Culture of the USSR 20 30 years table. Handbook on the history of the fatherland
POLOVETSKY CAMPAIGNS - campaigns of Russian princes, military enterprises of the rulers of the Old Russian state, and then ancient Russian principalities on the defense of the southern borders and the prevention of Polovtsian raids at the end of the 11th - beginning of the 13th centuries.
In the last quarter of the 11th century, the South Russian ter-ri-to-rii str-mi-tel-no ur-ba-ni-zi-ro-va-lis, the number of uk-re- p-lyon-nyh cities, there was a massive construction-tel-st-in and re-con-st-management of uk-re-p-le-ny. At the beginning of the 12th century, the Russian princes struggled with the po-lov-ts-mi. Defensive so-ti-ka uk-re-p-lyon lines (go-ro-disch along Su-le and other border rivers), re-re- hva-ta trains-call of the step-nyakov at their from-stu-p-le-nii to-half-ni-las, and in some way changed re-gu-lyar -we-mi-rei-da-mi into the depths of the steppe-drink, strikes at the ko-chev-pits and in-se-le-ni-pits against-no-ka. Spring-September-up-re-g-giving-blow-ry into the depths of the steppe-eye-behind-there is extremely-not effective-fek-tiv-ny, winter-ma os-lab-la-la-ko- chev-ni-kov go-time-to-stronger than the settled population Old Russian state. At the turn of the 11th and 12th centuries, at the end of the cha-tel-but the decor-mi-las of the rider-ni-che-sky sub-cult-tu-ra of the old Russian friend-zhi-ny: horse-naya “knights-king -skaya "dru-zhi-na became the main shock element of the army.
Ve-ro-yat-no, the first own-st-ven-but Polovtsian campaign can be called or-ha-ni-zo-van-ny pe-re-yas-lav-sky prince Vla-di -mir-rom All-in-lo-do-vi-than Mo-no-ma-hom and the Prince of Kiev Holy-half-com Izya-sla-vi-what on the move of 1095, to -when their howl for-hva-ti-li-lo-vets-kie-se-le-niya (ve-zhi) and big do-by-chu. Na-chi-naya since 1103, after the decision of the Pre-lob-sko-th congress about the organization of the Polovtsian campaigns by the forces of the Russian coalition prince-zey, in-ad-like ways became-whether re-gu-lyar-ny-mi. 4.4.1103, the catchers would have been full of times, 20 khans perished, Khan Bel-duz was taken prisoner and Kaz- nyon. In December 1109, the commander-in-chief Dmitri Ivo-ro-vich captured the vestments on the Don River. In the spring of 1111, the biggest Polovtsian campaign was held, someone was heading the Kiev prince of the Holy Regiment Izya-slavich, pe -re-yas-lav-sky prince Vla-di-mir Mo-no-max and black-ni-gov-sky prince Da-view Holy-slav-vich. On March 24, the Russian army reached the Don River; In 1113, one of your own, you-st-p-le-ni-em to the borders of the Old Russian state, the new Kiev prince Vla-di-mir Mo-no-max for-hundred -vil po-lov-tsev run. In 1116, the pe-re-yas-lav-sky prince Yaro-regiment Vla-di-mi-ro-vich and the son of the black-ni-gov-sky prince All-in-lod Da-vi-do-vich for -hva-ti-whether on Do-well in-lo-vets-kie in-se-le-niya Sug-ditch, Sha-ru-kan and Ba-lin. In the Kievan prince-zhe-nie Avenge-slav-va Vla-di-mi-ro-vi-cha (1125-1132) his military from-whether the catchers for the Don , Vol-gu and Yaik, that is, fak-ti-che-ski eyes-sti-whether the southern Russian near-border steppes. In the rezul-ta-te-be-to-nose-of-the-moves of the Russian princes, there would be times-of-thunder-le-na.
Polovtsian campaigns with-hundred-vi-whether more-shin-st-in of 83 precisely named Vla-di-mir-rom Mo-no-ma-hom his "paths" (campaigns ), which is evidence that at the end of the 11th - beginning of the 12th centuries, Russian princes (especially ben-no prince-zya of Southern Russia) boo-to-val-no zhi-whether pro-ble-my steppe ug-ro-zy. The prince remembered practically all his pro-tiv-ni-kov and co-yuz-ni-kov (for an hour they are one and the same person) among in-lo-vets-kih ha-nov by name-us. His “Teaching” is brightly from-ra-zi-lo double-st-ven-noe from-no-ne-the Russian princes to catchers. On the one hand, Mo-no-mah 19 times made peace with ko-chev-ni-ka-mi (whether it was practical-ti-che-ski annual , sta-no-viv-shie-sya tra-di-qi-ee, meet-chi with but-ma-da-mi ki-ev-so-prince-zya and, vi-di-mo, black-no -gov-sko-go and pe-re-yas-lav-sko-go prince-zey). On the other hand, he is pre-pri-ni-small, one-hundred-yan-nye military climbs into the steppe, many of his Polovtsian campaigns were co-top - us in the same year. These campaigns in the eyes of the so-time-men-ni-kov had the character of their own kind of “re-li-gi-oz-noy war-na”, “crystal- in-go-ho-yes ”(A.V. La-ush-kin). After them, after them, after-catching for-nya-whether a sub-chi-nyon-noe place-a hundred co-yuz-ni-kov of various Russian princes in their inter-before-individual struggle, on -chi-naya with Prince Ole-ga Holy-sla-vi-cha and Bo-ri-sa Vya-che-sla-vi-cha in 1078.
