Pre-state tribal associations. Eastern Slavs in the pre-state period (economic activity, social system, religious ideas)

Subject and objectives of the course national history.

History is a Greek word, translated means a story, a story about the past, learned, explored. This is a great process of development of nature and human society. This is a science that studies the past of mankind in its development at different stages. Sources of information can be:

1) material (archaeological excavations)

2) written (chronicles, novels, stories)

3) artistic (engravings, icons, paintings)

4) phonic (musical recordings, sound narration)

The task of the national history course is to know the main stages and directions of the socio-political, economic and socio-cultural development of our state.

The course of national history performs a number of functions:

1) cognitive

2) worldview

3) educational

4) political

The first historian of our country can be considered Nestor (monk-chronicler of the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra, late 11th - early 12th centuries.), who wrote The Tale of Bygone Years. Among other major historians of our homeland, one can name Tatishchev, Karamzin, Solovyov, Klyuchevsky, who considered the history of the development of our homeland from the point of view of the improvement of the human spirit. The first materialist historian, who based the study of the history of the Motherland on a change in the form of management, was Radishchev (“Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow”). Among modern historians one can name Rybakov, Grekov, Zimin, Tikhomirov.

The main principles of studying history are:

1) historicism (specific historical conditions)

2) objectivity (reliance on specific facts)

3) alternativeness (studying experience, the ability to learn lessons)

The main stages in the development of the Russian state.

To study national history, periodization is necessary, i.e. determination of the period of time during which there have been significant changes in the development of the state. The author of the first periodization was Tatishchev; he based it on autocracy and the power of power. Karamzin based his periodization on the statehood and the change of ruling dynasties. The historian Solovyov believed that the periodization should be based on the struggle between the state and the tribal principle. Klyuchevsky put the territorial growth of the state, the change in life and the state of the people as the basis for periodization.

Modern national history takes into account in its periodization the dominant forms of socio-economic relations, the socio-political system and the specifics of culture.

Stage 1. Eastern Slavs in antiquity - thousands of years ago - IX century.

Stage 2. Old Russian state Kievan Rus - XI-XII centuries.

Stage 3. Feudal fragmentation - the end of the XII - XV centuries.

Stage 4. Formation and development of the Russian centralized state - the end of the XV-XVII centuries.

Stage 5 Russian empire- XVIII-early XX centuries.

Stage 6 Soviet Russia- the beginning of the XX century. (1917) - the end of the XX century. (1991)

Stage 7. Post-Soviet Russia - the end of the XX-beginning of the XXI centuries.

Factors and specifics of the historical development of Russia.

The course of the historical development of Russia is influenced by various factors:

1) geopolitical situation (Eurasia, more than 160 peoples and nationalities, a multinational and multi-confessional state, periodically gravitating either to Western or to Eastern values)

2) a huge territory and long borders (strong state power, significant bureaucracy, large funds for the maintenance of the army, "besieged fortress")

3) harsh natural and climatic environment (short growing season, development of minerals, difficulties with the development of new lands)

4) the mentality of the people (sobornost, i.e. hope for supreme power, collegiality, non-covetousness)

These factors determine the specifics of our history: an extensive type of economic development, i.e. receipt of products on new areas, weak independence of cities, the long existence of the peasant community, the duration of the autocracy, the people's admiration for the supreme power.

Eastern Slavs in pre-state period.

The problem of the origin of the Slavic peoples, including the Eastern Slavs, remains debatable. However, the first Slavs appeared in the second millennium BC. e., and at the beginning of the first millennium AD. e. Greek, Arabic, Byzantine sources call the Slavs a great people, warlike and sedentary. In the VI century. AD, during the great migration of peoples, caused by a significant increase in the population and the need to develop new territories, 3 branches of the Slavic peoples were formed:

1) Eastern Slavs (Russians, Belarusians, Ukrainians)

2) South Slavs (Serbs, Croats, Montenegrins)

3) Western Slavs (Poles, Czechs, Slovaks)

In the 7th - 8th centuries. large tribal unions are formed (drevlyans, krivichi, slavens, glade). Some of them united into the largest ethnic groups:

1) Slavia (in the north)

2) Kuyavia (Kiev)

3) Ortania (Ryazan)

Social relations were determined by the system of military democracy: the head of the tribe was an elder, all issues were resolved at the people's assembly, the people's militia. Main occupations:

1) agriculture (in the north - slash-and-burn system; in the south - fallow)

2) hunting, fishing, martyrdom (gathering honey from wild bees)

There was a gradual transition from a tribal to a rural territorial community. Religion is paganism. The main gods were considered: Perun (god of war), Svarok (god of sky, fire), etc.

