was worried, angry, raging, and a minute later it started to rain.
• Comparison- an expression based on a comparison of two objects. For example: Your face is fragrant and pale, like a spring flower.
• Metaphor- transferring the properties of one object to another. For example: Our mother has golden hands.

Tropes in literature (examples)

The presented means of artistic expression are less often used in speech. modern man, but this does not diminish their significance in the literary heritage of great writers and poets. Thus, litotes and hyperbole often find use in satirical stories, and allegory in fables. Paraphrase is used to avoid repetition in or speech.

• Litotes- artistic understatement. For example: A man with a fingernail works at our factory.
• paraphrase- replacement of a direct name with a descriptive expression. For example: The night luminary is especially yellow today (about the Moon).
• Allegory- the image of abstract objects with images. For instance: Human qualities- cunning, cowardice, clumsiness - are revealed in the form of a fox, a hare, a bear.
• Hyperbola- Deliberate exaggeration. For instance: My buddy has incredibly huge ears, about the size of a head.

Rhetorical figures

The idea of ​​each writer is to intrigue his reader and not demand an answer to the problems posed. A similar effect is achieved through the use of rhetorical questions, exclamations, appeals, silences in a work of art. All these are tropes and figures of speech, examples of which are probably familiar to every person. Their use in everyday speech is approving, the main thing is to know the situation when it is appropriate.

A rhetorical question is put at the end of a sentence and does not require a response from the reader. It makes you think about the real issues.

The incentive offer ends. Using this figure, the writer calls for action. The exclamation should also be classified under the "paths" section.

Examples of rhetorical appeal can be found in "To the Sea"), in Lermontov ("The Death of a Poet"), as well as in many other classics. It does not apply to a specific person, but to the entire generation or era as a whole. Using it in a work of art, the writer can blame or, conversely, approve of actions.

Rhetorical silence is actively used in lyrical digressions. The writer does not express his thought to the end and gives rise to further reasoning.

Syntactic figures

Such techniques are achieved through sentence construction and include word order, punctuation; they contribute to intriguing and interesting sentence design, which is why every writer strives to use these tropes. Examples are especially noticeable when reading the work.

• polyunion- deliberate increase in the number of unions in the proposal.
• Asyndeton- the absence of unions when listing objects, actions or phenomena.
• Syntax parallelism- comparison of two phenomena by their parallel image.
• Ellipsis- deliberate omission of a number of words in a sentence.
• Inversion- violation of the order of words in the construction.
• Parceling- intentional segmentation of the sentence.

Figures of speech

Tropes in Russian, examples of which are given above, can be continued indefinitely, but do not forget that there is another conditionally distinguished section of means of expression. Artistic figures play an important role in written and oral speech.

Table of all trails with examples

It is important for high school students, graduates of humanitarian faculties and philologists to know the variety of means of artistic expression and the cases of their use in the works of classics and contemporaries. If you want to know in more detail what tropes are, a table with examples will replace dozens of literary critical articles for you.

Lexical means and examples
Synonyms	Let us be humiliated and offended, but we deserve a better life.
Antonyms	My life is nothing but black and white stripes.
Phraseologisms	Before buying jeans, find out about their quality, otherwise you will be slipped a pig in a poke.
Archaisms	Barbers (hairdressers) do their job quickly and efficiently.
historicisms	Bast shoes are an original and necessary thing, but not everyone has them today.
Dialectisms	Kozyuli (snakes) were found in this area.
Stylistic tropes (examples)
Metaphor	You have my friend.
personification	The leaves sway and dance in the wind.
	The red sun sets over the horizon.
Metonymy	I've already eaten three bowls.
Synecdoche	The consumer always chooses quality products.
paraphrase	Let's go to the zoo to look at the king of animals (about the lion).
Allegory	You are a real donkey (about stupidity).
Hyperbola	I've been waiting for you for three hours!
	Is this a man? A man with a fingernail, and nothing more!
Syntactic figures (examples)
	How many of those with whom I can be sad How few I can love.
	We'll go raspberry! Do you like raspberries? Not? Tell Daniel Let's go for raspberries.
gradation	I think about you, I miss you, I remember you, I miss you, I pray.
Pun	I, through your fault, began to drown sadness in wine.
Rhetorical figures (address, exclamation, question, default)	When will you, the younger generation, become polite? Oh what a wonderful day today! And you say that you know the material superbly? Come home soon - look...
polyunion	I perfectly know algebra, and geometry, and physics, and chemistry, and geography, and biology.
Asyndeton	The store sells shortbread, crumbly, peanut, oatmeal, honey, chocolate, diet, banana cookies.
Ellipsis	Not there (it was)!
Inversion	I would like to tell you one story.
Antithesis	You are everything and nothing to me.
Oxymoron	Living Dead.