Again, not-about-ho-di-bridge of or-ga-ni-for-tion of special-ci-al-ny Polovtsian campaigns arose only in the 1150s and was connected with wasps -lab-le-ni-em of the South Russian principalities (pre-zh-de of everything Ki-ev-sko-go) in re-zul-ta-te me-zh-du-prince-same mustache In 1153, for the defense of the southern borders of the Kiev prince Izya-slav Msti-slavich on-right-vil against the catchers of his son - Avenge-sla -va Izya-sla-vi-cha. In 1159, the Russian princes co-ver-shi-whether 2 us-foot Polovtsian campaigns: sleep-cha-la son of the black-no-gov-sky prince Holy-glory-va Ol-go- vi-cha - Oleg Svyato-slav-vich won-stinged-du-du over-catching-tsa-mi, and soon his us-peh was second-ri-do-ro-go- Buzh-sky prince Vla-di-mir An-d-ree-vich and Lutsk prince Yaroslav Izya-slav-vich with the support of ga-li-chan. In 1161, black clo-bu-ki on-carried-whether in-ra-same-catchers on the Ros River. In 1164, the Russian prince Vasil-ko Yaro-pol-chich repeated this success. At the end of 1166, the Kiev troops under the command of the military commander Vla-di-sla-va La-ha you-stu-pi-li for oh-ra-na "Greek-no-ka "- tor-go-go-ty along the Dnieper-ru. Then the new-go-rod-se-ver-sky prince Oleg Svyato-slav-vich broke the forces of ha-na Ko-bya-ka (in le-to-pi-si oshi-boch -but upo-mi-na-et-sya Bo-nyak), but one-but-time-men-but pe-re-yas-lav-sky voe-vo-yes Schwarn ter-sang in-ra- same-tion at Pe-re-yas-lav-la. At the beginning of 1167, Ol-go-vi-chi pro-dol-zha-whether active-tiv-but dey-st-vo-vat against le-in-be-rezh-nyh-catchers: new- the city-se-ver-sky prince Oleg Svyato-slav-vich took "ve-zhi Ko-zi-ny" (khan Kzy), and the old-ro-dub-sky prince Yaroslav Vse- in-lo-do-vich - "Run-lu-ko-you-ve-zhi." One-but-time-men-but the Ki-ev-sky prince Ros-ti-slav Msti-slav-vich or-ga-ni-zo-val large-scale move of the coalition of the South Russian princes zey for oh-ra-ny tor-go-th ways - “Greek-no-ka” and “For-for-know-ka”.
In 1168, the Kievan prince Msti-slav Izya-slavich pre-took to torture ob-e-di-thread of Russian princes-zey put-them or-ga-ni-za-tion Polovtsian campaigns. At his call, from-click-well, almost all the neighbors were right. In the composition of the coalition, you-stup-piv-shey on March 2 on the Polovtsian campaign, the military forces of over 10 Russian princes entered. In re-zul-ta-those of this-ho-yes-yes-fishing-tsy would you be-b-you on the Orel and Sa-ma-ra rivers, from-bro-she-na across the river Os-col. The princes for-hwa-ti-whether a significant bosom, one-but-time-men-but os-bo-divs of many captive Russians.
New ak-ti-vi-za-tion of the Polovtsian campaigns pro-isosh-la in the 1180-1190s, after the sta-bi-li-za-tion in 1181 in lytic si-tua -tion in South Russia. In 1184, the Polovtsian campaign was undertaken by the new-go-rod-se-ver-sky prince Igor Svyato-slavich, someone together with his brother, Kursk and trumpets Prince of Chev All-in-lo-house Holy-glorious-with-what, two-kin-tribal-no-one All-in-lo-house Holy-glorious-with-what Cherm -nym and sons-new-i-mi (Ro-ma-nom and Holy-glory-vom), as well as black-us-mi-clo-bu-ka-mi under the command of Kul-dy- rya and Kun-duv-dyya, won in the battle on the river Khi-riya. In the summer of the same year, the main Polovtsian campaign of the Russian princes took place under the leadership of the Kievan prince Holy-glory-va All-in-lo-do -vi-cha, white-go-rod-sky prince Ryu-ri-ka Ros-ti-sla-vi-cha (more than 10 princes in total). The main battle took place on July 30, if there would be a thunder-le-na, many pre-hundred-vi-te-whether in-lo-vets- who knew you would have been taken prisoner, including Ko-byak with two sons-new-I, Gleb Ti-rie-vich, Oso-bow (Ose-bow) and others. According to the catchers, there was on-not-sen-su-s-st-ven-ny damage. In addition to this, the new-born-se-ver-sky prince Igor Svyato-slav-vich with his brother All-in-lo-house, son Vla-di -the world and the ple-myan-no-one - the Ryl-sky prince of the Holy Glory Ol-go-vi-what beat a small detachment of catchers on the Mer River -la.
In 1185, a new Polovtsian campaign against those who came to the Kho-rol river, hunters ha-na Kon-cha-ka so-ver-shi-li, the prince of Svyato-glory All-in-lo-do-vich, Bel-go-rod-sky prince Ryu-rik Ros-ti-slav-vich, pe-re-yas-lav-sky prince Vla-di-mir Gle-bo-vich, Prince Msti-Slav Ro-ma-no-vich and black clo-boo-ki led by Kun-duv-dy-em. In re-zul-ta-te on-fishing-tsy would you be-be-you on March 1, Khan Kon-chak fled. In April 1185, a detachment of black clo-bu-kov was on-right-len on the po-lo-vets-kie under the command of Ro-ma-na Ne-zdi-lo-vi-cha , someone on Pas-hu (April 21) for-grabbed a vest, taking a large bosom and a lot of ko-it. In the summer of 1185, the Kievan prince rec-counted-you-wal-to-right-twist a new trip “for the whole summer” to the very center of the lo-vets che-viy to the river Se-ver-sky Do-nets. One-on-ko this for-we-sat down was on-ru-shen se-pa-rat-ny-mi dey-st-via-mi of the new-born-se-ver-sky prince Igo-rya Holy-sla-vi-cha, someone pre-accepted together with his son Vla-di-mir, brother All-in-lo-house and ple-myan-ni- com of the Holy glory of Ol-go-vi-chem, as well as with the black-and-gov-sky "help" the self-standing Polovtsian campaign, completed -shi-sya heavy-zhe-lym in-ra-same-no-eat Russian princes on May 12 and ple-no-no-eat all ru-ko-vo-di-te-lei in-ho-yes. These so-be-ti-pits are sacred, but one of the main pro-of-ve-de-niy of ancient Russian literature is “The Word of the Igo-re-ve half”. In the spring of 1187, the Kievan prince Svyato-glory All-in-lo-do-vich and the Bel-go-rod prince Ryu-rik Ros-ti-slavich re-shi-li before -accept a new Polovtsian campaign, one-on-one, learn about you-st-p-le-nii of Russian princes, catch-y be-zha-whether in the steppe, but the move had to be interrupted because of the beginning of the le-to-ho-yes on the Dnieper. Winter-my 1189/1190 years of du-um-vi-ry on-great-vi-li against the catchers of black clo-bu-kov led by Ro-ma-n Ne-zdi -lo-vi-what: you-would-you-would have taken it, but there weren’t any of them there, since they went to the Danube. Winter 1190/1191 black clo-bu-ki with the support of the tor-che-sky prince Ros-ti-sla-wa Ryu-ri-ko-vi-cha and prince Ros-ti -sla-va Vla-di-mi-ro-vi-cha oder-zha-whether in-be-du over the catch-tsa-mi, ko-che-vav-shi-mi on the right be-re -gu of the Dnieper River, for-capturing a large bosom. The same winter-mine against the right-in-be-rezh-nyh-fishers us-pesh-but dey-st-in-val son of the Kiev