Eastern Slavs in the pre-state period

In historical science, it is generally accepted that the history of any nation begins with the formation of a state. V Russian Federation more than 100 peoples and nationalities live. But the main state-forming people of our country is the Russian people (out of 149 million - 120 million are Russians). The Russian people - one of the largest peoples in the world - for many centuries played a leading role in the political, economic, cultural development of the country. The first state of Russians, as well as Ukrainians and Belarusians, was formed in the 9th century around Kiev by their common ancestors - the Eastern Slavs.

The first written evidence of the Slavs.

By the middle of the II millennium BC. Slavs stand out from the Indo-European community. By the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. the Slavs became so significant in terms of numbers, influence in the world around them that Greek, Roman, Arabic, Byzantine authors began to report on them (the Roman writer Pliny the Elder), the historian Tacitus - I century AD, the geographer Ptolemy Claudius - II century .n.e. ancient authors call the Slavs "antes", "sklavins", "veneds" and speak of them as "countless tribes").

In the era of the great migration of the peoples of the Slavs, other peoples began to crowd on the Danube. The Slavs began to split up.

Part of the Slavs remained in Europe. Later they will receive the name of the southern Slavs (later Bulgarians, Serbs, Croats, Slovenes, Bosnians, Montenegrins will come from them).

Another part of the Slavs moved to the north - the Western Slavs (Czechs, Poles, Slovaks). Western and southern Slavs were conquered by other peoples.

And the third part of the Slavs, according to scientists, did not want to submit to anyone and moved to the northeast, to the East European Plain. Later they will receive the name of the Eastern Slavs (Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians).

It should be noted that most of the tribes sought to Central Europe, to the ruins of the Roman Empire. The Roman Empire soon fell under the blows of the alien barbarians (476 AD). On this territory, the barbarians will create their own statehood, having absorbed the cultural heritage of ancient Roman culture. The Eastern Slavs, on the other hand, went to the northeast, into the dense forest jungle, where there was no cultural heritage. The Eastern Slavs left in two streams. One part of the Slavs went to Lake Ilmen. Later, the ancient Russian city of Novgorod will rise there. The other part - to the middle and lower reaches of the Dnieper - there will be another ancient city Kiev.

In the VI - VIII centuries. Eastern Slavs mostly settled in the East European Plain.

Neighbors of the Eastern Slavs. And other peoples already lived on the East European (Russian) Plain. On the Baltic coast and in the north lived the Baltic (Lithuanians, Latvians) and Finno-Finnish (Finns, Estonians, Ugrians (Hungarians), Komi, Khanty, Mansi, etc.) tribes. The colonization of these places was peaceful, the Slavs got along with the local population.

The situation was different in the east and southeast. There, the Steppe adjoined the Russian Plain. The neighbors of the Eastern Slavs were the steppe nomads - the Turks (the Altai family of peoples, the Turkic group). In those days, peoples leading a different way of life - sedentary and nomadic - were constantly at enmity with each other. The nomads lived by raiding the settled population. And for almost 1000 years, one of the main phenomena in the life of the Eastern Slavs will be the struggle against the nomadic peoples of the Steppe.

The Turks on the eastern and southeastern borders of the settlement of the Eastern Slavs created their own state formations.

In the middle of the VI century. in the lower reaches of the Volga there was a state of the Turks - the Avar Khaganate. In 625, the Avar Khaganate was defeated by Byzantium and ceased to exist.

In the VII - VIII centuries. here appears the state of other Turks - the Bulgar (Bulgarian) kingdom. Then the Bulgar kingdom broke up. Part of the Bulgars went to the middle reaches of the Volga and formed the Volga Bulgaria. Another part of the Bulgars migrated to the Danube, where the Danube Bulgaria was formed (later the newcomer Turks were assimilated by the southern Slavs. A new ethnic group arose, but it took the name of the newcomers - "Bulgarians").

The steppes of southern Russia after the departure of the Bulgars were occupied by new Turks - the Pechenegs.

On the lower Volga and in the steppes between the Caspian and Azov seas, semi-nomadic Turks created the Khazar Khaganate. The Khazars established their dominance over the East Slavic tribes, many of whom paid tribute to them until the 9th century.

In the south, the neighbor of the Eastern Slavs was Byzantine Empire(395 - 1453) with its capital in the city of Constantinople (in Russia it was called Tsargrad).

Territory of the Eastern Slavs. In the VI - VIII centuries. The Slavs were not yet one people.