The role of means of artistic expression

The use of tropes in everyday speech elevates each person, makes him more literate and educated. A variety of means of artistic expression can be found in any literary work, poetic or prose. Paths and figures, examples of which every self-respecting person should know and use, do not have an unambiguous classification, since from year to year philologists continue to explore this area of ​​the Russian language. If in the second half of the twentieth century they singled out only metaphor, metonymy and synecdoche, now the list has grown tenfold.

The most important role in artistic speech is played by tropes - words and expressions used not in a direct, but in a figurative sense. Tropes create in the work the so-called allegorical figurativeness, when the image arises from the convergence of one object or phenomenon with another.

This is the most common function of all tropes - to reflect in the structure of the image the ability of a person to think by analogy, to embody, according to the poet, "the convergence of things far away", thus emphasizing the unity and integrity of the world around us.

At the same time, the artistic effect of the trail, as a rule, is the stronger, the farther the approaching phenomena are separated from each other: such is, for example, Tyutchev's likening of lightning to “deaf-mute demons”.

On the example of this path, one can trace another function of allegorical figurativeness: to reveal the essence of this or that phenomenon, usually hidden, the potential poetic meaning contained in it. So, in our example, Tyutchev, with the help of a rather complex and non-obvious path, makes the reader take a closer look at such an ordinary phenomenon as lightning, to see it from an unexpected angle. Despite the complexity of the paths, it is very accurate: indeed, the reflections of lightning without thunder are naturally designated by the epithet “deaf and dumb”.

For literary analysis (as opposed to linguistic analysis), it is extremely important to distinguish between general language tropes, that is, those that have entered the language system and are used by all its speakers, and author's tropes, which are used once by a writer or poet in this particular situation.

Only the tropes of the second group are capable of creating poetic imagery, while the first group - common language tropes - for obvious reasons should not be taken into account in the analysis. The fact is that common language tropes are “erased”, as it were, from frequent and widespread use, lose their figurative expressiveness, are perceived as a stamp and, therefore, are functionally identical to vocabulary without any figurative meaning.

So, in Pushkin’s line “From the surrounding mountains the snow has already fled in muddy streams” contains a common language trope - the personification “ran away”, but when reading the text we don’t even think about it, but the author didn’t set such a task for himself, using the expressive meaning that has already lost its construction. True, it should be noted that sometimes a common language, worn out trope can be “refreshed” by rethinking, introducing additional meanings, etc.

So, the general language metaphor “rain - tears” is no longer impressive, but here is how Mayakovsky reinterprets this image: “Tears from the eyes, from the lowered eyes of the drainpipes.” Through the introduction of new poetic meanings (houses are personified, and drainpipes are associated with eyes), the image acquires a new pictorial and expressive power.

One of the most common methods of “refreshing” a common language trope is the method of its implementation; most often implemented as a metaphor. At the same time, the trope is overgrown with details that, as it were, make the reader perceive it not in a figurative, but in the literal sense. Let us give two examples from the work of Mayakovsky, who often used this technique. In the poem "A cloud in pants" the common language metaphor "nerves diverged" is implemented:

like a sick person out of bed

nerve jumped.

Walked first

barely,

then he ran

excited,

Now he and the new two

They rush about in a desperate tap dance.

The plaster on the ground floor has collapsed.

small,

jumping mad,

Nerves are shaking!

Another example: the implementation of the metaphorical expression "to make an elephant out of a fly." It is clear that no specifics are assumed in the general language “elephant”: this is not a real, but a metaphorical elephant, while Mayakovsky gives it precisely the features of a real elephant: “He makes an elephant out of a fly and sells ivory.”

A metaphorical elephant cannot have any ivory, it is just a designation, a sign of something very large, as opposed to something very small - a fly. Mayakovsky gives concreteness to the elephant, thereby making the image unexpected, arresting attention and producing a poetic impression.

In the analysis of a particular work, it is important not only and even not so much to analyze one or another trope (although this can be useful for students to understand the mechanism of action of an artistic micro-image), but to assess how allegorical figurativeness is characteristic of a given work or a given writer, to what extent it is important in the general figurative system, in the folding of the artistic style.