prince Gleb Svyato- slav-vich, left by the father of the prince-to live in Ka-ne-ve. He managed to break up the detachment of Kun-duv-dyya near the city of To-va-ditch on the Ros River. In 1191, the main pro-ti-vo-dey-st-vie le-vo-be-rezh-nym-catchers eyes-for-whether black-no-go-in-se-ver-princes-zya . Sna-cha-la us-foot-walk against them was co-made by the new-go-rod-se-ver-sky prince Igor Svyato-slav-vich “with her brother”. And in the winter of 1191/1192, a large coalition, a new-born-se-ver-sky prince Igor Svyato-slavich, Kur-sky and Trub-chev-sky prince All-in-lod Holy-slav-vich, three sons-on the ki-ev-sky prince-zya (All-in-lod, Vla-di-world and Avenge-slav Holy-sla-vi-chi), princes Ros-ti-slav Yaro-slav-vich and Da-vid Ol-go-vich, co-ver-shi-la without-re-zul-tat-ny on the way to the Os-kol river, not finding catchers. In 1192, Holy Glory All-in-lo-do-vich and Ryu-rik Ros-ti-slav-vich stood at Ka-ne-va to protect the southern borders of Kiev th principality. In December 1193, a us-foot march on the floor of co-ver-shi-li tor-che-sky prince Ros-ti-slav Ryu-ri-ko-vich, his cousin brother Msti-slav Msti-slavich Udat-ny (si-dev-shey together with brother Vla-di-mir in Tre-po-le) and black clo-bu-ki. Winter 1193/1194 Svyato-glory All-in-lo-do-vich and Ryu-rik Ros-ti-slav-vich stood with a half-ka at Wa-si-le-va, adjoining the Ki-ev principality. Winter of 1200/1201 (according to A.V. May-o-ro-va) po-lov-tsev once-gro-mil ha-lits-ko-vo-lyn-sky prince Roman Msti-slavich, you-stepped to help the Byzantine emperor Alexei III An-ge-lu Kom-ni-nu.
The last major Polovtsian campaign took place at the beginning of 1203 (according to updated data); his ru-ko-vo-di-te-li - Kiev prince Ryu-rik Ros-ti-slav-vich, Ga-lits-ko-vo-lyn-sky prince Ro-man Msti-slav-vich and pe-re-yas-lav-sky prince Yaroslav Vse-vo-lo-do-vich.
The years of Soviet power have significantly changed the face of Russia. The changes that have taken place cannot be assessed unambiguously. On the one hand, it is impossible not to admit that during the years of the revolution and after it, great damage was done to culture: many prominent writers, artists, scientists were forced to leave the country or died. It was more and more difficult to get through to the viewer, reader, listener for those cultural figures who did not leave, but could not find common language with established power. Architectural monuments were destroyed: only in the 30s. in Moscow, the Sukharev Tower, the Cathedral of Christ the Savior, the Miracle Monastery in the Kremlin, the Red Gate and hundreds of obscure urban and rural churches, many of which were of historical and artistic value, were destroyed.
At the same time, significant progress has been made in many areas of cultural development. The first of these is the field of education. The systematic efforts of the Soviet state led to the fact that the proportion of the literate population in Russia was steadily growing. By 1939, the number of literate people in the RSFSR was already 89 percent. From 1930/31 school year mandatory primary education. In addition, by the thirties, the Soviet school gradually moved away from many revolutionary innovations that did not justify themselves: the class-lesson system was restored, subjects previously excluded from the program as “bourgeois” were returned to the schedule (primarily history, general and domestic). From the beginning of the 30s. the number of educational institutions engaged in the training of engineering, agricultural and pedagogical personnel grew rapidly. In 1936, the All-Union Committee for Higher Education was created.
The situation in the literature has changed significantly. In the early 30s. the existence of free creative circles and groups came to an end. By the Decree of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks of April 23, 1932, "On the restructuring of literary and artistic organizations," the RAPP was liquidated. And in 1934 at the First All-Union Congress Soviet writers The "Union of Writers" was organized, into which all people engaged in literary work were forced to join. The Writers' Union has become an instrument of total power control over the creative process. It was impossible not to be a member of the Union, since in this case the writer was deprived of the opportunity to publish his works and, moreover, could be prosecuted for "parasitism." M. Gorky stood at the origins of this organization, but his chairmanship in it did not last long. After his death in 1936, A.A. Fadeev (former RAPP member), who remained in this post throughout the Stalin era (until his suicide in 1956). In addition to the Union of Writers, other "creative" unions were organized: the Union of Artists, the Union of Architects, the Union of Composers. A period of uniformity began in Soviet art.
Having carried out organizational unification, the Stalinist regime set about stylistic and ideological unification. In 1936, a "discussion about formalism" began. In the course of the "discussion", through harsh criticism, the persecution of those representatives of the creative intelligentsia, whose aesthetic principles differed from "socialist realism", which was becoming obligatory for all, began. Symbolists, Futurists, Impressionists, Imagists, etc. fell under a flurry of insulting attacks. They were accused of "formalistic quirks", that their art was not needed the Soviet people that it is rooted in soil hostile to socialism. Composer D. Shostakovich, director S. Eisenstein, writers B. Pasternak, Yu. Olesha and others were among the "alien". Essentially, the "fight against formalism" was aimed at destroying all those whose talent was not placed at the service of the authorities. Many artists were repressed.
As already mentioned, the defining style in literature, painting and other forms of art was the so-called "socialist realism". This style had little in common with true realism. With an outward "living likeness" he did not reflect reality in its present form, but sought to pass off as reality what should only have been from the point of view of official ideology. The function of educating society within the strictly defined framework of communist morality was imposed on art. Labor enthusiasm, universal devotion to the ideas of Lenin-Stalin, Bolshevik adherence to principles - this is what the heroes of the official art of that time lived. The reality was much more complicated and generally far from the proclaimed ideal.