They were divided into tribal unions, which included 120 - 150 separate tribes. By the ninth century There were about 15 tribal unions. Tribal unions were called either by the area in which they lived, or by the name of the leaders. Information about the resettlement of the Eastern Slavs is contained in the chronicle "The Tale of Bygone Years", created by the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk monastery Nestor in the second decade of the 12th century. (The chronicler Nestor is called "the father of Russian history"). According to the chronicle "The Tale of Bygone Years", the Eastern Slavs settled: the meadow - along the banks of the Dnieper, not far from the mouth of the Desna; northerners - in the basin of the Desna and Seim rivers; radimichi - on the upper tributaries of the Dnieper; Drevlyans - along Pripyat; Dregovichi - between Pripyat and the Western Dvina; polochane - along Polota; Ilmen Slovenes - along the rivers Volkhov, Shchelon, Lovat, Msta; Krivichi - in the upper reaches of the Dnieper, Western Dvina and Volga; Vyatichi - in the upper reaches of the Oka; buzhane - along the Western Bug; Tivertsy and streets - from the Dnieper to the Danube; white Croats - the northern part of the western slopes of the Carpathians.

The path "from the Varangians to the Greeks". The Eastern Slavs did not have a sea coast. Rivers became the main trade routes for the Slavs. They "huddled" to the banks of the rivers, especially the greatest river of Russian antiquity - the Dnieper. In the ninth century a great trade route arose - "from the Varangians to the Greeks". It connected Novgorod and Kiev, Northern and Southern Europe. From the Baltic Sea along the Neva River, the caravans of merchants got to Lake Ladoga, from there along the Volkhov River and further along the Lovat River to the upper reaches of the Dnieper. From Lovat to the Dnieper in the region of Smolensk and on the Dnieper rapids they crossed by "drag routes". Further, the western coast of the Black Sea reached the capital of Byzantium, Constantinople (the Eastern Slavs called it Constantinople). This path became the core, the main trade road, the "red street" of the Eastern Slavs. The whole life of the East Slavic society was concentrated around this trade route.

Occupations of the Eastern Slavs. The main occupation of the Eastern Slavs was agriculture. They cultivated wheat, rye, barley, millet, planted turnips, millet, cabbage, beets, carrots, radishes, garlic and other crops. They were engaged in cattle breeding (bred pigs, cows, horses, small cattle), fishing, beekeeping (gathering honey from wild bees). A significant part of the territory of the Eastern Slavs lay in the zone of a harsh climate, and farming required the exertion of all physical strength. Labor-intensive work had to be completed within a strictly defined time frame. This was only possible for a large team. Therefore, from the very beginning of the appearance of the Slavs on the East European Plain, the collective - the community and the role of leader - began to play the most important role in their life.

Cities. Among the Eastern Slavs in the V - VI centuries. cities arose, which was associated with the long-standing development of trade. The most ancient Russian cities are Kiev, Novgorod, Smolensk, Suzdal, Murom, Pereyaslavl South. In the ninth century the Eastern Slavs had at least 24 major cities. Cities usually arose at the confluence of rivers, on a high hill. The central part of the city was called the Kremlin, Detinets and was usually surrounded by a rampart. The Kremlin housed the dwellings of princes, the nobility, temples, monasteries. A moat filled with water was erected behind the fortress wall. Bargaining was located behind the moat. A settlement adjoined the Kremlin, where artisans settled. Separate areas of the settlement, inhabited by artisans of the same specialty, were called settlements.

Public relations. Eastern Slavs lived in clans. Each clan had its own foreman - the prince. The prince relied on the tribal elite - "the best husbands." The princes formed a special military organization- a squad, which included warriors and advisers to the prince. The squad was divided into senior and junior. The first included the most noble warriors (advisors). The younger squad lived with the prince and served his court and household. Vigilantes from the conquered tribes collected tribute (taxes). Campaigns for the collection of tribute were called "polyuds". From time immemorial, the Eastern Slavs had a custom - to solve all the most important issues in the life of the family at a secular gathering - a veche.

Beliefs of the Eastern Slavs. The ancient Slavs were pagans. They worshiped the forces of nature and the spirits of their ancestors. In the pantheon of Slavic gods special place occupied: the god of the sun - Yarilo; Perun is the god of war and lightning, Svarog is the god of fire, Veles is the patron of cattle. The princes themselves acted as high priests, but the Slavs also had special priests - sorcerers and magicians.

Bibliography

The Tale of Bygone Years. - M.; L.; 1990.

Rybakov B.A. The first centuries of Russian history. - M., 1964.

For the preparation of this work, materials from the site http://websites.pfu.edu.ru/IDO/ffec/

Ministry of Agriculture of the Russian Federation

Kemerovo State Agricultural Institute

Department of History and Pedagogy

TEST

in the discipline "National History"

Completed by: Patrakova A. G.

