Types of higher educational institutions in the Russian Federation. Higher educational institutions: types and features

Educational institution

At present, in Russian, the concept of " educational institution» is more common in relation to institutions of secondary and higher professional education (college, high school, university, etc.) and is included in conceptual apparatus legislation on vocational education.(See, for example, Federal Law of August 22, 1996 N 125-FZ "On Higher and Postgraduate Education")

School and education

17th century

Since 1621, the first hand-written newspaper, Chimes, was published for the tsar, consisting mainly of translated articles from foreign publications, which was written by translators of the Ambassadorial order. Printed products produced at the Moscow Printing Yard come into use. Grammar and arithmetic manuals are published in mass editions: Vasily Burtsev’s printed primer (“ABC”) was published in 1634, then it was reprinted several times, and when it was sold in Moscow in 1651, 2400 copies were sold in one day; in 1648 the “Grammar” of Meletius Smotrytsky was published in 1682 the multiplication table appeared on sale - “Counting is convenient for bathers or sellers”; at the end of the 17th century, an illustrated primer by Karion Istomin appeared, as well as handwritten manuals on arithmetic. "Psalters" and "Books of Hours" were also published.

Children were taught literacy either in the family or by clergy, deacons and clerks. The issue of organization of training became urgent.

In 1621, a school was opened in the Nemetskaya Sloboda (now the area of ​​Baumanskaya Street) in Moscow, in which they studied foreign languages- Latin, German.

Boyarin F.M. Rtishchev arranged a school for young nobles at the Andreevsky Monastery, where they taught Greek, Latin, rhetoric and philosophy.

In 1632, monk Joseph arrived from the Patriarch of Alexandria. He was persuaded to stay in Moscow and instructed to translate into Slavic Greek polemical books against Latin heresies, and " in the teacher's yard to teach little children the Greek language and literacy". But soon Joseph died and things did not work out.

Near the patriarchal court (in the Miracle Monastery), a Greek-Latin school was established, which was run by the Greek Arseny, but he was soon exiled for "unbelief."

In 1665, a school was opened at the Zaikonospassky Monastery in Moscow, which prepared clerks for orders. The school was headed by Simeon Polotsky. Grammar and Latin were studied.

In 1680, a school was opened at the Printing House, where 232 students studied. The main subject was Greek.

The Aptekarsky Prikaz trained pharmacists and doctors.

XVIII century

The 18th century brought changes to the learning process: new approaches to education appeared.

Theology began to be taught only in diocesan schools, where the children of the clergy studied. There were 46 diocesan schools.

In 1701, the School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences was founded in Moscow in the building of the former Sukharev Tower. In the same 1701, the Artillery School was opened; in 1707 - Medical School; in 1712 - Engineering School. In 1715, the senior classes of the School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences were transferred to St. Petersburg and transformed into Maritime Academy(now the Higher Naval Academy).

By the end of the first quarter of the XVIII century. by decree of 1714, 42 digital schools with 2,000 students were opened in the provinces. The children of soldiers studied in garrison schools.

At metallurgical plants in the Urals and in the Olonets region, the government organized the first mining schools that trained mining specialists.

The foundations were laid for the development of a system of closed estate schools that had developed by the middle of the 18th century.

In 1732, the Corps of Cadets was established or Land gentry (noble) corps. After graduating from this educational institution, noble children received officer ranks.

From the 30s. it was widely used to enroll young children in the regiment, incl. these children, by the time they came of age, received an officer's rank by seniority.

Under Anna Ioannovna (1730 - 1741), the Naval, Artillery and Page Corps were established.

Under Elizabeth (1741-1762), military schools were reorganized. In 1744, a decree was issued to expand the network of primary schools. The first gymnasiums were opened: in Moscow (1755) and in Kazan (1758). In 1755, on the initiative of I.I. Shuvalov founded Moscow University, and in 1760 - the Academy of Arts.

In the second half of the XVIII century. there are two trends in education: the expansion of the network of educational institutions and the strengthening of the principle of class.

1782 - 1786 - school reform.

In 1782, the Charter of public schools was approved. In each city, main schools with 4 classes were established, and in county towns - small public schools with 2 classes. Introduced subject teaching, unified dates for the beginning and end of classes, a classroom lesson system; teaching methods and unified curricula were developed. In carrying out this reform, a Serbian teacher F.I. Jankovic de Mirievo. By the end of the century, there were 550 educational institutions with 60-70 thousand students.

Schools, gentry townships, noble boarding schools and gymnasiums at Moscow University - formed the structure of secondary education in Russia.

The system of closed educational institutions was developed by Catherine II together with the president of the Academy of Arts and the director of the Land Gentry Corps I.I. Betsky.

19th century

By the beginning. 19th century comprehensive school was represented by 2 and 4-class public schools located in cities. There were general education gymnasiums in Moscow, St. Petersburg and Kazan. There were specialized educational institutions: soldier's schools, cadet and gentry corps, various types spiritual schools. Moscow University was a higher educational institution.

Under Alexander I (1801 - 1825)

In 1803, a new regulation on the organization of educational institutions was issued.

New principles in the education system:

1. classlessness of educational institutions,
2. free education at its lower levels,
3. continuity curricula.

Structure of educational institutions:

• one-class parochial school,
• 3-class county school,
• 7-year gymnasium in the provincial city,
• university.

The entire education system was in charge of the Main Directorate of Schools.

There were 6 universities: in 1802 - Dorpat, in 1803 - Vilensky, in 1804 - Kharkov and Kazan; and opened in 1804 Petersburg Pedagogical Institute was transformed in 1819 into a university. In 1832 Vilna University was closed, and in 1834 Kiev University was founded. The territory of Russia was divided into 6 educational districts, which were headed by trustees. Above the trustees were academic councils at the universities.

In 1804, the University Charter was issued, which granted the universities significant autonomy: the election of the rector and professors, their own court, the non-interference of the higher administration in the affairs of the universities, the right of universities to appoint teachers in the gymnasium and schools of their district.

In 1804, the first censorship charter was also issued. Censorship committees were created at universities from professors and masters, subordinate to the Ministry of Public Education.

The first privileged secondary university institutions appeared - lyceums: in 1811 - Tsarskoselsky, in 1817 - Richelievsky in Odessa, in 1820 - Nezhinsky.

Under Nicholas I (1825 - 1855)

Under Nicholas I, education took on a closed class character: parochial schools for peasants; county schools for the children of merchants, artisans, and other city dwellers; gymnasiums for children of nobles and officials.

In 1827, a decree and a special circular were issued prohibiting the admission of serfs to gymnasiums and universities. The basis of public education was the principle of class and bureaucratic centralization.

In 1828 - the school charter, according to which primary and secondary education was divided into 3 categories:

1. for children of the lower classes - one-class parish schools (the 4th rules of arithmetic, reading, writing and the "law of God" were studied).
2. for the middle classes, i.e. philistines and merchants - three-year schools (geometry, geography, history).
3. for the children of nobles and officials - seven-year gymnasiums (there they prepared for admission to the university).

In 1835 a new University charter was issued. It limited the autonomy of the universities, banned the university court, and effectively led to the establishment of police surveillance of students.

In the beginning. 19th century There were 5 cadet corps. K ser. 19th century there were 20 of them.

If in the beginning 19th century there were 35 Orthodox seminaries and 76 bishops' schools (lower theological schools), then in 1854 there were 48 and 223, respectively.