The limited ideological framework of social realism became a significant obstacle to the development of Soviet literature. However, in the 30s. several major works appeared that entered the history of Russian culture. Perhaps the most prominent figure in the official literature of those years was Mikhail Alexandrovich Sholokhov (1905-1984). An outstanding work is his novel "Quiet Don", which tells about the Don Cossacks during the First World War and the Civil War. Collectivization on the Don is dedicated to the novel Virgin Soil Upturned. Remaining, at least outwardly, within the boundaries of socialist realism, Sholokhov managed to create a three-dimensional picture of the events that had taken place, to show the tragedy of fratricidal enmity among the Cossacks that unfolded on the Don in the post-revolutionary years. Sholokhov was favored by Soviet critics. His literary work was awarded the State and Lenin Prizes, twice he was awarded the title of Hero of Socialist Labor, he was elected an academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences. Sholokhov's work received worldwide recognition: for his literary merits, he was awarded the Nobel Prize (1965).
In the thirties, M. Gorky completed his last epic novel, The Life of Klim Samgin. Metaphorical, philosophical depth are characteristic of the prose of L.M. Leonov ("The Thief" 1927, "Sot" 1930), who played a special role in the development of the Soviet novel. The work of N.A. Ostrovsky, author of the novel "How the Steel Was Tempered" (1934), dedicated to the era of formation Soviet power. Main character novel - Pavka Korchagin was a model of a fiery Komsomol member. In the work of N. Ostrovsky, like no one else, the educational function of Soviet literature was manifested. The ideal character Pavka became in reality an example for the broad masses of Soviet youth. A.N. became a classic of the Soviet historical novel. Tolstoy ("Peter I" 1929-1945). The twenties and thirties were the heyday of children's literature. Several generations of Soviet people grew up on the books of K.I. Chukovsky, S.Ya. Marshak, A.P. Gaidar, S.V. Mikhalkov, A.L. Barto, V.A. Kaverina, L.A. Kassilya, V.P. Kataev.
Despite ideological dictatorship and total control, free literature continued to develop. Under the threat of repression, under the fire of loyal criticism, without hope of publication, writers who did not want to cripple their work for the sake of Stalinist propaganda continued to work. Many of them never saw their works published, this happened after their death.
In 1928, hunted by Soviet criticism, M.A. Bulgakov, without any hope of publication, begins to write his best novel, The Master and Margarita. Work on the novel continued until the death of the writer in 1940. This work was published only in 1966. Even later, in the late 80s, the works of A.P. Platonov (Klimentov) "Chevengur", "Pit", "Juvenile Sea". "On the table" poets A.A. Akhmatova, B.L. Parsnip. The fate of Osip Emilievich Mandelstam (1891-1938) is tragic. A poet of extraordinary strength and great figurative accuracy, he was among those writers who, having accepted in his time October revolution, could not get along in Stalinist society. In 1938 he was repressed.
In the 30s. Soviet Union gradually begins to fence off from the rest of the world, contacts with foreign countries, the penetration of any information "from there" is placed under the strictest control. Behind the "Iron Curtain" were many Russian writers who, despite the lack of a readership, the disorder of life, the mental breakdown, continue to work. In their works, longing for the departed Russia sounds. The writer of the first magnitude was the poet and prose writer Ivan Alekseevich Bunin (1870-1953). Bunin from the very beginning did not accept the revolution and emigrated to France, where he spent the second half of his life. Bunin's prose is distinguished by the beauty of the language, a special lyricism. In emigration, his best works were created, in which pre-revolutionary, noble, manor Russia was captured, the atmosphere of Russian life of those years was surprisingly poetic. The novella "Mitya's Love", the autobiographical novel "The Life of Arseniev", the collection of short stories "Dark Alleys" are considered the pinnacle of his work. In 1933 he was awarded the Nobel Prize.
Classics of social realism in fine arts were the works of B.V. Ioganson. In 1933, the painting "Interrogation of the Communists" was painted. In contrast to the "pictures" that appeared at that time in abundance, depicting and glorifying the Leader or deliberately optimistic canvases like S.V. Gerasimov, Ioganson's work is distinguished by great artistic power - the unbending will of people doomed to death, which the artist skillfully managed to convey, touches the viewer, regardless of political beliefs. Ioganson's brushes also belong to large paintings "At the old Ural factory" and "V. I. Lenin's speech at the 3rd congress of the Komsomol". In the 1930s, K.S. continued to work. Petrov-Vodkin, P.P. Konchalovsky, A.A. Deineka, a series of beautiful portraits of contemporaries is created by M.V. Nesterov, landscapes of Armenia found poetic embodiment in painting by M. S. Saryan. The work of the student M.V. Nesterova P.D. Korina. In 1925, Korin conceived a large picture, which was supposed to depict the procession during the funeral. The artist made a huge number of preparatory sketches: landscapes, many portraits of representatives of Orthodox Russia, from beggars to church hierarchs. The name of the picture was suggested by M. Gorky - "Russia is leaving". However, after the death of the great writer, who provided patronage to the artist, the work had to be stopped. The most famous work of P.D. Korina became a triptych "Alexander Nevsky" (1942).
The pinnacle of the development of sculpture of socialist realism was the composition "Worker and Collective Farm Woman" by Vera Ignatievna Mukhina (1889-1953). The sculptural group was made by V. I. Mukhina for the Soviet pavilion at the world exhibition in Paris in 1937.
architecture in the early 1930s. constructivism, which was widely used for the construction of public and residential buildings, continues to be the leading one. The aesthetics of simple geometric forms, characteristic of constructivism, influenced the architecture of the Lenin Mausoleum, built in 1930 according to the project of A.V. Shchusev. The mausoleum is amazing in its own way. The architect managed to avoid excessive pomposity. The tomb of the leader of the world proletariat is a modest, small in size, very laconic structure that fits perfectly into the ensemble of Red Square. By the end of the 30s. the functional simplicity of constructivism is beginning to be replaced by neoclassicism. Lush stucco, huge columns with pseudo-classical capitals come into fashion, gigantomania and a tendency to deliberate richness of decoration, often bordering on bad taste, are manifested. This style is sometimes referred to as "Stalin's Empire style", although with the real Empire style, which is characterized primarily by the deepest inner harmony and restraint of forms, in reality it is related only genetic connection with ancient heritage. The sometimes vulgar splendor of Stalinist neoclassicism was intended to express the strength and power of the totalitarian state.