1st year student

Faculty of Economics,

majoring in accounting,

analysis and audit»

Checked:

Kemerovo, 2010

Topic: Eastern Slavs in the pre-state period. Education Old Russian state.

1. The social system of the Eastern Slavs in the VI-VIII centuries. n. e.

2. Religious beliefs of the Slavs. Life, manners, customs.

3. The origin of the ancient Russian state. Political system Kievan Rus.

4. Adoption of Christianity and its consequences.

1. The social structure of the Eastern Slavs in VI - VIII centuries n. e.

Eastern Slavs settled in the VI-VIII centuries. the vast territory of Eastern Europe from Lake Ilmen in the north to the Black Sea steppes in the south and from the Carpathian mountains in the west to the Volga in the east. Thus, they occupied most of the East European Plain.

12 (according to some sources 15) East Slavic tribal unions lived on this territory. The most numerous were clearing, living along the banks of the Dnieper, not far from the mouth of the Desna, and Ilmen Slovenes who lived on the banks of Lake Ilmen and the Volkhov River. The names of the East Slavic tribes were often associated with the area where they lived. For instance, clearing- "those who live in the fields" Drevlyans- "those who live in the woods" Dregovichi- from the word "dryagva" - swamp, quagmire, Polotsk- from the name of the Polota River, etc.

Initially, the Eastern Slavs lived "each in their own way and in their own places", i.e. people were united on the basis of consanguinity. At the head was a tribal elder, who had great power. But as the Slavs settled in large areas, tribal ties began to disintegrate. The consanguineous community was replaced by a neighboring (territorial) community - rope. Vervi members jointly owned hayfields and forest land, and arable land was divided among separate family farms. The power of the tribal lord ceased to operate. All the households of the district now converged on a general council - a veche. They chose elders to conduct common affairs. In case of military danger, the entire male population fought with the enemies - the people's militia, which was built according to decimal system(tens, hundreds, thousands). Separate communities united in tribes, tribes formed unions of tribes.

2. Religious beliefs of the Slavs. Life, manners, customs.

The settlements of the Eastern Slavs were scattered over vast areas, mainly along the banks of lakes and rivers. They lived in families in houses - semi-dugouts area of ​​10 - 20 square meters. The walls of houses, benches, tables, household utensils were made of wood. The roof was covered with branches smeared with clay. The house was heated in a black way - an adobe or stone hearth was formed, the smoke did not escape through the chimney, but directly into the hole in the roof. In their homes, the Slavs arranged several exits, and they hid valuable things in the ground, because enemies could attack at any moment.

The Slavs were tall, powerfully built, possessed extraordinary physical strength and extraordinary endurance. Neighboring peoples considered the love of freedom to be the main feature of the Slavs. The Slavs respectfully treated their parents.

The main occupation of the Eastern Slavs was agriculture. But most of The territory inhabited by them was covered with dense forests. So the trees had to be cut down first. The remaining stumps were uprooted and, like trees, burned, fertilizing the soil with ash. The land was cultivated for 2-3 years, and when it ceased to produce a good harvest, it was abandoned and a new plot was prepared. This system of farming was called slash-and-burn. More favorable conditions for agriculture were in the steppe and forest-steppe zones of the Dnieper region. There were many fertile black earth lands. Plots of land were used for several years until they were completely depleted, then they were transferred to new plots. The depleted land was not cultivated for about 20-30 years until its fertility was restored. This system of farming was called shifting.

Agricultural work consisted of several cycles. At first, the land was cultivated with plow. Then the soil was leveled with a harrow - harrowed. The most responsible occupation was sowing.

From agricultural crops, the Slavs were especially willing to sow wheat, millet, barley and buckwheat. Bread was the main food of the Slavs. Turnips, radishes, beets, cabbages, onions, and garlic were planted in vegetable gardens.

In addition to agriculture, the Slavs were engaged in cattle breeding: they raised cows, goats, sheep, pigs, horses.

A large role in the life of the Eastern Slavs was played by beekeeping (gathering honey), fishing and hunting. Hunting provided not only additional food, but also furs. Outerwear was made from fur. In addition, the skins of fur-bearing animals, mainly martens, served as the main means of exchange, i.e. played the role of money. Crafts successfully developed - iron smelting, blacksmithing, jewelry.

The Slavs were brave warriors. They fought to the last drop of blood. Cowardice was considered their greatest shame. The weapons of the Slavs were spears, bows and arrows smeared with poison, round wooden shields. Swords and other iron weapons were rare.

The Eastern Slavs were pagans, i.e. worshiped many gods. They looked at nature as creature and represented it in the form of various deities. The most revered were Yarilo - the god of the sun, Perun - the god of thunder and lightning (at the same time war and weapons), Stribog - the lord of the wind, Mokosh - the deity of fertility, etc.