In 1832, the Imperial Military Academy was established, which trained officers General Staff. In 1855, the Artillery and Engineering Academies arose.

The network of industrial and technical educational institutions expanded: in 1828 the Technological Institute was established, in 1830 - the School of Architecture, and in 1832 - the School of Civil Engineers (in 1842 both of these schools were merged into the Construction School), in 1842 In Belarus, the Gorygoretsky Agricultural School was opened, which was transformed in 1848 into the Agricultural Institute, in 1835 the Land Survey Institute was founded in Moscow. In addition, the Institute of Railway Engineers, the Forestry Institute, the Practical Polytechnical Institute, Mining Institute, Practical Commercial Academy, Agricultural School, Private Mining School, Technical school. Veterinary schools are springing up in the provinces.

Under Alexander II (1855-1881)

In 1863 a new University charter was issued. He returned the former autonomy to the universities, in accordance with the Charter of 1803, liquidated by Nicholas I in 1835. The independence of the universities was restored in solving administrative, financial, scientific and pedagogical issues.

In 1864, the "Charter of Gymnasiums" and the "Regulations on Public Schools" were published, which regulated primary and secondary education. An accessible all-class education was introduced. Appeared along with the state zemstvo, parish, Sunday and private schools. Gymnasiums were divided into classical and real. They accepted children from all classes able to pay for education.

In 1869, the first women's educational institutions were created - the "Higher Women's Courses" with university programs.

Educational institutions in Russia before 1917

• Military educational institutions- military academies, military schools, cadet schools, cadet corps, military gymnasiums, (military schools), etc. The first military educational institution in Russia was created under Peter I, who in 1700 founded the "School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences" in Moscow to prepare for service in artillery, engineers and the navy. First military school opened in 1795 in Gatchina.
• Volost schools - primary schools in Russia in the 19th century, who trained clerks for the chambers of state property and for rural administrations.
• Sunday Schools- private or public general education, vocational or religious educational institutions, in which education is held on Sundays. In Russia in the second half of the 19th and early 20th centuries, such general educational institutions were established by the intelligentsia for illiterate and semi-literate workers, peasants, artisans, employees, as well as working children and adolescents.
• Higher Primary Schools- Primary schools in Russia in small towns. Until the middle of the 19th century, they were called county schools, since 1872 - city schools, since 1912 they were renamed into higher primary schools.
• Higher Women's Courses- women's higher education institutions. They arose with the permission of the government since 1869 (the first institutions of this type arose in Moscow and St. Petersburg).
• Gymnasiums- secondary general educational institution. The first secular secondary general education gymnasium in Russia was founded in St. Petersburg in 1726 at the Academy of Sciences under the name Academic Gymnasium (it existed until 1805). In accordance with the charter approved in 1864, classical gymnasiums and real gymnasium.
• Theological Academy- Higher religious (Orthodox) educational institution. The Moscow Theological Academy is the first higher educational institution in Russia, opened in 1685 (until 1814 it was called the "Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy"), closed in 1919, revived in 1943.
• Theological Seminary- an Orthodox educational institution that trained clergy in Russia
• Zemstvo schools- Primary schools opened by zemstvos (and under their jurisdiction) in rural areas.
• - secular higher educational institutions, which trained mainly specialists in the technical and natural sciences. There were polytechnics and technological institutes, institutes of railway engineers, commercial, agricultural, pedagogical, medical institutes. In 1802-1804 the first in Russia teacher's institute at Saint Petersburg University.
• - secondary educational institutions of a closed type with full board, mainly for daughters from noble families.
• Cadet corps- Primary military school with full board.
• commercial schools- Secondary educational institutions that prepared students for commercial activities.
• Public schools are secondary educational institutions that trained teachers for elementary educational institutions. The first institution of this type was opened in St. Petersburg in 1783 and lasted until 1804.
• Courses- paid secular higher educational institutions, a synonym for "institute".
• Real gymnasiums- a secondary general educational institution with a focus on subjects of the natural and mathematical cycle, some of which are late XIX century received the status of real schools.
• Real school- a secondary educational institution that paid more attention to the study of subjects of the natural and mathematical cycle.
• Universities- secular institutions of higher education. The first secular university in Russia was called the Academic University, opened in 1724 and existed until 1766. By the beginning of the 20th century in Russia (with the exception of Finland) there were the following universities: Moscow (since 1755), Derpt, or Yuryevsky (1802), Kazan (1804), Kharkov (1804), Petersburg (1819), Kiev St. Vladimir (1833), Novorossiysk (in Odessa, 1864), Warsaw (1869), Tomsk (1888).
• Teachers' seminaries and schools- educational institutions that trained teachers (teachers) for city, county and elementary schools.
• schools- estate secondary educational institutions in Russia, mentioned since the 17th century. . In 1828, the Committee for the Organization of Educational Institutions decided to create two types of schools: district schools(for the children of merchants, artisans and city dwellers), as well as parochial schools(for children of peasants). There were also public schools that trained teachers for elementary schools.
• Church schools- elementary schools run by the clergy. The first educational institutions of this type were opened in Russia in early XVIII century. In accordance with the “Spiritual Regulations” (1721) approved in 1721 under Peter I, it was ordered to establish all-class schools at bishops’ houses (bishops’ schools) and monasteries. Since 1864, they were transferred to the jurisdiction of the Synod and were opened at church parishes with a term of study of 3-5 years, mainly in rural areas.
• Schools- the collective name in Ancient Russia and in the Russian Empire of general educational institutions. The first state school arose under Prince Vladimir in the 10th century, more than 300 students studied there. Under his son Yaroslav the Wise, schools arose in Novgorod, Pereyaslav, Chernigov, and Suzdal.

By 1914 in Russian Empire there were about 700 educational institutions (more than 400 gymnasiums and 276 colleges), 9 universities.

Introduction……………………………………………………………….…2

The system of higher professional education in Russia…….2

1. Types of higher education institutions in Russia………………………..3

   The system of higher professional education in Russia….…5

The scientific potential of higher educational institutions in Russia…………8

1. The problem of the scientific potential of Russian universities……………………8

   The scientific potential of different types of universities in Russia……………….9

Conclusion………….…………………………………………….....……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

References………………………………………...…….………..12

Introduction

Education is one of the most important subsystems of the social sphere of the state, which ensures the process of obtaining by a person systematized knowledge, skills and abilities in order to use them effectively in professional activities. The education system is the most complex socio-economic and scientific-technical complex of the national economy.

Higher education provides fundamental, scientific, professional and practical training, obtaining by citizens of educational and qualification levels in accordance with their vocation, interests and abilities, improving scientific and professional training, retraining and advanced training.

In addition, in the information age, there is a clear manifestation social role education as an integral value of spiritual culture. At the same time, fundamentally new socio-economic, spiritual, moral, cultural requirements are related to education.

The purpose of this work is to consider the types of higher educational institutions operating on the territory of the Russian Federation and their scientific potential.

Objectives of the work: to give a definition of a higher educational institution in general and types of higher educational institutions in particular; identify the similarities and differences between the types of universities in Russia; compare two systems of higher professional education; to determine the scientific potential of higher education in Russia, the problems of realizing scientific potential, as well as the difference in the realization of scientific potential in different types of universities.

The object of the study is higher education in general as a necessary phenomenon of any society and some aspects of its reform in particular.

The subject of this work is the actual types of higher educational institutions in Russia and the regulations that regulate the position of higher education at the current stage.