Cinema is developing rapidly. The number of pictures taken is increasing. New opportunities opened up with the advent of sound cinema. In 1938, a film by S.M. Eisenstein "Alexander Nevsky" with N.K. Cherkasov in leading role. The principles of socialist realism are affirmed in the cinema. Films are being shot on revolutionary themes: "Lenin in October" (dir. M.I. Romm), "A Man with a Gun" (dir. S.I. Yutkevich); films about the fate of a working man: a trilogy about Maxim "Maxim's Youth", "Maxim's Return", "Vyborg Side" (dir. G.M. Kozintsev); comedies: "Merry Fellows", "Volga-Volga" (dir. S.A. Gerasimov), "Pig and Shepherd" (dir. I.A. Pyryev). The film of the brothers (in fact, only namesakes, "brothers" is a kind of pseudonym) enjoyed great popularity. and S.D. Vasiliev - "Chapaev" (1934).
The 1930s turned out to be difficult for domestic science. On the one hand, large-scale research programs are being launched in the USSR, new research institutes are being created: in 1934, S.I. Vavilov founded the Physical Institute of the Academy of Sciences. P.N. Lebedev (FIAN), at the same time the Institute organic chemistry, in Moscow P.L. Kapitsa created the Institute of Physical Problems, in 1937 the Institute of Geophysics was established. The physiologist I.P. Pavlov, breeder I.V. Michurin. The work of Soviet scientists resulted in numerous discoveries, both in fundamental and applied fields. Historical science is being revived. As was said, the teaching of history is being resumed in secondary and high school. A research institute of history under the Academy of Sciences of the USSR is being created. Outstanding Soviet historians worked in the 1930s: Academician B.D. Grekov - the author of works on the history of medieval Russia (" Kievan Rus"," Peasants in Russia from ancient times to the XVIII century. ", etc.); Academician E.V. Tarle - an expert new history countries of Europe and, above all, Napoleonic France ("The working class in France in the era of the revolution", "Napoleon", etc.).
At the same time, Stalin's totalitarianism created serious obstacles to the normal development of scientific knowledge. The autonomy of the Academy of Sciences was liquidated. In 1934, she was transferred from Leningrad to Moscow and subordinated to the Council of People's Commissars. As a result of the establishment of administrative methods of managing science, many promising areas of research (for example, genetics, cybernetics) were frozen for many years at the arbitrariness of incompetent party functionaries. In an atmosphere of general denunciation and growing repression, academic discussions often ended in reprisals, when one of the opponents, being accused (albeit unreasonably) of political unreliability, was not only deprived of the opportunity to work, but was subjected to physical destruction. A similar fate was prepared for very many representatives of the intelligentsia. The victims of repressions were such prominent scientists as the biologist, the founder of Soviet genetics, academician and president of VASKhNIL N.I. Vavilov, scientist and designer of rocket technology, future academician and twice Hero of Socialist Labor S.P. Korolev and many others.
The events of 1917, the civil war and the formation of the Bolshevik regime - all this greatly influenced the development of culture, and, most likely, for the worse.
First, the Bolsheviks themselves are pursuing a cultural policy that largely renounces the past.
Secondly, a huge part of the creative intelligentsia and scientists ended up in exile.
Thirdly, already in the 20s. the persecution of dissent began, the destruction of the cultural layer of the nation, which reached its maximum point in the 30s.
The policy of the Bolsheviks in relation to education and culture.
Among the Bolsheviks, there were 3 points of view on this issue: some believed that all past culture should be forgotten and a new own proletarian culture should be created, i.e. in fact, it was proposed to start from scratch.
Already in 1918. A special organization "Proletkult" was created, which tried to implement these ideas. But the majority, including Lenin and the People's Commissar of the Enlightenment, Lunacharsky, believed that Russian culture should be preserved on a certain scale.
Already in 1918, the Bolsheviks separated church from state and began a program to combat illiteracy. The program receives the appropriate name - "Likbez". During the 20s. the adult population of Russia was actively taught to read and write. By the end of the 30s. over 80% of the population could read and write. But at the same time, Likbez also provided for the indoctrination of people, the so-called "political literacy." The Bolsheviks proclaim the course of the cultural revolution. Back in the 20s. At the III Congress of the Komsomol, Lenin called on the youth to "learn socialism." The Cultural Revolution included not only the education of people, but also the introduction of the ideology of thinking, as well as the creation of a new Soviet intelligentsia. In the 30s. obligatory primary education appears (4 classes), and then secondary (7 classes). A number of specialized vocational schools. For example, Fabzavuch (vocational school), a vocational school. Particular attention was paid higher education. It was necessary to create their own cadres (1920 was the establishment of the Ural State University) in order to increase the proletarian element among the students, special workers' schools were created. Special quotas were introduced for students of non-proletarian origin. An institute of red professors is being created. There are also various party schools, for example, the Communist Academy. Bourgeois specialists were also persecuted in the 1920s, and in the late 1920s the first repressions fell upon them. In the 30s. only a few old, pre-revolutionary cadres remained, especially humanitarians.
1922 - "Philosophical steamboat" - i.e. expulsion abroad of the majority of Russian scientists: philosophers, historians (Bulgakov, Frank, Struve). By the end of the 30s. in the USSR there was the largest group of students in the world and the largest number of universities, but at the same time the level of culture and sciences was not the highest in the world.
Literature
The attitude towards the revolution and the ideas of the Bolsheviks among the creative intelligentsia was different:
1) Those who accepted the revolution (that is, those who were ready to cooperate with the Bolsheviks - Mayakovsky, Bryusov, Vernadsky, Timiryazev).
2) Accepted with a bias (i.e. with doubt - Yesenin, Block "The Funeral of Russian Culture", Pavlov, Repin, Chukovsky).
3) Those who did not actively accept (i.e., hostile to the revolution - Bunin, Gippius, Gumilyov).
Many of the 2nd and 3rd groups emigrated (Stravinsky, Rachmaninoff, Chaliapin, Alekhin, Bunin, Berdyaev). Many who remained were subsequently repressed (Mandelstam, Florensky). Some returned from emigration (A. Tolstoy, Kuprin, Tsvetaeva). During civil war literary life, despite the terrible conditions, was very active. There are such organizations as "ReF" (Revolutionary Front), "Lef" (Left Front), RAPP (Russian Association of Professional Writers). Mayakovsky, Zharov, Bryusov, Khoseev, Serafimov, Yesenin are actively working here (50:50). The older generations (masters) somehow reflect the terrible war in their works: A. Blok "12", Voloshin, Bunin "Cursed Days".