The Slavs believed in an afterlife and revered their ancestors, whose shadows supposedly remained in the house and protected their descendants from troubles. The souls of dead children and drowned women appeared to them in the form of mermaids. Recognized the existence of various kinds evil spirits. So, in the depths of each lake or river, according to the ideas of the Slavs, there lived a water one, and in the thicket of a dark forest there lived a forest spirit - a goblin.

The Slavs did not build temples to worship their gods. They performed their rituals in sacred groves, near sacred oaks, where there were wooden and sometimes stone statues of pagan gods - idols. To appease an angry god or enlist his mercy, animals were sacrificed to him, and in especially important cases, even people.

The Slavs did not have a special class of priests. But they thought that there were people who could communicate with the gods, cast spells and predict the future. Such people were called magi, sorcerers.

3. The origin of the ancient Russian state. The political system of Kievan Rus.

The question of the beginning of the state of Russia gave rise to a long discussion between the so-called Normanists and anti-Normanists. The former defended the point of view about the creation of the Old Russian state by the Scandinavians-Normans, while the latter denied this. However, often both of them identified the origin of the state with the origin of the ruling dynasty in it.

The problem of the origin of the name "Rus" is also debatable. The most developed is the "Scandinavian" version. It proceeds from the fact that the word "Rus" is based on the Old Norse verb "row", meaning at first rowing warriors, and then princely warriors. Some researchers, however, suggest an Iranian, Baltic or Slavic etymology of this word. At present, domestic and foreign researchers do not doubt both the local roots of the East Slavic statehood and Active participation in the process of folding Kievan Rus immigrants from Scandinavia.

Ruler of Russia in the first half of the 9th century. adopted in addition to the common Slavic title prince eastern title "kagan". This event had great importance. Firstly, the title "Kagan" was the name of the ruler of Khazaria, a state created in the 7th century. in the region of the Lower Volga and the Don by Turkic nomads - the Khazars. Part of the Eastern Slavs (Polyane, Sever, Radimichi and Vyatichi) were forced to pay tribute to the Khazar Khagan. The adoption of the title of kagan by the prince of Kiev thus symbolized the independence of the new state - Russia - from the Khazars. Secondly, it emphasized the supremacy of the Russian prince over the princes of other large Slavic communities, who at that time bore titles bright prince and Grand Duke.

The 9th-10th centuries were the time of gradual involvement of East Slavic unions of tribal principalities into dependence on Kiev. The leading role in this process was played by the military service nobility - retinue Kiev princes . For some of the unions of tribal principalities, submission took place in two stages. At the first stage, they only paid tax - tribute, while maintaining internal "autonomy". Tribute was collected by polyudya - a detour by Kiev squad detachments of the territory of a subordinate union. In the X century. tribute was levied in fixed amounts, in kind or in cash. The units of taxation were smoke (i.e. a peasant household), a ralo or a plow (in this case, a land area corresponding to the capabilities of one peasant farm).

At the second stage, the unions of tribal principalities were directly subordinated. The local reign was liquidated and a representative of the Kiev dynasty was appointed as a prince-governor. At the same time, as a rule, a new city was built, which became the center of the territory instead of the old "city" of the "tribal" center. The purpose of this change of center was to neutralize the separatist tendencies of the local nobility.

The formation of the territorial structure of the state of Rus was completed at the end of the 10th century. By this time, the "autonomy" of all East Slavic unions of tribal principalities (except for the Vyatichi) had been eliminated. The form of tribute collection has also changed. Now there was no longer any need for polyudi - detours coming from Kiev. Tribute was collected by the governors of the Kiev prince. Two-thirds of the tribute collected was sent to Kiev, the rest was distributed among the vigilantes of the prince-governor. Territories within the framework of a single early feudal state, ruled by princes-vassals of the Kiev ruler, received the name parish. In general, in the X century. the state was called "Rus", "Russian land". This name spread from the Middle Dnieper to the entire territory subject to the Kievan princes.

The structure of the state took shape under Prince Vladimir. He put on the reign at nine major centers Russia of their sons: in Novgorod (Slovenian land) - Vysheslav, later Yaroslav, in Polotsk (Krivichi) - Izyaslav, Turov (Dregovichi) - Svyatopolk, in the land of the Drevlyans - Svyatoslav, in Vladimir-Volynsky (Volynians) - Vsevolod, Smolensk (Krivichi ) - Stanislav, Rostov (the land of the Finnish-speaking tribe Merya) - Yaroslav, later Boris, in Murom (Finnish-speaking Muroma) - Gleb, Tmutarakaniya (Russian possession on the Taman Peninsula) - Mstislav. In addition to these lands of East Slavic and partially Finnish-speaking peoples, which constituted the territory of the Old Russian state, in the 9th-10th centuries. a wide non-Slavic periphery was formed from Finnish-speaking and Baltic-speaking tribes, which were not directly part of Kievan Rus, but paid tribute to it.