The system of higher professional education in Russia.

Types of higher educational institutions in Russia.

First, let's define what a higher education institution is.

The federal law on higher and postgraduate professional education of August 22, 1996 No. 125-FZ defines a higher educational institution as " educational institution established and operating on the basis of legislation Russian Federation on education, which has the status of a legal entity and implements educational programs of higher professional education in accordance with the license.

The main tasks of the university, according to Art. 8 FZ-125 are:

1) satisfaction of the needs of the individual in intellectual, cultural and moral development through obtaining higher and (or) postgraduate professional education;

2) the development of sciences and arts through scientific research and creative activities of scientific and pedagogical workers and students, the use of the results obtained in the educational process;

3) training, retraining and advanced training of workers with higher education and scientific and pedagogical workers highest qualification and etc.

4) the formation of a civic position among students, the ability to work and live in conditions modern civilization and democracy;

5) preservation and enhancement of the moral, cultural and scientific values ​​of society;

6) dissemination of knowledge among the population, raising its educational and cultural level.

The following types of higher education institutions have been established in the Russian Federation:

one). The Federal University is the leading educational institution in the territory federal district, center of science and education, fundamental and applied research in priority scientific areas. The Federal University solves the following tasks:

implements innovative educational programs of higher and postgraduate professional education, integrated into the global educational space;

provides systemic modernization of higher and postgraduate professional education;

carries out training, retraining and (or) advanced training of personnel based on the use of modern educational technologies for the integrated socio-economic development of the region;

carries out fundamental and applied scientific research in a wide range of sciences, ensures the integration of science, education and production, including by bringing the results of intellectual activity to practical application.

To date, the number of federal universities is 8. These are: Far Eastern, Kazan, Northern, North-Eastern, Siberian, Ural, Southern and Baltic Federal Universities.

2). The university is a multidisciplinary educational institution with a large selection of study programs in various fields of knowledge (at least 7 specialties). The University carries out the following tasks:

implements educational programs of higher and postgraduate professional education in a wide range of areas of training (specialties);

carries out training, retraining and (or) advanced training of highly qualified employees, scientific and scientific-pedagogical workers;

performs fundamental and applied scientific research in a wide range of sciences;

is a leading scientific and methodological center in its fields of activity.

Traditionally, the university is divided into faculties, faculties - into departments. A university may also include an institute or even several institutes.

Separately, it is necessary to single out the National Research University - a higher educational institution that equally effectively carries out educational and scientific activities based on the principles of integration of science and education. The title of NRU is awarded for a ten-year term on a competitive basis. Today, this status has been awarded to 29 universities in our country.

3). The Academy is a higher educational institution, the purpose of which is to train specialists in any one direction of human activity (finance, art, Agriculture etc.). The goals and objectives of the academy include:

realization educational programs higher and postgraduate professional education;

training, retraining and (or) advanced training of highly qualified employees for a certain area of ​​scientific and scientific-pedagogical activity;

performing fundamental and applied scientific research in the chosen field of science or culture;

leading scientific and methodological center in the field of its activity.

An academy, like a university, can be subdivided into institutes, faculties and departments. The academy should include postgraduate and possibly doctoral studies. Like a university, the academy can open its branches and representative offices in other cities.

4). Institute - a higher educational institution that trains specialists for work in a certain area of ​​professional activity (one direction of professional activity). Its tasks include:

implementation of educational programs of higher professional education, as well as, as a rule, educational programs of postgraduate professional education;

training, retraining and (or) advanced training of employees for a specific area of ​​professional activity;

conducting fundamental and (or) applied scientific research.

The institute is thus the basic unit in the higher education system. The institute may be an independent entity, or may be part of a university or academy as their structural subdivision. The requirements for study programs at the institute are the same as those at universities and academies. But in other respects they differ in the direction of simplification.

As we can see, research work is carried out in all types of higher education institutions, but in universities, as a rule, they are of a more fundamental nature.

The status of a higher educational institution is determined depending on its type, organizational and legal form, the presence or absence of state accreditation. The status of a higher education institution is included in its name.

The system of higher professional education in Russia.

In September 2003 in Berlin, Russia joined the members of the Bologna Club. Thus, Russia, like other member states, has pledged until 2010 to complete the following 6 tasks:

1) to coordinate the structural construction of higher education systems with the transition to two-cycle education: bachelor's degrees (4 years) and master's degrees (2 more years);

2) to measure the volume of a student's academic work in credits (in the European system of their transfer - ECT), to ensure the accumulation of credits and their applicability for lifelong learning;

3) ensure quality control of all types of higher education based on measurements of graduates' achievements;

4) eliminate all barriers to expanding the mobility of students and teachers, change the legislation in the field of employment of foreigners;

5) apply the European Diploma Supplement and ensure the employment of graduates;

6) increase the competitiveness of European education and its attractiveness for young people from other countries and continents.

At the moment, there are 2 systems of higher professional education in the Russian Federation:

one). Higher professional education, confirmed by the assignment to a person who has successfully passed the final certification, qualifications (degrees) "specialist" - specialist. The term of study is 5 years.

2). Higher professional education, confirmed by the assignment to a person who has successfully passed the final certification, qualifications (degrees) "bachelor" or qualifications (degrees) "master" - bachelor's or master's degree. The terms of study are 4 or 2 years, respectively.

At this stage in the development of the education system in Russia, the second system has almost completely replaced the first.

The Soviet one-line structure of education in universities provided for training for 5 years (6 for medical specialties) without intermediate stages, state examinations, writing and defending a thesis with a document called “specialist diploma”, which gave the right to enter the doctoral stages and the right to perform certain skilled work. Five-year training programs for specialists at this stage remain a transitional form of organization of education at the university, but admission to these departments is no longer carried out.

At present, it can be said that Russia has completely switched to the new Western education system, in which such a form of education as a specialist is no longer practiced.

The new structure involves a two-stage basic higher education (30% of the time in science and mathematics, 25% in the humanities) with an intermediate certificate of incomplete higher education and the possibility of a partial change in the direction of study in the second cycle lasting 2 years and obtaining the qualification "bachelor", the programs of which contain an average number of disciplines of specialization.

The best students can continue their studies and become masters, while the duration of higher education is at least 6 years, which will pave the way for them to doctoral degrees, or get the qualification of “specialist with extended education” (duration of study is 5 years or more).

The final stage Russian education(postgraduate study) lasts 2-3 years under the supervision of a supervisor and includes independent research, writing and defending a dissertation of a certain level and volume.

There is an ongoing discussion about the advisability of retaining the old title "PhD" or switching to the international one - "Doctor of Philosophy" (PhD). Long-term scientific work and generalization of its consequences in a large dissertation with a complex defense procedure leads to obtaining the highest scientific title "Doctor of Science" with broad rights to personal autonomy in research and obtaining the highest positions in the scientific hierarchy.

Thus, today in the Russian Federation there are several educational and qualification levels:

one). Bachelor - the educational and qualification level of higher education of a person who, on the basis of complete general secondary education, has received basic higher education, fundamental and special skills and knowledge on a generalized object of labor (activity), sufficient to perform the tasks and duties of a certain level of professional activity, which are provided for primary positions in a certain type of economic activity.

2). Specialist - the educational and qualification level of higher education of a person who, on the basis of the educational qualification level of a bachelor, has received a complete higher education, special skills and knowledge sufficient to perform the tasks and duties (works) of a certain level of professional activity, provided for primary positions in a certain type of economic activity. activities.