The literary community in Petrograd lived an active life. A "shop of poets" was created, headed by Gumilyov, Shapov, Adamovich. After Gumilyov was shot in 1921, most of the St. Petersburg poets emigrated. During the years of the NEP, there was a certain literary freedom. It was possible to look for new forms of art, experiment and create creative groups. Nevertheless, party pressure and political censorship were already being felt. Soviet socialist principles continued to be defended by such writers and poets as Mayakovsky, Furmanov "Chapaev", Serafimovich "Iron Stream", Fadeev, Bagretsky. Soviet dramaturgy appears: Ivanov, Trenev [?] Spring Love. Vishnevsky Optimistic Tragedy. In Petrograd, such a creative association as the Serapion Brothers appears (Kaverin "Two Captains", Fedin, Kataev "The lonely sail turns white"). And there was a society of "Oberiuts" (Vvedensky, Kharms). In Moscow there was "Imaginium" (Yesenin, Maringov). There was a large group of peasant poets: Klyuev, Poreshin, Klychkov, and partly Yesenin. The work of Platonov, Green "Scarlet Sails" stands apart. Erdman "Suicide Play", Bulgakov.
Fantasts: Belyaev, Zamyatin "We".
At the end of the 20s. Sholokhov "Quiet Don" appears.
In the early 30s. a totalitarian regime emerges. The most powerful pressure on the creative intelligentsia begins. Ultimately, all this resulted in the creation in 1934 of the "Union of Writers", the only permitted organization. A member of the union received a salary, and only he could publish his works. Moreover, at the 1st Congress of Soviet Writers, the only acceptable method was proclaimed - socialist realism. All this was blessed by Gorky, specially invited from abroad and treated kindly by Stalin. The persecution of dissidents began: Mandelstam, Klyuev, Kharms, Vasiliev. Almost in exile were: Bulgakov, Akhmatova. Platonov….
In the 30s. such works appear. Like Sholokhov's "Virgin Soil Upturned". Poems by Pasternak, Bulgakov "The Master and Margarita". Stories (satire) Zoshchenko. Ilf and Petrov "The Golden Calf", "12 Chairs". Children's literature is developing - Chukovsky, Gaidar, Marshak. 1938 - Mikhalkov, Kassil.
In the 30s. begins a separate theme in the literature - "Leniniana". Polevoi's play Chimes, Pogodin, Krupskaya's memoir. Stories about Lenin: Zoshchenko, plays: Lavrenev "41st".
Emigration.
20s 30s powerful creative life was abroad. Several million Russian people left the country. The largest Russian communities lived in Paris, Berlin, Prague, Belgrade, Harbin and Shanghai. Russian newspapers and magazines were published, books were published, there were former leaders parties: Milyukov, Guchkov, Shulgin; wrote Denikin and Krasnov. In Paris, a kind of association “Green Lamp - Evenings with the Gippius and Merezhkovsky family. There were poets: Ivanov, Adamovich, Poplavsky, Balmont, Teffi; writers: Bunin ( Nobel Prize), Zaitsev, Shmelev, Nabokov. In addition, such major creative personalities as the composer Rachmaninov, the singer Chaliapin, the chess player Alekhine, the philosophers Berdyaev, Bulgakov, Sorokin, and others acted abroad.
Science in the 30s
Industrialization required the active development of technical and natural sciences. There are such scientists as Vernadsky, Fersman, Zelinsky, Vavilov, Timofeev, Tsiolkovsky. Chizhevsky. Concerning humanities, then here the pressure of the party was stronger. Philosophy remained only Marxist; the historical school of Pokrovsky, which operated in the 1920s, was destroyed. One of the most famous historians was in exile. K ser. 30s appears short course history of the CPSU (b), which completely rebuilds the history of the party under the personality cult of Stalin. Direct instructions are given on how to teach history in schools and universities. In con. 30s there is a gradual shift away from Soviet history, interest in pre-revolutionary, national history is allowed.
Painting.
After the revolution, there is an upsurge in painting. Many artists saw in the revolution an opportunity to express new forms and events. Yuon, Petrov-Vodkin, Malevich, Nesterov. During the years of the Civil War - poster art (Mayakovsky's "Windows of GROWTH"). In the 20s. there is also a certain search for new forms, but the emigration of artists gradually begins. In the 1920s, one of the first Soviet schools of painting appeared (Grekhov's workshop. Battle painting). a union of artists arises and the method of socialist realism is established. The theme "Leniana" (Brodsky) is being actively implemented.
Sculpture
Among Soviet sculptors, 3 names can be distinguished: Konenkov, Shadr "Cobblestone - a tool of the proletariat", Vera Mukhina "Worker and Collective Farm Girl".
Theater and Cinema.
New forms are also coming to the theater. The brightest name is Vsevolod Meyerhold. There is a school of Stanislavsky. Plays by Soviet playwrights appear. Famous actors are Vera Ermolova, Kachalov, Boris Shchukin (played Lenin), Boris Babochkin (played Chapaev), Igor Ilyinsky (comedian). Eisenstein's Battleship Potemkin became a classic of Soviet cinema. 30s - this is the heyday of Soviet comedy films ("The Pig and the Shepherd", "The Feast of St. George", "Merry Fellows"). Movie stars are Lyubov Orlova, Tesov. The directors are the Vasiliev brothers, who shot Chapaev, Alexandrov.
Music.
Classical forms of music were forgotten during the war, many composers and musicians emigrated. By the end of the 20s. interest in music is growing. Among the serious Soviet authors, Prokofiev, Shostakovich, Shabalin, Miskovsky should be singled out. The genre of light music is developing (Dunaevsky, Solovyov-Sedoy). In the spirit of socialist realism, Dzerzhinsky created his operas (“Quiet Flows the Don, Virgin Soil Upturned”).
Architecture
The Bolsheviks began with the destruction of many old buildings, "not of historical value", especially churches (1931 - the destruction of the Cathedral of Christ the Savior in Moscow). Also, the Bolsheviks gravitated toward monumental forms of architecture, that is, the creation of huge and pompous buildings. Fortunately, many works remained only in the plans. Mostly residential buildings and industrial facilities were built.
Fighting the Church
In 1917 the patriarchate was restored. Tikhon became Patriarch. For obvious reasons, the church supported the white movement, since the Bolshevik ideology was active atheism. After the civil war, a targeted policy against the church begins. The patriarch was arrested several times and then killed.
Under the guise of helping the starving, a huge amount of church property was confiscated, many priests were repressed. The "Society of Militant Atheists" operated in the country with an official filing. Already in the 20s. the church again found itself without a patriarch.