Foreign policy Ancient Russia.

4. Acceptance of Christianity and its consequences.

Adoption of Christianity Ancient Russia was a significant step in the development of East Slavic civilization. It resulted in significant, although different at the same time, changes in the socio-political, economic and cultural development of Russia.

With the liquidation of the autonomy of the Slavic unions of tribal principalities, the structure of a single state took shape with a single dynasty at the head, with a single dominant layer, represented by the military service nobility. In the political-territorial sphere, under these conditions, the old centers of unions of tribal principalities turned out to be unsuitable for the central government and new ones were created, in which the princes, relatives of the Kiev ruler, were located.

Immediately after Vladimir, who at the time of Svyatoslav's death was Prince of Novgorod, seized the throne of Kiev in 980, having eliminated his elder brother Yaropolk (972-980), he made an attempt to create an all-Russian pagan pantheon headed by Perun, the god of thunder, to whom worshiped by princely warriors. But this did not bring the desired result, and a few years later the Kiev prince raised the question of a decisive break with the old tradition - the adoption of a monotheistic religion.

There were several possible options for choosing such a religion: the eastern, Byzantine version of Christianity (Orthodoxy), the Western European version of Christianity (Catholicism), Islam, which dominates the Volga Bulgaria, which is territorially close to Russia, and finally, Judaism, which was the religion of the ruling elite of Khazaria (although almost no longer existing as a state). The choice was made in favor of Orthodoxy already known in Russia (the baptism of part of the Russian nobility in the 60s of the IX century, the baptism of Princess Olga).

The act of adopting Christianity by Vladimir Svyatoslavich was directly connected with the events in relations between Russia and Byzantium. In 988, Emperors Basil and Constantine turned to Vladimir for help against the rebellious commander Varda Foki, who was in charge in the Asia Minor part of the empire. Vladimir made his marriage to the sister of the emperors, Anna, a condition for granting assistance. The six thousandth Russian detachment took part in the defeat of the rebel troops. But Vasily and Konstantin violated their agreement by refusing to send their sister to Russia. Then Vladimir marched on the center of the Crimean possessions of Byzantium - Chersonese, took it and thereby forced the emperors to fulfill the agreement. Anna was sent to him in Chersonese, Vladimir was baptized and married a Byzantine princess. After returning to Russia, he carried out a mass conversion to Christianity of the inhabitants of Kiev. Later, the new religion began to spread, partly peacefully, and in some places (for example, in Novgorod) and as a result of bloody clashes, throughout Russia. The Russian metropolis was approved, subordinate to the Patriarchate of Constantinople.

By the end of X-XI centuries. includes the emergence of several bishoprics that were created in the most important centers of the state - Novgorod, Polotsk, Chernigov, Pereyaslavl, Belgorod, Rostov. Orthodox clergy appeared in Russia, liturgical and now books in the Slavic language, which came mainly from Bulgaria. Thus, the act of adopting Christianity introduced Russia to the treasures of world culture - ancient Greek, early Christian, Byzantine, Slavic Christian.

The adoption of Christianity strengthened state power and territorial unity of Kievan Rus. It had a great international importance, which consisted in the fact that Russia, having rejected "primitive" paganism, now became equal to other Christian countries, ties with which are significantly

expanded.

The adoption of Christianity played a huge role in the development and formation of a single ancient Russian culture. Primarily we are talking about the emergence, or rather the spread of writing and literature.

Not later than the end of the 9th - beginning of the 10th century. Slavic alphabets - Cyrillic and Glagolitic - are spreading in Russia. Created in the second half of the 9th century by the brothers Cyril (Konstantin) and Methodius and originally distributed in the West Slavic state - Great Moravia, they soon penetrate into Bulgaria and Russia. The first Russian monument of Slavic writing is the Russian-Byzantine treaty of 911.

The adoption of Christianity in the Orthodox tradition has become one of the determining factors in our further historical development. Vladimir was canonized by the church as a saint, and for his merits in the baptism of Russia, he is called Equal-to-the-Apostles

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7. Platonov S.F. Textbook of Russian history. - St. Petersburg: Art-Press, 1999.- 429 p.