3). Master - the educational qualification level of higher education of a person who, on the basis of the educational qualification level of a bachelor, has received a complete higher education, special skills and knowledge sufficient to perform professional tasks and duties (works) of an innovative nature of a certain level of professional activity, which are provided for primary positions in a certain type of economic activity.

In addition to participating in the Bologna process, Russia has also signed the main conventions of the Council of Europe and UNESCO on the mutual acceptance of diplomas. The attitude towards foreign certificates of higher education is quite tolerant, moreover, in most other countries they are valid for a longer time than in Russia.

Scientific potential of higher educational institutions of Russia.

2.1 The problem of the scientific potential of Russian universities.

University science, which is a key element of the country's scientific potential, largely determines the quality of training highly qualified specialists in the higher education system. Therefore, it is not surprising that in recent years more and more attention has been paid to the problem of developing the scientific potential of the university, which implies the potential of scientific and pedagogical personnel, scientific and technical resources of universities, established scientific schools in carrying out scientific research along with the training of highly qualified specialists and scientific personnel; as well as the availability and balance of resources for scientific activities and the sufficiency of the level of their development for the implementation of effective scientific activities.

In particular, the problems affecting all components of the scientific potential of Russian universities:

1) "aging" of personnel; the workload of teachers with work on teaching students; low demand for the scientific potential of teachers, according to their own assessments; the decline in the prestige of scientific work, especially for young and energetic people;

2) low material and technical level of support, insufficient funding of scientific work;

3) weak information interaction of the university sector with enterprises;

4) shortcomings and omissions in the regulatory framework, lack of a control system;

5) insufficient conditions for the effective use of the results of scientific research, their involvement in economic circulation, etc.

The world practice of the last decade demonstrates the strengthening of the contribution of universities to the development of innovation and economic growth. State funding of research by universities in industrially-technologically developed countries is increasingly focused on specific socio-economic goals, projects and programs and is made dependent on the final results; the role of contract financing is growing.

In recent years, some growth in patent activity has been noted in Russian universities (for the period 2002 - 2007 - 1.4 times); they account for almost 5th of patent applications filed in Russia. Universities create 35% of fundamentally new production technologies.

Almost 3rd part of advanced industrial technologies is created in the university sector. But at the same time, the university sector is poorly oriented towards the commercialization of its products, in addition, the industry itself is not always ready to accept new technologies.

The innovative orientation of the activities of universities is also ensured through the training of qualified scientists and engineers, the growing participation of teachers and graduate students in the implementation of research and development, and the transfer of their results to industry.

2.2 Scientific potential of different types of universities in Russia.

The scientific potential of any higher educational institution is realized in a variety of ways:

a) creation of various implementation structures in the field of transfer of scientific research results;

b) the output of scientific products of the university;

c) release of scientific and pedagogical personnel and forms of recognition of the university in the professional community;

d) accumulation of the results of intellectual activity drawn up in accordance with the established procedure;

e) accumulation of cost results of research activities.

All types of universities also form the so-called personnel potential, and this applies primarily to specialists working in the university itself, and not only to graduates of the institution.

As we noted in the first chapter, research work is carried out in all types of higher education institutions, but in universities, as a rule, they are of a more fundamental nature.

Federal universities conduct fundamental and applied research on priority scientific directions. In addition, it is they who are entrusted with the task of integrating science, education and production. And first of all, it is solved by bringing the results of intellectual activity to practical application.

Thus, it is federal universities that create an advanced educational, research and innovation infrastructure, which, in turn, should contribute to the introduction of new knowledge to solve the socio-economic problems of the region.

Universities also conduct fundamental and applied Scientific research on a wide range of sciences represented in this institution. Scientific research at the university must be carried out in at least 5 branches of science. The amount of funding for these studies should be at least 10,000,000 rubles for the last 5 years.

Separately, it should be noted the possibility of opening at the University of small innovative enterprises, scientific and educational centers and other structures focused on the implementation of the results of scientific research, their transfer to the educational process.

The Academy is the leading scientific and methodological center in its field of activity. Thus, it is entrusted with the task of conducting fundamental and applied scientific research in the chosen field of science or culture.

Research work at the academy in terms of funding should be from 5 to 10 million rubles over a period of 5 years. According to this parameter, the academy occupies an intermediate position between a university and an institute.

Since the institute trains specialists for work in only one area of ​​professional activity, scientific research in this type of university should be carried out according to the declared profile. The amount of funding for these studies should be from 1.5 to 5 million rubles over the past 5 years.

Conclusion

In conclusion, it must be said that the tasks of modernizing the system of higher education, increasing the efficiency of integration processes in it in the scientific and educational complex of Russia, involve solving the problems of university science, which is the main part of the national scientific potential. The science of higher education in Russia, as in other leading countries, should become a powerful innovative resource for the development of the country. It is designed to provide:

relationship of values fundamental education and opportunities for flexible response to the needs for personnel in the most important scientific areas, science-intensive technologies and industries;

reproduction of scientific schools;

leading competitive level of production;

innovative ideas and projects.

And an important role in solving these problems is played by absolutely all types of higher educational institutions in Russia, each at its own level: federal universities - at the level of federal districts, institutes - at the level of specific areas of professional activity.

In this paper, we have considered the types of higher educational institutions in Russia, the higher education systems implemented on the territory of the Russian Federation, as well as the scientific potential of various universities and the problems of realizing this potential. Thus, we can say that the goal and objectives set at the beginning of the work were fully achieved by us.

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Federal Law on Higher and Postgraduate Professional Education dated August 22, 1996 No. 125-FZ // Rossiyskaya gazeta, 1996, February 14.

Higher education is education obtained in the process of studying in higher educational institutions, as well as in special courses. Institute, university, academy - higher educational institutions that implement educational programs of higher professional education, as well as educational programs of postgraduate professional education. External studies - independent study of disciplines by students in accordance with the main educational program of higher professional education in the chosen area of ​​​​training (specialty) with subsequent current and final certification in a higher educational institution.

The levels of higher professional education are bachelor, graduate and master. Those who pass the final certification are assigned the appropriate qualification.

The structure of the system of higher professional education is a set of state educational standards and educational programs for higher and postgraduate education; having licenses of higher educational institutions and educational institutions of the corresponding additional higher professional education; scientific, design, industrial, clinical, preventive medical, pharmaceutical, cultural and educational enterprises, institutions and organizations that conduct scientific research and ensure the functioning and development of higher professional education; management bodies of higher professional education, as well as enterprises, institutions and organizations subordinate to them; public and state-public associations: creative unions, professional associations, scientific and methodological councils and other associations.

Correspondence form of higher education

This is a form of education, or a form of self-education, regulated and implemented by the state on the basis of a single national educational standard. At the same time, students study twice during the academic year in the classrooms of the university at the installation sessions. They give lectures to students, give consultations, test results.

For part-time students, special teaching aids, teaching and control materials. There are very original methods for managing the process of self-study - part-time students spend 70% of their study time away from the teacher.

The development of correspondence education is seen as a peaceful revolution that can radically change the entire process of education and training, because it is it that is distinguished by the individualization of education, accessibility for various segments of the population, economic profitability, speed of mastering knowledge, and practical activities. Correspondence education was originally introduced only for those who could not regularly attend regular educational institutions. Correspondence students, like diaries, have a common academic plan, general deadlines for passing control tests Computerization brings distance education closer to distance education.