The most important direction of the Bolsheviks' policy was the development of education. In 1919, a decree was issued on the fight against illiteracy, in 1920 a
LECTURE #36§ 82. Soviet culture in the 20-30s. 20th century
Culture of the era of revolution . The most important direction of the Bolsheviks' policy was the development of education. In 1919, a decree was issued on the fight against illiteracy, in 1920 a Extraordinary Commission for the Elimination of Illiteracy. Thousands of points of education for children and adults have opened. Many experiments were conducted in schools to introduce new forms of education, however, most of them were unsuccessful. By the end of the 20s. literate people made up half of the country's population.
During the years of the Civil War, poster art flourished. Memorable works were created by the artists V. N. Denis, D. S. Moor, V. V. Mayakovsky and others. The poster remained one of the most popular means of propaganda in subsequent times. Very quickly, the new government realized the importance of cinema, named by V.I. Lenin "the most important of the arts". Here, the largest event not only in Russia, but also on a global scale was the release in 1925 of the great film directed by S. M. Eisenstein "Battleship Potemkin" .
The revolutionary events split the ranks of cultural figures. Many of them ended up in exile. Others continued to create in Russia. Some of them did it for patriotic reasons, but many sincerely accepted the ideas of the revolution. The poet V. V. Mayakovsky, directors V. E. Meyerhold, A. Ya. Tairov, architects V. E. Tatlin, K. S. Melnikov and others were looking for new beginnings in art. They stuck modernist movements - futurism, imagism, etc. Typical architectural monuments of that time were workers' clubs in the style constructivism (clubs named after I. V. Rusakov, architect K. S. Melnikov, named after S. M. Zuev, architect I. A. Golosov, etc.).
At the same time, art continued to develop traditional direction . During these years, the great directors K. S. Stanislavsky and V. I. Nemirovich-Danchenko, the great Russian poet S. A. Yesenin worked. The realistic works about the Civil War by D. A. Furmanov, A. S. Serafimovich, I. E. Babel, M. A. Bulgakov, A. A. Fadeev, A. Vesely, K. A. Trenev, Vs. V. Ivanova and others. In 1928, the first part of M. A. Sholokhov's brilliant epic "Quiet Flows the Don" was published. There was an acute ideological struggle between supporters of the "new art" and adherents of traditional trends. The former often enjoyed the support of the authorities, since they acted from the positions of " proletarian culture ».
The first years of Soviet power are characterized by a variety of cultural development, but at the same time, attempts were made to strangle "class alien" trends. The so-called "fellow travelers" were often criticized in the press. Among them were recorded cultural figures supporting new power, but occupying a fairly independent position. Among these writers, A. N. Tolstoy, M. A. Bulgakov, M. M. Zoshchenko, V. A. Kaverin, K. A. Fedin, M. M. Prishvin, L. M. Leonov and others stood out.
Culture in the 30s 20th century The development of culture, the enlightenment of the people were considered one of the main priorities of the Soviet state. Implementation cultural revolution assumed universal literacy of the population. In addition to professional teachers, students and schoolchildren were involved in teaching.
Of great importance for spiritual enrichment was the familiarization of the people with the treasures of national and world culture. The circulation of works by A. S. Pushkin, M. Yu. Lermontov, L. N. Tolstoy, N. V. Gogol, and other prominent Russian and foreign writers and poets.
At the same time, the authorities' control over the development of culture increased. Its individual branches were now led by special committees. Great importance was attached to the approval of the ideas of Marxism in the minds of people. Among cultural figures, they were looking for "class enemies" who were subjected to repression. They also fought against "religious prejudice." Conducted active work Union of Militant Atheists, atheistic propaganda went through lectures, print, radio, cinema.
One of the most important tasks of the Cultural Revolution was the formation of a new intelligentsia devoted to the ideas of socialism.
In literature and art, the main trend was declared socialist realism . Writers and artists were supposed to "show life in its revolutionary development." However, the attribution of certain works to socialist realism was dictated mainly by the loyalty of their authors to the authorities. In the 30s. The novels of M. A. Sholokhov “Quiet Flows the Don”, “Virgin Soil Upturned”, A.N. Tolstoy “Walking Through Torment”, “Peter the Great”, etc. enjoyed great success. Among the painters and sculptors, A. A. Deineka, M. V. Nesterov, P. D. Korin, M. B. Grekov, Yu. I. Pimenov, V. I. Mukhina and others. The music of S. S. Prokofiev, D. D. Shostakovich, A. I. Khachaturian, T. N. Khrennikov, D. B. Kabalevsky, I. O. Dunayevsky and others.
In the USSR in the 30s. Cinematography developed rapidly, which was essentially led by I. V. Stalin himself. In 1931, the first Soviet sound film "A Start to Life" (directed by N.V. Ekk) was released. This film, which tells about the re-education of homeless children, was recognized as the best film according to a survey of viewers at the Venice International Film Festival in 1932. Much of what was created at that time still retains its popularity, for example: ”, “Volga-Volga”, I. A. Pyrieva “Tractor drivers”, “Pig and shepherd”, S. A. Gerasimov “Seven brave”, S. M. Eisenstein “Alexander Nevsky”, Vasiliev brothers “Chapaev” and others A lot of highly artistic films were devoted to the revolutionary era: "Lenin in October" and "Lenin in 1918" (dir. M. I. Romm), "We are from Kronstadt" (dir. E. L. Dzigan), a trilogy about Maxim ( directed by G. M. Kozintsev and L. Z. Trauberg) and others.
In the field of education Special attention was given to the training of technical intelligentsia, specialists in the field folk economy. The number of universities and academies has increased.
In 1934 it was accepted regulation on the teaching of history in schools. History faculties were restored at universities, new history textbooks were prepared, in which the historical process was interpreted from class positions.
Much has been done to develop the school education system. From 1930 -1931 Compulsory primary (4 years) education was introduced. Expenses for the construction, repair and equipment of schools were increased, the financial situation of teachers was improved, children were provided with textbooks and writing materials. By 1939, literate people in the USSR were 81.2% of the population older than 9 years (90.8% of men and 72.6% of women).
Soviet science . In the USSR, new scientific and research centers. Institutes of organic chemistry and geophysics opened in Moscow. Research was carried out on the problems of microphysics, semiconductor physics, atomic nucleus. The basis for the creation of the first experimental rockets was the work of K. E. Tsiolkovsky. In 1930, F. A. Zander created one of the world's first jet engines.