Slavs are one of the largest European ethnic groups. V modern world it combines about 300 ml| people, of whom more than 125 million live in Russia. Slavic languages are divided into three large groups: western (Polish, Czech, Slovak, Lusatian), southern (Bulgarian Serbo-Croatian, Slovenian and Macedonian) and eastern (Russian Ukrainian and Belarusian). All of them are Indo-European! language family, which also includes Indian, Iranian, Italic Romance, Celtic, Germanic, Baltic and other languages. It is assumed that the Indo-European community was once united for a long time developed as one entity and on a certain eta! did not begin to disintegrate. When the ancestors of the Slavs began to stand out in this process, it’s hard to say for sure. Most of the teaching agrees that this could happen somewhere in the first millennium e! AD, most likely, not earlier than its middle. I The processes of Slavic ethnogenesis are divided into three stages in total: until the end of the 1st millennium AD. - Proto-Slavic from the turn of the BC sh III-IV centuries. - Proto-Slavic V-VII centuries. -Early Slavic. After this, the Slavs finally acquire their own ethnic identity, their socio- and politogenesis enters the active phase. 1 Currently, several theories about the Slavic ancestral home dominate, which localize it either in the Carpathian-Danubian region, or in the Vistula-Oder interfluve, or on the territory between the Dnieper and Vistula in the forest and forest-steppe natural zones. I In written sources, the Slavs first appear under the name of the Wends. At least, a large proto-ethnic image of the Wends / Venets, known to the ancient authors Pliny the Elder, Tacitus, Ptolemy, included the ancestors of the Slavs. This is directly indicated by the Gothic historian of the 6th century. Jordanes: “These (Venedi. -D A.) come from the same root and are now known under three names: Veneti, Antes and Sklavins.” The Wends settled on the vast territory of Eastern Europe from the borders of the Finno-Ugric tribes in the north to the Carpathian Mountains and the Dnieper in the south, from the right tributaries of the Vistula in the west to the upper reaches of the Volga, Oka and Don in the east. In this area, complex ethnic processes took place, during which the Proto-Slavic ethnic grouping began to stand out. The consolidation of the Slavic tribes was accelerated by the invasion of Eastern Europe at the turn of the 2nd and 3rd centuries. AD Germans (ready), who created a powerful early public education(the so-called power of Germanarich). The Goths were at enmity with the Slavs, tried to annex them and, obviously, achieved some success in this. However, at the end of the 4th c. the Gothic state was destroyed by a large-scale invasion of the eastern nomads - the Huns. Fascinated by the pursuit of the Goths retreating to the west and the robbery of the provinces of the Roman Empire, the Huns advanced into Central and even Western Europe . The north of the former possessions of Germanarich turned out to be sparsely populated, and Slavic tribes began to migrate here from the forest zone. After the collapse of the nomadic Hunnic state in the VI century. The Slavs began to dominate Eastern Europe. From the 6th century the period of the most intensive settlement of the Slavs begins. In part, they move to the north of the continent, displacing and assimilating the local Baltic and Finno-Ugric tribes. But the main flow of migration rushes to the south, to the Danube borders of the rich Eastern Empire - Byzantium. It was then that numerous references to two early Slavic peoples - the Ants and the Slavs - appear on the pages of the works of Byzantine and other authors. The Slavs not only arrange short-term raids, but also permanently move to new lands, advancing to the Balkans, Greece and Asia Minor right up to Syria. However, at the turn of the 6th-7th centuries, they suffered a series of defeats from the South European tribal unions, known as the Vlachs, which forced them to partially resettle in the central and return migration to the eastern part of the European continent. These events laid the foundation for the division of the Slavs into three branches - western, southern and eastern, their isolation basically ends by the 8th-9th centuries. During the migrations of Slavic tribes from Eastern Europe to the Danube and back, the Sclavinians and Antes mix. At the beginning of the 7th century (602) the Antes are mentioned by the sources for the last time, and from that moment the Byzantines and European authors write only about the Slavs/Slavs. Meanwhile, the invasion of nomadic peoples from the depths of Asia to the southern Russian steppes continued. In the middle of the 6th century, at the height of the Slavic invasions across the Danube, Turkic-speaking or Mongol-speaking Avars appeared here, which, probably, became the main reason for the decline of the Antian tribal community. A little later, in the middle of the 7th century, the Black Sea steppes attracted new Turks - the Bulgarians. The latter, led by Khan Asparukh, migrated to the Lower Danube and, having conquered the local tribes of the southern Slavs, laid the foundation for Danube Bulgaria. Both the Avars and the Bulgarians sacked and robbed the Slavic settlements from the Dnieper to the Danube, enslaved the population, causing fierce resistance and provoking the Slavic tribes to a new consolidation in the face of a common enemy. By the end of the 7th - the middle of the 8th century. to the south and southeast of the main territory of the settlement of the Eastern Slavs, a new powerful state formation of nomads is gradually taking shape - the Khazar Khaganate. This process, probably, became the main stimulus for the formation of the East Slavic unions of the tribes of the