The structure of higher education in the Russian Federation

At present, in the structure of higher technical, for example, education in Russia, there are three stages, as shown in the figure.

higher professional education

The first stage is an incomplete higher education, the receipt of which allows you to continue education at the next levels.

The second stage with a term of study of at least 4 years provides for obtaining an academic degree of a bachelor of science in the chosen direction. All graduates of the bachelor of science degree can continue their education to obtain a qualification or degree corresponding to the third stage.

The third stage of higher education allows you to acquire the qualification of an engineer in a chosen specialty or a master's degree in science in a field.

Receiving education in accordance with the master's program, each student has the right to simultaneously, having completed the required tasks and the graduation project, receive an engineering diploma.

In other cases, studying for the purpose of obtaining a diploma in the presence of a diploma of third-level education is considered as obtaining a second higher education and can be carried out on a paid basis.

The versatility of ways to get higher technical education requires the development of clear norms and requirements for graduates and educational programs.

Higher education institution - (abbreviated university) is an educational institution that provides higher professional education.

There are public and private universities. The university may have branches and representative offices in other localities.

classic status

Today in Russia there are three types of higher educational institutions that correspond to a certain accreditation status, where you can get higher professional education: institute, academy and university.

For the status of “institute”, it is enough for an educational institution to train students in at least one specialty and conduct scientific work.

The university covers a wide range of specialties from different fields. For instance, Technical University or classical university. Research activities are carried out, as a rule, in several areas and constitute a significant part of the activities of the university. It is the universities in Russia that are the main centers for the development of scientific schools and directions.

The Academy differs from the university in a narrower range of specialties, as a rule, for one branch of the economy. For example, Samara State Agricultural Academy, Samara state academy culture and arts. The academy pays considerable attention to research activities in the profile direction.

Different university statuses imply completely different educational paths and opportunities. One and the same university, especially if it is very strong, can have several diverse statuses. And it depends on the students how reasonable they will be able to use the resources of the university when they receive an education. The current situation in the market of educational services is such that there are a lot of universities operating on it. Many of them are considered weak, they are waiting for a scheduled inspection and are afraid of closing. Also, the demographic situation is not the best: if the university does not recruit freshmen, it may cease to exist. Therefore, in order to survive, universities want to unite into something university-like. That is, simultaneously with such a spontaneous process, new statuses of universities arise.

Autonomous university

This status will be given to a significant part of Russian universities; it implies freedom and the right to dispose of extrabudgetary funds. Such universities will be managed by a supervisory board, one third consisting of representatives of the university itself, and the remaining two thirds - of employers, officials and the public. The rector will be equated with a hired manager. The idea is that at the output, the employer should get a specialist who exactly meets the requirements of a modern enterprise.

academy

Stay tuned for updates from the Ministry of Education and Science: academies are about to be redefined.

Institute

So only 150 universities of regional significance will be called. Since, according to the forecasts of officials, in the future only best universities, then the opportunity to get budget education in institutions is questionable. Although they say that the number budget places in universities throughout the country as a whole will not decrease.

Master's University

This is a university specializing in the preparation of masters. First master's university in Russia plans to become GU - Higher School of Economics.

Scientific and educational center

These are only two universities - Moscow State University and St. Petersburg State University. They have recently gained the right to develop their own curricula.

National Research University

This status was invented by the founder of Stanford University (USA), but in Russia they started talking about national research universities only in 2008. These are Moscow State University, St. Petersburg State University, Federal University of Technology based on MISiS, Federal nuclear university based on MEPhI. The entire list has not yet been formed. Rector of Moscow State University V. Sadovnichiy suggests that MSTU im. N. E. Bauman, and also the Polytechnic and Mining Universities of St. Petersburg. It is recommended to enter these universities for those who from the first year plan to be involved in serious scientific work, by the end of their studies at the university they want to become the author of several dozen scientific articles, and throughout their career they will conduct research that is important for Russia. This will make it strong scientific school(or a number of schools) of the university and its programs, formed on a scientific basis.

Olympic University

The Russian International Olympic University (RIOU) will open in 2012 in Sochi. This information may be useful to current applicants already for the second higher education, if there are plans to become professionals in the field of international sports management.

A particularly valuable object of cultural heritage of the peoples of the Russian Federation

This status was originally invented not for universities, but nevertheless 10 of them have it. Three of them are in Moscow (Moscow State University, Moscow State Technical University named after Bauman, Russian State Agrarian University (MSHA named after K. A. Timiryazev), four are in St. Petersburg (St. Petersburg State University, Kirov Military Medical Academy, Russian State Pedagogical University named after A. I. Herzen, St. Petersburg State Mining Institute named after

G.V. Plekhanov), one - in Kazan (University) and two - in Tomsk (University and politechnical University). The territory of such universities is under state protection. Here the walls help to learn.

Applied Bachelor

Introduced from the upcoming school year on the basis of secondary educational institutions (see the heading "Desk of the journal" BULLETIN APPLICANT "). This is an option for those who, perhaps, do not have enough stars from the sky, but want to have a higher education, a serious profession and a high salary. Already in the very idea of ​​​​such a status of educational institutions lies the desire to offer a worthy answer to the request of industrial enterprises that need highly qualified employees. Which? Now in short supply, say, welders with knowledge modern technologies work.

The university

Soon there will be about 450 fewer. And to the question of what a university is, there will be a new answer - a new one, since new rules are being developed that will distinguish between universities, academies and institutes. Those who are going to any university, the name of which is not given on these pages, should consider the option that you will enter, maybe at the university, but graduate - perhaps already from the institute.

Federal university

There are only two of them - Moscow State University and St. Petersburg State University. They may not be subject to state standards for education. They will be able to create enterprises, launch innovative projects - and these, if you think about the future, are unique jobs. Over time, about 55 universities will become federal, which will receive maximum state financial support.

Federal University

They were invented by President Medvedev - and news agencies have already called them new types of educational institutions. The idea is as follows: one federal university per federal district.

And each university "sticks together" from a classical university and, say, a technical one. Siberian federal university in Krasnoyarsk was created by combining four universities, Yuzhny in Rostov combined two. These are real universities, they already exist, you can go there. Next in line is the creation of the Far Eastern State University in Vladivostok. Voronezh, Yekaterinburg, Kazan and Kaliningrad would also like to create such universities. It is expected that in 2015 training programs will receive international accreditation, and diplomas of graduates - international recognition.

In the Russian Federation, there are the following main types of higher educational institutions: institutes, academies, universities. Differences between these types of universities are indicated in Article 9 Federal Law about higher and postgraduate professional education.

Clarifying comments on this article are tabulated:

Universities	academies	Institutions
Provide training in a wide range of specialties	Implement training of specialists in certain areas, primarily scientific and scientific-pedagogical	Provide training for practitioners in specific areas
Conduct fundamental and applied scientific research in a wide range of sciences	Perform basic and applied research, however, in a specific area of ​​science or culture	Conduct fundamental and (OR) applied scientific research
They are leading scientific and methodological centers in their fields of activity	In the field of its activity, the academy should be the leading scientific and methodological center	They are not leading scientific and methodological centers

here: three types of higher educational institutions that train students in psychological and pedagogical specialties: 1. Pedagogical higher educational institutions; 2. Universities and institutes that provide (including) training of students in psychological and pedagogical specialties; 3. Non-state universities with a license and accreditation. See also Non-State Universities, Pedagogical Higher Education Institutions, Universities

Excellent definition

Incomplete definition ↓

HIGHER EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS

Universities provide higher education and provide students with programs of various levels to meet the educational needs. needs of the individual and prof. training in different branches of culture, economics, healthcare, science; conduct research. work, retraining and advanced training of specialists.