So, for Lermontov or Mayakovsky, frequent and regular use of tropes is characteristic, and for Pushkin and Tvardovsky, for example, on the contrary, a rare and stingy use of allegorical imagery; there the figurative system is constructed with the help of other means.

There are a fairly large number of varieties of trails; since you can read about them in educational and reference publications, we will simply list the most important ones here without definitions and examples. So, the tropes include: comparison, metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, litote, allegory, symbol, irony (not to be confused with the typological variety of pathos!), oxymoron (or oxymoron), paraphrase, etc.

Esin A.B. Principles and methods of analysis of a literary work. - M., 1998

They are an integral part of any literary work. They are able to make the text unique and individually author's. In literary criticism, such means are called tropes. You can learn more about what trails are by reading this article.

Fiction could not exist without various figures of speech, which give the works a special style. Any author, whether a poet or a prose writer, constantly uses tropes to help convey his own thoughts and emotions that he wants to express in his creation. It is a large number of tropes that differ from other types of author's texts. So, let's talk in more detail about the means of speech expressiveness themselves: what they are, what types exist, which of them are most often used, what are their functions and features.

Let's find out what paths are. Tropes are those that make the text more expressive and lexically diverse. There are many types of these means: metaphor, metonymy, personification, hyperbole, synecdoche, parcellation, litote, epithet, comparison and others. Let's discuss these paths in more detail. There are really a lot of them in the Russian language, so some scientists tried to single out several such means of expression, from which all the others originated. So, after a series of studies, it was found that the "main" tropes are metaphor and metonymy. However, there is no single classification of means of speech expressiveness, since scientists could not determine a single trope from which all the others were formed.

Let us explain the meaning of the paths listed above.

A metaphor is a hidden comparison, such a turn of phrase that helps to compare several objects with each other without the help of the words “like”, “same as”, “similar to something”, and so on.

Metonymy is the substitution of one word for another according to the principle of "adjacency".

Personification is the assignment of human qualities to inanimate objects.

Hyperbole is an exaggeration of any properties of an object.

Epithets are special paths. In literature, they occupy a very important place, as they characterize the features of an object: size, color. If we are talking about something animated, then this trope can clarify the character, appearance.

Parceling is one of the ways to focus on the desired part of the sentence by separating it from the main sentence.

Now you have an idea of ​​what trails are and what they are. This knowledge can be useful to you not only for analysis, but also for creating your own author's texts. Keeping in mind the expressive function of tropes, you can easily diversify the vocabulary of your work with bizarre turns that will make it individual and unique.

So, knowing what paths are, you can create your own literary masterpieces that will turn out to be as unusual and individual as possible!

TRAILS- words used in a figurative sense. They vividly and clearly draw objects and actions and give us the opportunity to see them as the author saw them when creating the work. With their help, the author conveys his attitude to the depicted.