Under the leadership of A.P. Aleksandrov, methods were developed to protect ships from magnetic mines. N.N. Semenov, D. V. Skobeltsyn, JI. I. Mandelstam, IV Kurchatov and others made a great contribution to the development of nuclear physics. A. A. Mikulin, V. Ya. Klimov, A. D. Shvedov laid the foundation for the design of aircraft engines. Considerable merit in solving a number of problems in chemistry, which are of great practical value, belonged to S. V. Lebedev and A. E. Favorsky. Scientists in the field of physiology, biology and mathematics have achieved great success. Huge work was carried out by the All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences named after V.I. Lenin (VASKhNIL).
Science also did not bypass the repression. Many well-known scientists suffered from them: N. I. Vavilov, S. P. Korolev, A. N. Tupolev and others.
QUESTIONS AND TASKS
1. What goals did the Bolsheviks solve in the field of culture? What is a cultural revolution?
2. What were the features of the development of literature and art in the 20s. 20th century? - Name the cultural figures of this time known to you.
3. What were the features of the development of literature and art in the 30s. 20th century? - Name the cultural figures of this time known to you.
4. What achievements did Soviet science have in the 20s and 30s? 20th century?
5. Using additional literature, write a message about one of the Soviet films of the 30s. (scriptwriter and director, actors, content, filming history, management's attitude to the film, mass audience).
In the 20-30s. great attention was paid to the reconstruction public education and the eradication of illiteracy. Introduced free education, new educational plans and programs. In 1923, the society "Down with illiteracy" appeared. Thousands of schools, circles, centers were created where adults and children were taught to read and write. By 1926, the literacy of the population had risen to 40%. There were about 100 thousand schools with 9 million students and about 1200 universities and technical schools in the country. In the first five-year plan, a wide network of educational programs began to work. By the end of the thirties, 80% of the population could read and write. In 1913 this figure was 27%.
In 1930, universal primary education was introduced. By the end of the 30s. completed the transition to compulsory seven-year education. By 1940, the Soviet system of public education was formed. Introduced mandatory government programs learning. The USSR came out on top in the world in terms of the number of pupils and students.
In the 20s. the ruling party was forced to use the knowledge of old specialists. During the years of the first five-year plan, the situation changed. to higher schools after graduating from the workers' schools, about 150 thousand communists and Komsomol members came. The new intelligentsia was formed at the expense of immigrants from the workers and peasants. They were given great benefits in education. In the same period passed trials over the old specialists - the Shakhty case. Labor Peasant Party, Academic Affairs and others. The old intelligentsia was gradually removed from Soviet institutions. By the end of the 30s. there were more than 20 million specialists in the country. Most of them were educated under the Soviet regime. I
The church was in a difficult position. She had confis-;
great valuables were forged, many temples were closed and destroyed. Thousands of priests ended up in camps. Such a policy began to be carried out especially actively from the beginning of the first five-year plan. The second was
declared a five-year plan of godlessness. During the first twenty years of the existence of Soviet power, the number of churches decreased tenfold. The ideas of atheism were planted in the minds of people.
The only method in art was socialist realism. He demanded service to the tasks of socialist construction. This resulted in a blind praising of the successes of Soviet society. By the mid 30s. created unified unions of creative intelligentsia (the Union of Writers, the Union of Composers, etc.), within the framework of which it was only possible to professionally engage in creativity.
To the number famous writers who created a considerable part of their works during this period belonged to: A.M. Gorky, A.P. Gaidar, M.A. Sholokhov, V.V. Mayakovsky, A.A. Fadeev, A.N. .E.Babel, O.E.Mandelstam, Yu.K.Olesha, V.P.Kataev, M.M.Zoshchenko, B.A.Pilnyak.
Went fast development domestic cinema. The works of S. M. Eisenstein, V. I. Pudovkin, A. P. Dovzhenko, S. A. Gerasimov, G. A. Alexandrov were known throughout the country. Eisenstein's film "Battleship Potemkin" won a prize at the international festival. The most popular films were those where there was the least communist ideology - "Volga-Volga", "Merry Fellows", "Circus", "Seven Brave", " Musical history"and others. When creating films, the music of popular composers M.O. Dunaevsky, S.S. Prokofiev, D.D. Shostakovich was used.
In painting and sculpture, V.I.Mukhina, M.B.Grekov, B.V.Ioganson, I.I.Brodsky created works of historical and revolutionary content, portraits of leaders and leaders of labor. Artists M.V. Nesterov, A.A. Plastov, A.A. Deineka, M.S. Saryan tried to go into landscape painting and other neutral themes.
The works of F.M. Dostoevsky, I.A. Bunin, S.A. Yesenin, A.P. Platonov, M.I. Tsvetaeva, A.A. Akhmatova, the paintings of K.S. Malevich and P.F. Filonov, music by S.V. Rakhmaninov as inconsistent with the ideas of socialist realism.
Soviet scientists N.N. Semyonov, D.V. Skobeltsyn, L.I. Mandelstam, I.V. Kurchatov made a major contribution to the development of nuclear physics. A.A. Mikulin, V.Ya. Klimov, A.D. Shvedov laid the foundations for the design of domestic aircraft engines. A huge merit in solving a number of problems in chemistry (the production of artificial fertilizers, oil refining, the production of synthetic rubber) belongs to S.V. Lebedev and A.E. Favorsky. I issue-
Physiologists and biologists I.P. Pavlov and I.V. Michurin have achieved great success. Thanks to the research of N.I. Vavilov, domestic genetics was created. K.E. Tsiolkovsky and F.A. Zander developed the theory of space flights and jet propulsion. In 1930, the world's first jet engine was built in the USSR. Serious discoveries in the study of the Arctic were made by O.Yu. Schmidt and I.D. Papanin.
The repressions did not bypass the figures of science and culture. The geneticist N.I. Vavilov, the poet O.E. Mandelstam, the director V.E. Meyerhold and others ended their lives in Stalin's dungeons. Bulgakov, M.I. Tsvetaeva, B.L. Pasternak.
After the civil war, about 2 million people found themselves abroad. Russian citizens. The largest centers Russian abroad became France, Germany, Serbia, Czechoslovakia, USA. Russian newspapers and magazines were published abroad, educational institutions, libraries, and churches were opened. Philosophers continued their work abroad: N.A. Berdyaev, I. Ilyin, P.B. Struve, sociologist P.A. Sorokin. In emigration were: physicist G.A. Gamov, chemist V.P. Ipatiev, aircraft designer I.I. Sikorsky. In exile, writers and poets continued their work: I.A. Bunin, A.I. Kuprin, Z.N. Gippius, D.S. Merezhkovsky, V.V. Nabokov. Left Soviet Russia: composer SV Rakhmaninov, singers A. Vertinsky, F. I. Chaliapin.