To V. at. h. include high fur boots (including tech., medical, agricultural, ped.), in-you decomp. profile (engineering, agricultural, artistic, etc.), academies, conservatories. In some countries, universities include colleges. In pl. In addition to secular countries, there are spiritual V. at. h.

V.'s concepts at. h. were not equivalent in decomp. era and in different countries. Means. difference in higher levels education, in the methods and terms of training of specialists exists in modern. V. at. h.

The prototype of V. at. h. were the highest for their time philosophies. schools of the period of antiquity, in which teaching was guided by the comprehension of all known totality of theoretical. knowledge, and the forms of classes were lectures, conversations, disputes. Such an organization of education was inherited by medieval universities, which spread in Western-Heb. cities arr. from the 13th century In some of the high fur boots was known and uch. practice of higher Muslim uch. institutions (see article Muslim culture). With the development of cities, prof. schools, some of which accumulated means. method. teaching experience and became widely known: legal in Beirut (8th century), Constantinople (8th century) and Bologna (10th century), medical in Salerno (10th century), Montpellier (10th century). The social significance of higher education determined the attention to it from the church. and secular authorities, endowing high fur boots and some prof. schools with special privileges.

Un-you imposed Means. an imprint on the design of higher education and the appearance of V. at. h. the approval of the principles of the so-called. academic freedoms - the freedom of the student to independently build a program for studying the subject, the freedom of the teacher to independently conduct research and present their results to students, electivity governing bodies, participation of students in self-government, etc. The formation of secular science (16-17 centuries) and associated with the demands of societies. production, the strengthening of the "real" direction in teaching led to the expansion of specialization in higher education. In high fur boots (even within the framework of traditional medical and legal f-t) and in addition to them, relatively independent ones began to appear. scientific. and practical schools.

In the 18th century branch V. at. h. in many European countries have become an organic part of the state. education systems. Means. influence on the content of teaching in V. at. h. and his methods provided the ideas of W. Humboldt, implemented in the practice of the University of Berlin. Faculty organization V. at. h., connection with science and practice determined the activity and many others. tech. establishments, both public and private. For European countries of the 19th century development of hl is characteristic. arr. state medical, page - x. and tech. universities. This trend was reflected in the creation of higher education in Russia and the United States.

In con. 19th century N. began to arise - and. divisions not only in high fur boots, but also in medical, tech., page - x. etc. in-tah, etc. N.-i. V.'s activity at. h. often came into conflict with the pragmatic. production requirements. and other companies to specialists. In un-takh scientific. work often concentrated in spec. laboratories, departments, research institutes, moving away from the account. tasks. One of important issues V. at. h. was the preservation of the unity of scientific. work and teaching. Through the efforts of many scientists and teachers took shape specific. scientific. sector of higher education, links to-rogo became the main. N.-i. centers in many countries.

In the conditions of scientific and technical. revolution from the 2nd half. 20th century the types of high fur boots and universities of university status have diversified, a tendency has emerged to increase the number of multidisciplinary universities that combine into a single organization. and adm. whole several relatively independent areas of training, which made it possible to rationally distribute the study of decomp. disciplines by students of similar specializations, to avoid duplication of account. courses. They are close to multidisciplinary in terms of the principles of work and the nature of teaching dec. creative V. at. h., only on the subject of training allocated to a special group. The majority of branch V. at. h. focuses on the transfer of sound knowledge and skills of prof. activities and does not put special. the task of conducting scientific research by students, although the programs themselves and uch. courses of these V. at. h. regularly updated with the latest scientific knowledge. data and practice requests.

V. at. h. pl. countries are usually divided into categories of state, municipal, and private (spiritual higher education institutions also belong to this group). Practiced both paid and free education. In the 60-70s. 20th century there was a tendency to strengthen the role of the state in determining the content of education, its profiling. For this purpose, developed decomp. state systems. accreditation V. at. h. and management of the system of universities in the interests of a unified scientific and technical. and educate. politicians. Specials are being created. state bodies for the coordination of science and higher education.

Uch. plans and organization process in higher education in each country have their own characteristics. The general trend was the strengthening of general cultural and general scientific. preparation and increase in specific gravity are independent. student work. Much attention is paid to the organization of practice. learning. Evening and distance learning. Great importance is attached to the so-called. postgraduate education, advanced training of specialists, there is a constant search for ways to improve the account., Scientific. and prof.-practical activity of V. at. h. and ensuring the continuity of education. process.

In conditions continuing education V.'s work h., the possibility of their influence on science, production, cultural life depends on the content and level of general secondary education. In pl. countries legislatively fixed the possibility of admission to V. at. h. after the completion of the full cf. education with a total duration of school. education 12-13 years. The concept has spread, according to which all training received after the end of the full cf. schools (in the USA, for example, the corresponding educational institutions are classified as post-secondary). In these conditions the majority of V. at. h. conducts active work on recruiting contingents of its students, including making high demands on the knowledge of applicants. Some researches. Universities provide for high selectivity in relation to applicants, screening out during the preliminary. tests, interviews and exams from 20 to 70% of those who expressed a desire to receive higher education. education at this university. At the same time, there are high fur boots and in-you, to-rye accept everyone. However, the diplomas of such V. at. z., as a rule, do not enjoy a high reputation. Promising is the increase in V.'s efficiency at. h. with the deepening of general education. and general scientific preparation of applicants for conclusions. stage of general secondary education. In a number of countries, some

V. at z. also moved to diff. options for the gradual acquisition of higher education by students on the basis of secondary vocational or secondary special education (eg, starting with a junior college with a two-year term of study).

Established in the 18-19 centuries. faculty system of building V. at. h. acquired in the 20th century. more free character. In connection with the expansion of the profile of specialist training, high fur boots and other universities have moved to the organization of multidisciplinary departments and departments, including intersectoral ones. Most of the leading modern V. at. h. - These are large educational and scientific productions. complexes that provide not only education. the interests of the student, but also the wide possibilities of the individual, and the collective scientific. work, rational use uch. time not only for theoretical, but also for practical. occupations in the chosen specialty. In pl. high school countries and some others. V. u. h. - main research. community centers values. The core of such centers can be a department, a problematic department or a department of specialists. a council that unites scientists, business leaders, etc. In most countries of the world, high fur boots and V. at. h. university status. This applies to both the number and quality of training of specialists.

Means. influence on the structure and direction of activity of modern. V. at. h. rendered the American model of university, which has developed in con. 19-1st floor. 20th century and using many V.'s achievements at. h. dec. countries, including Russia. This model was adopted by high fur boots of Japan and many others. other countries Main part of general education. and general scientific students receive training in academic. university colleges (with predominantly theoretical education for 3-5 years). After the first stage, they continue their education in prof. or explore. (post-graduate) schools of the same university or others. Upon completion of the academic college students receive the first academic degree - a bachelor's degree, which gives the right to study prof. activities and further education in higher education. school (in high fur boots - until obtaining a master's and doctoral degree). If the profile of education at the university is not actually scientific, but practical. character, then at the end of the second stage the graduate is issued a diploma of specialization. In the UK, on ​​their own. branch colleges the term of study is 3-4 years. Upon graduation, their graduates must work for a certain period (up to 2 years) in their chosen specialty and pass certification in prof. society or association. Preparation for the competition degrees carried out in the so-called. further education (Master - 2 years). The alternation of periods (from 3 to 6 months) of classes and practical training is widely used. work. Graduates of universities are issued state. diploma of completion of a two-year full-time course and the highest state. a diploma on the completion of a three-year course, and correspondence students - the corresponding state. certificates. Graduates of industry colleges receive the highest state. certificate.