№	Trope definition	Role in the text	Examples
	EPITET - a figurative definition, which is usually expressed by an adjective ("a cruel storm") in a figurative sense, but can also be an adverb ("ardently love").	Enhance the expressiveness, figurativeness, brightness of the language. Allocate feature or the quality of an object, phenomenon, create a living idea of ​​the object; evaluate an object or phenomenon; cause a certain emotional attitude towards them; help to see the author's attitude to the depicted; disclose internal state hero.	And across the river timidly glitter golden lights. Half an hour later they parted impatient calls. Exit the operating room wearily smile and say so ... And Timofey walked beside him and carried a bag of bread and carrots and scared proud of himself. Little Timothy felt sorry for himself for a long time, lying on a pile of fallen leaves and looking into distant indifferent sky.
	COMPARISON - comparison of objects on the basis of their common feature. Usually, comparison is expressed by a comparative turnover with unions as, exactly, as if, as if. It can also be expressed in the form instrumental case of nouns. Can be joined with words similar, similar.	Comparisons, like epithets, play the same roles in the text: strengthening its figurativeness and figurativeness, creating more vivid, expressive images; highlighting, emphasizing any essential features of the depicted objects, their features, qualities, actions; expression of author's assessments and emotions.	The dog sighed deeply and loudly, as a man. The white birch under my window was covered with snow, exactly silver. Under blue skiesmagnificent carpets, glittering in the sun, the snow lies snake drifting snow rushes across the earth. Looks like the eyes of a cautious cat your eyes.
	PERSONIFICATION - endowing inanimate objects with actions characteristic of a person.	Personifications serve to create vivid, expressive and figurative pictures of something, to enhance the transmitted thoughts and feelings; to express the author's characteristics of objects.	The earth is sleeping in a blue radiance. They said about the teacher Ksenia Andreevna that she hands sing. wild pock with my grateful and quiet soul heard, lured and fed birds.
	METAPHOR - the transfer of properties from one object to another based on their similarity. The metaphor is based on comparison, but it is not formalized with the help of comparative conjunctions, therefore the metaphor is called a hidden comparison. Therefore, a metaphor can often be converted into a comparison using words like, like, like.	Through the metaphorical meaning of words and phrases, the author of the text enhances the visibility and clarity of the depicted. Metaphors serve an important tool expressions of author's assessments and emotions, author's characteristics of objects and phenomena.	Crimson bonfire sunset. Whole my dog bloomed with soul Biter, and it changed her beyond recognition. And now blind and deaf not only she, but also her soul. See eyes, which stopped in fear and expectation.
	PERIPHRASE (PERIPHRASE) - replacement of the name of an object with some descriptive phrase.	Paraphrases allow you to: highlight and emphasize the most essential features depicted subject; brighter and more fully express the author's assessment of the depicted; avoid unnecessary repetition. Paraphrases (especially expanded ones) make it possible to give the text a solemn, sublime, pathetic sound.	So I sat in the clearing, rested and looked at forest king.(i.e. deer) Mountain climbers(climbers) city ​​of white nights(Petersburg) black gold(oil)
	IRONY - hidden mockery. A kind of allegory when mockery is hidden behind an outwardly positive assessment.	Evaluation of what is ridiculed. ridicule negative qualities object, character.	breakaway, clever, are you wandering, head?) (in reference to a donkey). Men's suits for sale. And what are the colors? Huge selection colors! Black, black-gray, gray-black, blackish-gray…
	HYPERBOLE - excessive exaggeration of the properties of the depicted object	The use of hyperbole and litotes allows the authors of texts to sharply increase the expressiveness of the depicted, give thoughts a bright emotional coloring, and convey the author's assessment.	They probably called a hundred times. Again mushrooms found Vitka, not without reason stare at the tea saucer. Purr - her whole life.
	LITOTA - an excessive understatement of the properties of the depicted object.	little man with a fingernail We - Fewer forest ants.

Syntactic means (figures of speech)

Figures of speech are special syntactic constructions.

Antithesis reveals the contrast between phenomena or objects. Forms the antithesis of a pair (or several) of antonyms, linguistic or contextual. When everything is calm, you make noise; when everyone is worried, you are calm; . . if you need to be silent - you scream; when you should speak, you are silent.

gradatsi i is a rhetorical figure, the essence of which is the arrangement of enumerated elements (words, phrases, phrases) in ascending order of their meaning (“ascending gradation”) or in descending order of values ​​(“descending gradation”). Full life Russian classics in school is a condition for the existence of our people, our state; it is, as they say now, a matter of national security. Not reading "Onegin", not knowing "Crime and Punishment", "Oblomov", we turn into some other people. What's with the "people"! They don't call us otherwise than "population". . . ” The first sentence is built on the basis of the “ascending” gradation. From the second sentence to the end of the passage, the gradation is descending.

Repeat used to enhance the utterance, to give speech dynamism, a certain rhythm. White-white; asked-asked for help; a little bit.

Lexical repetition- repetition of the same word or phrase with slight variations. Behind those villages are forests, forests, forests. Winter was waiting, nature was waiting.

Anaphora- a type of repetition: the same word, several words, are repeated at the beginning of several phrases following one after another. Anaphora gives rhythm to speech.

Epiphora- repetition of the same elements at the end of each parallel row. I would like to know why I am a titular councillor? Why a titular adviser?

Syntax parallelism- repetition of syntactic constructions, a special arrangement of successive phrases with the same syntactic structure, with the same word order, the same type of predicates. In the previous example, anaphora is inseparable from syntactic parallelism. I miss my grandfather's house with its large green yard. . . I miss the spacious kitchen in my grandfather's house with its dirt floor. . . I miss the evening roll call of women from hill to hill ...

Period- this is a way of syntactic design of a complex sentence, which combines anaphora and syntactic parallelism. When I think about the fate of Russian literature, when I remember that feat of arms, which she did when I understand that she lives in the soul of every person at any time - then I agree with Maxim Gorky: yes, literature is our national pride!