French is also widespread. system of higher education, combining high fur boots and specialists. universities, among which a group of so-called. large schools (see Art. France). Graduates of general education are admitted to universities. Wed schools with a bachelor's degree. The course of study in universities is 4-6 years, divided into 3 cycles: prepare, (up to 2 years), general (with enrollment by competition; training lasts 3-4 years and ends with the award of a licentiate degree with obtaining an appropriate certificate and state diploma "general scientific knowledge") and special (lasts 1-2 years and ends with a final exam and a diploma of "higher scientific education", which gives the right to continue education until a further diploma of "in-depth knowledge" in a particular specialty is received, as well as degree of doctor in the specialty and doctor of the "third cycle"). In the specialized in-max full course of training 5-7 years (the diploma is equivalent to the university, i.e. at the level of the first stage of the third cycle; doctors are issued a doctoral diploma of the third cycle).

In the universities of most Spanish- and Portuguese-speaking countries, the step structure of education is less pronounced (except for Brazil). Main the training cycle is associated with the award of a licentiate degree (4-6 years, depending on the specialty). In a number of specialties, instead of awarding a degree, prof. diplomas with the assignment of the corresponding prof. titles. Persons with a degree or a university degree can continue their education up to a doctorate degree (with an additional study period of 2-3 years). In Argentina and Colombia, the second degree is the master. In Brazil, bachelor's, licentiate (depending on the specialty - master's) and doctoral degrees can be obtained by students after completing the corresponding cycle of study

In Germany, in the system of higher education, a significant proportion of high fur boots and V. at. h. with university status (mining and medical academies, higher technical schools). Unlike other countries, there are no confessional high fur boots. Competitive enrollment is practiced only for medical, vet. and some other specialties, for which restrictions on admission are introduced. The education system is two-tier. The training lasts 4-6 years and ends with the defense of the thesis and the final exam. The acquisition of scientific degrees is attributed to Ch. arr. to postgraduate education.

The system that developed in the USSR was genetically linked to the priority development in Russia (since the 18th century) prof. schools - unlike European, predominantly university, nat. systems of higher education - and retained these features. In the USSR, high fur boots made up approx. 10% off the total universities. Owl system. V. at. h. formed Ch. sbr. in con. 20s and 30s. 20 century, during the period of industrialization, which played a role in providing industry and transport, and other industries. x-va qualified specialists. Under the conditions of the adm.-command system, higher education faced many problems. difficulties; V.'s development at. h. followed an extensive path, the growth in the output of specialists was not accompanied by a proper improvement in the quality of their training. The material base of V. at. systematically lagged behind the requirements of science and practice. h. Deep reform of the system of higher schools-ly, which began in late. 80s, continues from the beginning. 90s in sovereign states that were previously part of the USSR (see also articles about these states). In many of them V.'s structural reorganization at has begun to be carried out. h., to-paradise superior provides for a multi-level education system: the first level of higher education (4 years of study) provides basic higher education and ends with the award of a bachelor's degree in one of the areas of training; The 2nd level (1.5-2 years of study depending on the specialty) is provided by prof. training in this specialty and ends with the award of a master's degree; 3rd and 4th levels (duration 3 and 2 years respectively) provide scientific and ped. preparation and culminate in the completion and defense of a dissertation work with the award of the degree of candidate or doctor of science. In V. at. h. the principles of autonomy are being restored (including in the choice of a methodological system, the order of passing academic courses, etc., the rules for recruiting student contingents, etc.) and internal. self-government. State is envisaged. accreditation V. at. h. See also Art. Russia.

Lit. see at Art. Higher education. A. Ya. Saveliev.

Excellent definition

Incomplete definition ↓

The university must be accredited (accreditation is given to the university, as a rule, after attestation). Education at a university, as a rule, lasts from 4 to 6 years and can be full-time (full-time), evening (part-time) and part-time. The most common forms of education are classroom and distance learning. Conventionally, universities are divided into humanitarian and technical.

Types of higher education institutions

In Russia

• The Federal University is the leading higher educational institution on the territory of the federal district, the center of science and education. As of 2016, there are 10 FU in Russia.
• The university is a multidisciplinary educational institution with a large selection of study programs in various fields of knowledge.
• Academy - trains a wide range of specialists in any area of ​​human activity (agriculture, health care, art, tourism, economics, finance, etc.).
• - is engaged in the preparation of specialists for work in a certain area of ​​​​professional activity.

Scientific research is carried out in higher educational institutions of all types, but in universities, as a rule, they are of a fundamental nature.

Belarus

The higher educational institution is headed by the rector, his deputies in various areas of work are vice-rectors, who solve the operational and tactical issues of the university. Strategic issues of the development of the university are usually decided by its Academic Council.

Main divisions of higher education institutions

• Faculty - an educational, scientific and administrative structural unit of a higher educational institution that trains students and graduate students in one or more related specialties, advanced training of specialists, as well as management of the research activities of the departments that it unites. In universities and academies, individual faculties can function as intra-university institutions.
• Department - a unit that trains students within a certain specializations.
• Postgraduate and doctoral studies.
• Preparatory department for applicants.

Also, colleges can exist at universities (in this case, upon graduation, a university diploma is also given, but not about higher education, but about secondary vocational education). The structure of a higher educational institution may include libraries, computer centers, pilot production, agricultural land, clinics, research institutes, etc. Many higher educational institutions publish their own newspapers.

At leading higher educational institutions, the HAC organizes dissertation councils for the award of academic degrees.

Varieties of universities

Lists

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Notes

Literature

• Federal Law "On Higher and Postgraduate Professional Education" (as amended on December 31, 2005)

Links

Structure university Higher education Higher Qualifications Other forms Governing bodies Main divisions Officials teachers