Rhetorical exclamation marks the emotional semantic culmination of a segment (part) of speech. Serves the task of establishing active interaction with the addressee. O times! Oh manners!

A rhetorical question serves for the emotional highlighting of the semantic centers of the text, for the formation of the emotional and evaluative attitude of the addressee to the subject of speech. What is culture, why is it needed? What is culture as a system of values? What is the purpose of the liberal arts education that we have always had in the tradition?

Allegory - allegory, in art - a detailed assimilation, the details of which add up to a system of hints; moreover, the direct meaning of the image is not lost, but is supplemented by the possibility of its figurative interpretation. In fables and fairy tales, cunning is shown in the image foxes, greed - in the guise wolf, deceit - in the form snakes.

Parceling- such a division of the sentence, in which the content of the statement is realized not in one, but in two or more intonation-semantic speech units, following one after another after a separating pause. Flerov knows everything. And Uncle Grisha Dunaev. And the doctor too.

Ellipsis- omission of an element of the statement, easily restored in a given context or situation. In all - the windows are curious, on the roofs - the boys. We sat down - in ashes, hailstones - in dust, in swords - sickles and plows.

Default- a turn of speech, which consists in the fact that the author does not fully express the thought, leaving the reader to himself what exactly remained unsaid. But listen: if I owe you ... I own a dagger, I was born near the Caucasus.

Grotesque- the image of reality in an exaggerated, ugly - comic form, the interweaving of the real with the fantastic, the scary with the funny.

Pathos- (feeling, passion) - passionate inspiration, uplift.

"Flowers of Eloquence". Tropes and figures of speech, their role in creating poetic text.

The analysis of a poetic work is an attempt to get closer to the position of the author, empathy, a conversation “from soul to soul”. This is imagination and the ability to respond to the text with a feeling. The main thing is to comprehend the poem and in no case replace the analysis with a description of personal impressions of this work.

The basis of work in the analysis of a lyrical poem is the comprehension of the word and image. Lyric poetry is the secret of language, the word, which acquires special expressiveness. In the context, it is connected with other words by many stylistic, semantic, grammatical, syntactic and other connections. “Every poem is a veil stretched out on the points of a few words. These words shine like stars, because of them there is a poem, ”wrote A.A. Blok

Paths (from Greek - turn) - turns of speech, the use of words and expressions in a figurative sense. Tropes - transformation, rethinking of language units. They are based on a comparison of two concepts that seem close to our consciousness. Paths play a certain role in creating an image, in embodying a theme and idea. Together with figures of speech (figures of speech, syntactic constructions that enhance the expressiveness of the utterance), tropes are called “colors of eloquence”. There are more than two hundred types.

Means of expressive speech

language facility

Reception Definition

Examples

Allegory

(statement)

The image of an abstract concept through a specific image.

Allegorical depiction of the war of 1812. In the fable of I.A. Krylov "Wolf in the kennel"

Alliteration

Repetition of consonants in the text.

The familiar noise of the rustle of their peaks. Welcomed me.

(A. Pushkin)

Anaphora

Repetition of words, phrases at the beginning of sentences

I swear on the first day of creation

I swear on his last day

I swear on the shame of crime...

(M. Lermontov)

Antithesis

Contrast, opposition of phenomena and concepts

I am a king - I am a slave, I am a worm - I am God!

(G. Derzhavin)

Assonance

Repetition of stressed vowels in the text.

Do I wander along the noisy streets,

I enter a crowded temple ...

(A. Pushkin)

Asyndeton

Intentionally skipping alliances

Swede, Russian - stabs, cuts, cuts.

(A. Pushkin)

Hyperbola

Artistic exaggeration

I saw how she mows:

What a wave - then a mop is ready!

(N.A. Nekrasov)

gradation

Arrangement of words, expressions in ascending (ascending) or decreasing (descending) significance

They, these vegetables, were really blue,

or rather - dark purple, almost

black, glossy, some kind of leather.

(V. Kataev)

Nominative

(case) topics

Use of the nominative case that defines the topic at the beginning of the text

Pushkin ... This bright name accompanies for life

Inversion

Violation direct order words

On the winter road, boring

Three greyhounds run...

(A. Pushkin)

Irony

The use of the word in the opposite sense of the direct; mockery

Where, smart, are you wandering head? (about Donkey) (I. Krylov)

compositional joint

Litotes

Repetition at the beginning of a new sentence of words that conclude the previous one

Artistic understatement

At dawn, the robin sang. Sang and miraculously

combined in her song all the rustles,

rustling ... (N. Sladkov)

... And the leaf with the tree makes noise. Birds sing.

(V. Trediakovsky)

Metaphor

Transferring a value from one

phenomenon or (object) to another based on the similarity between them

Life in Gremyachy Meadow reared up like a restive horse before a difficult

an obstacle.

(M. Sholokhov)

Metonymy

Value transfer (renaming) based on the adjacency of phenomena

Black tailcoats flashed and rushed, apart and in heaps, here and there ...

(N. Gogol)

polyunion

Intentional use of repeated conjunctions

There is also coal, and uranium, and rye, and grapes.

(V. Inber)

Occasionalisms

(neologisms)

... Some stunning absurdities, the fruits of the new Russian education, began to take root in our lives.

(G. Smirnov)

Oxymoron

(oxymoron)

A combination of opposite words

And the impossible is possible

The road is long and easy.

(A. Blok)

personification

Transfer of human properties to an inanimate object

Luna laughed like a clown.

(S. Yesenin)

Pair connection of homogeneous members

The design of the school building and the area around it, the size and equipment of the premises, the temperature regime and lighting affect the health of children.

Parceling

Intentional division of a sentence into semantic meaningful segments

The heart shrinks with joy. Incomprehensible. inexplicable. And beautiful.

Paraphrase(s)

A descriptive turn of speech in which the name of an object, person, phenomenon is replaced by its sign

Sad time! Oh charm! (about autumn)

(A. Pushkin)

Rhetorical question, exclamation, appeal

Expression of the statement in interrogative form; to attract attention; increased emotional impact

What are the joys in a foreign land? They are at home...

(K. Batyushkov)

Sarcasm

Highest Degree irony

The entire poem by M. Lermontov "Gratitude" is filled with sarcasm.

Synecdoche

The transfer of meaning from one phenomenon to another on the basis of ratio between them (used singular instead of the plural, the plural instead of the singular, the part instead of the whole...)

... And it was heard before dawn,

How the French rejoiced.

Syntax parallelism

Similar parallel construction of phrases, lines

Tie your hand to your body - it

dry up. Deprive a person of the opportunity or need to believe - his soul will dry up

(S. Soloveichik)

Comparison

Drawing up phenomena or concepts in order to highlight a particularly important feature

The selfish man dries up like a lone barren tree

(I. S. Turgenev)

Default

broken sentence,

enabling

contemplate, contemplate

What happened with me?

Father ... Mazepa ...

(A. Pushkin)

Epithet

figurative definition,

characterizing property,

the quality of a person

the phenomenon of the subject

Killed! .. Why sob now,

Empty praise unnecessary choir

And the pathetic babble of excuses?

(M. Lermontov)

Epiphora

Repetition of words, phrases at the end of sentences

I would like to know why I am a titular councillor? Why a titular adviser?

(N. Gogol)

Observation of linguistic material

Drum beat, clicks, rattle, Thunder of cannons, trampling, neighing moan, And death and hell from all sides. (A. Pushkin)

I'm sad because you're having fun. (M. Lermontov)

In every word there is an abyss of space; every word is boundless, like a poet. (N. Gogol)

I only look at you with reverence when, leaning quietly, you scatter black hair on pale marble (A. Pushkin)

He fell on the cold snow, On the cold snow, like a pine tree, like a pine tree, in a damp forest, Chopped under a resinous root. (M. Lermontov)


Dark or insignificant
But they don't care
It is impossible to take.

How full of their sounds
Crazy desire!
They are tears of separation
They have the thrill of goodbye.

(M. Lermontov)

2. Find trails, stylistic figures and their types.

Why in the language of departed peopleWere there thunders of melodious passions?And hints of the ringing of all times and feasts,And the harmony of colorful words?Why in the language of modern peopleThe sound of bones being thrown into the pit?The imitation of words, like an echo of rumor,Like the murmur of swamp grass?Because when, young and proud,Water arose between the rocks,She wasn't afraid to push forward.If you stand before her, she will kill you.And kill, and flood, and run transparently,Only values ​​his will.This is how the ringing for future times is born,For the present pale tribes.(K. Balmont)

The components of the analysis of a poetic text include its verbal structure: features of vocabulary, morphology, syntax. They have long been studied by poetics as tropes and stylistic figures that contain evaluativeness. In the paths - the position of the author.