An excerpt characterizing the Higher Educational Institution

Napoleon noticed Balashev's embarrassment when uttering his last words; his face trembled, the left calf of his leg began to tremble measuredly. Without moving from his seat, he began to speak in a voice higher and more hasty than before. During the subsequent speech, Balashev, more than once lowering his eyes, involuntarily observed the trembling of the calf in Napoleon's left leg, which intensified the more he raised his voice.
“I wish peace no less than Emperor Alexander,” he began. “Haven't I been doing everything for eighteen months to get it? I've been waiting eighteen months for an explanation. But in order to start negotiations, what is required of me? he said, frowning and making an energetic questioning gesture with his small white and plump hand.
- The retreat of the troops for the Neman, sovereign, - said Balashev.
- For the Neman? repeated Napoleon. - So now you want to retreat behind the Neman - only for the Neman? repeated Napoleon, looking directly at Balashev.
Balashev bowed his head respectfully.
Instead of demanding four months ago to retreat from Numberania, now they demanded to retreat only beyond the Neman. Napoleon quickly turned and began to pace the room.
- You say that I am required to retreat beyond the Neman to start negotiations; but two months ago they demanded of me to retreat across the Oder and the Vistula in exactly the same way, and in spite of this, you agree to negotiate.
He silently walked from one corner of the room to the other and again stopped in front of Balashev. His face seemed to be petrified in its stern expression, and his left leg trembled even faster than before. Napoleon knew this trembling of his left calf. La vibration de mon mollet gauche est un grand signe chez moi, [The trembling of my left calf is a great sign,] he later said.
“Such proposals as to clear the Oder and the Vistula can be made to the Prince of Baden, and not to me,” Napoleon almost cried out quite unexpectedly for himself. - If you gave me Petersburg and Moscow, I would not accept these conditions. Are you saying I started a war? And who came to the army first? - Emperor Alexander, not me. And you offer me negotiations when I have spent millions, while you are in alliance with England and when your position is bad - you offer me negotiations! And what is the purpose of your alliance with England? What did she give you? he said hastily, obviously already directing his speech not in order to express the benefits of concluding peace and discuss its possibility, but only in order to prove both his rightness and his strength, and to prove the wrongness and mistakes of Alexander.
The introduction of his speech was made, obviously, to show the advantage of his position and to show that, despite the fact, he accepts the opening of negotiations. But he had already begun to speak, and the more he spoke, the less able he was to control his speech.
The whole purpose of his speech now, obviously, was only to exalt himself and insult Alexander, that is, to do exactly the very thing that he least of all wanted at the beginning of the meeting.
- They say you made peace with the Turks?
Balashev nodded his head affirmatively.
“The world is closed…” he began. But Napoleon did not let him speak. He apparently needed to speak on his own, alone, and he continued to speak with that eloquence and intemperance of irritability to which spoiled people are so prone.
- Yes, I know you made peace with the Turks without getting Moldavia and Wallachia. And I would give your sovereign these provinces just as I gave him Finland. Yes,” he continued, “I promised and would give Emperor Alexander Moldavia and Wallachia, and now he will not have these beautiful provinces. He could, however, have annexed them to his empire, and in one reign he would have extended Russia from the Gulf of Bothnia to the mouths of the Danube. Catherine the Great could not have done more,” said Napoleon, flaring up more and more, walking around the room and repeating to Balashev almost the same words that he had said to Alexander himself in Tilsit. - Tout cela il l "aurait du a mon amitie ... Ah! quel beau regne, quel beau regne!" he repeated several times, stopped, took a golden snuffbox from his pocket and greedily pulled it out of his nose.
- Quel beau regne aurait pu etre celui de l "Empereur Alexandre! [He would owe all this to my friendship ... Oh, what a wonderful reign, what a wonderful reign! Oh, what a wonderful reign the reign of Emperor Alexander could be!]
He glanced at Balashev with regret, and Balashev had just wanted to notice something, as he again hastily interrupted him.
“What could he desire and look for that he would not find in my friendship?” Napoleon said, shrugging his shoulders in bewilderment. - No, he found it best to surround himself with my enemies, and with whom? he continued. - He called the Steins, Armfelds, Wintzingerode, Benigsen, Stein - a traitor expelled from his fatherland, Armfeld - a libertine and intriguer, Wintzingerode - a fugitive subject of France, Benigsen is somewhat more military than others, but still incapable, who could not do anything done in 1807 and which should arouse terrible memories in Emperor Alexander ... Suppose, if they were capable, we could use them, ”continued Napoleon, barely managing to keep up with the incessantly arising considerations showing him his rightness or strength (which in his concept was one and the same) - but even that is not: they are not suitable either for war or for peace. Barclay, they say, is more efficient than all of them; but I won't say that, judging by his first movements. What are they doing? What are all these courtiers doing! Pfuel proposes, Armfeld argues, Bennigsen considers, and Barclay, called to act, does not know what to decide on, and time passes. One Bagration is a military man. He is stupid, but he has experience, eye and determination ... And what role does your young sovereign play in this ugly crowd. They compromise him and blame everything that happens on him. Un souverain ne doit etre al "armee que quand il est general, [The sovereign should be with the army only when he is a commander,] - he said, obviously sending these words directly as a challenge to the face of the sovereign. Napoleon knew how the emperor wanted Alexander to be a commander.
“It's been a week since the campaign started and you haven't been able to defend Vilna. You are cut in two and driven out of the Polish provinces. Your army murmurs...
“On the contrary, Your Majesty,” said Balashev, who barely had time to memorize what was said to him, and with difficulty following this firework of words, “the troops are burning with desire ...
“I know everything,” Napoleon interrupted him, “I know everything, and I know the number of your battalions as surely as mine. You do not have two hundred thousand troops, but I have three times as many. I give you my word of honor, ”said Napoleon, forgetting that his word of honor could not matter in any way,“ I give you ma parole d "honneur que j" ai cinq cent trente mille hommes de ce cote de la Vistule. [on my word that I have five hundred and thirty thousand people on this side of the Vistula.] The Turks are no help to you: they are no good and have proved it by making peace with you. The Swedes are predestined to be ruled by crazy kings. Their king was mad; they changed him and took another - Bernadotte, who immediately went mad, because a madman only, being a Swede, can make alliances with Russia. Napoleon grinned wickedly and raised the snuffbox to his nose again.
To each of Napoleon's phrases, Balashev wanted and had something to object to; he incessantly made the gesture of a man who wanted to say something, but Napoleon interrupted him. For example, about the madness of the Swedes, Balashev wanted to say that Sweden is an island when Russia is for it; but Napoleon cried out angrily to drown out his voice. Napoleon was in that state of irritation in which one must speak, speak, and speak, only in order to prove his justice to himself. It became hard for Balashev: he, as an ambassador, was afraid to drop his dignity and felt the need to object; but, like a man, he shrunk morally before forgetting the unreasonable anger in which, obviously, Napoleon was. He knew that all the words now spoken by Napoleon were of no importance, that he himself, when he came to his senses, would be ashamed of them. Balashev stood with lowered eyes, looking at Napoleon's moving thick legs, and tried to avoid his gaze.
“What are these allies of yours to me?” Napoleon said. - My allies are the Poles: there are eighty thousand of them, they fight like lions. And there will be two hundred thousand.
And, probably even more indignant at the fact that, having said this, he had told an obvious lie and that Balashev, in the same pose of his submissive fate, silently stood in front of him, he abruptly turned back, went up to Balashev's very face and, making energetic and quick gestures with his white hands, almost shouted:
“Know that if you shake Prussia against me, know that I will erase her from the map of Europe,” he said with a pale face distorted with anger, striking with one small hand an energetic gesture on the other. - Yes, I will throw you beyond the Dvina, beyond the Dnieper and restore against you that barrier that Europe was criminal and blind, which allowed it to be destroyed. Yes, that’s what will happen to you, that’s what you won by moving away from me, ”he said and silently walked several times around the room, shaking his thick shoulders. He put a snuff-box in his waistcoat pocket, took it out again, put it to his nose several times, and stopped in front of Balashev. He paused, looked mockingly straight into Balashev's eyes, and said in a low voice: "Et cependant quel beau regne aurait pu avoir votre maitre!"
Balashev, feeling the need to object, said that things were not presented in such a gloomy way from the Russian side. Napoleon was silent, continuing to look at him mockingly and, obviously, not listening to him. Balashev said that in Russia they expect all the best from the war. Napoleon condescendingly nodded his head, as if to say: "I know it is your duty to say so, but you yourself do not believe in it, you are convinced by me."