pre-Old Russian time. According to the annals, about a dozen such unions are known. In the Middle Dnieper region, a union of glades was localized, the center of which was the city of Kiev. The chronicler himself ascribes its foundation to three legendary brothers - the first Polyansky princes Kyi, Shchek and Khoriv, ​​the name of the elder one gave the name of the fortress. To the south and south-west of the glades, there were unions of Tivertsy (along the Dniester), White Croats (in the Carpathian region), streets (on the Lower Dnieper), Buzhans (along the Southern Bug) and Dulebs (on the Western Bug) The last two in the 9th century . form parts of the Volyn tribal union. To the north-west of the glades, in Eastern Volyn, were the lands of the Drevlyans. To the north of the Drevlyans, deeper in the forest zone, between the Pripyat and Dvina rivers, the tribal union of the Dregovichi was located. To the east of the glades, in the Dnieper Left Bank, tribes of northerners settled. To the north of them, the chronicle places the unions of the tribes of the Radimichi (the Sozh river basin) and the Vyatichi (along the Oka). The most northern of the East Slavic tribal associations were the Krivichi and Slovene Ilmen. The first settled in the Smolensk and Pskov regions, later the Polotsk people separated from them. The second lived in the area of ​​Lake Ilmen. Their tribal center was first Ladoga, where already at the end of the 9th century. the oldest stone fortress in Russia is being built, and later - Novgorod. The picture of the settlement of the Slavic tribes is complemented by the vast area of ​​the Don Slavs, located in the upper and middle reaches of the river. Don. She was not mentioned in the annals, apparently due to the fact that she was most dependent on the Khazars and, in the end, did not gain independence. The process of the formation of Slavic statehood will be incomprehensible if one does not turn to an analysis of the social system of the Slavs on the eve of the formation of the Kievan state. The Slavs traditionally lived in communities that can be correlated with individual settlements. A large patriarchal family settled in one village - the patronymia, or lineage. Clusters of closely spaced settlements (the so-called "bush"), characteristic of the Eastern Slavs, reflect the structure of tribal organizations. Several clans occupying a certain topographical territory formed a tribe. Thus, the size of the tribe could vary greatly, but it is unlikely that it exceeded several thousand people. Until a certain time, kinship ties played a decisive role in the tribe. Such a social structure is called rhodotemenny, or primitive (primitive-communal). However, over time, as a result of the progress of the productive forces (the development of metals, the improvement of tools, etc. ), there is an isolation of separate paired (nukpeary) families and patronymy begins to disintegrate. This objective process also took place in the East Slavic lands, but, obviously, at a slower pace. The fact is that in the forest zone - the main natural habitat of the Slavs - the slash-and-burn system of agriculture prevailed, which required significant labor costs. It was difficult for one couple with children to clear a plot of forest from mature trees, and community ties continued to play a big role. The beginning of the active stage of the decomposition of tribal relations among the Eastern Slavs should be associated primarily with the activation of their military activities, the formation of squads. It was the spoils of war that accumulated in the hands of the leaders and the most successful warriors, and not the success of individual families in agriculture, that caused property differentiation in the Slavic community. This, obviously, explains the opposition of the military stratum to the direct producers, headed by their tribal elders, which can be traced in a number of annalistic plots and some foreign sources. For example, some Arabic authors write about the two peoples Rus and Sloven, of which the latter are subordinate to the former. The formation of professional squads led by military leaders also accelerates the processes of politogenesis, since it is they who bring to life the need to form tribal unions, which are the earliest form of military-political associations. The military elite played the leading role in them, but the primitive democratic institutions of power were also preserved - the people's assembly, the council of tribal elders, etc. Moreover, military leaders do not immediately receive primacy in solving tribal issues, gradually crowding out the traditional governing bodies of the tribal community. The military leader - the leader of the squad among the Slavs receives the name prince. The union of tribes is a potestary, i.e. e. pre-state education. It already contains some elements of the actual political organization - the power of the military leader (prince), based on the strength of his squad, uniting administrative, military, judicial and other functions. However, these functions do not yet have a solid foundation, they are not always fixed even in customary law, the power of such a prince is not yet hereditary, its boundaries are unclear, the position of the ruler can be precarious due to the lack of a long tradition of his legitimacy. Among the Slavs, such tribal unions were associations of glades, drevlyans, krivichi and others. It should, however, be noted that these associations do not correlate rather with tribal unions, but rather with "unions of unions" or "super unions", since their scale is very significant. The formation and development of large tribal associations is the first stage in the formation of the statehood of the Eastern Slavs. The second stage is the emergence of tribal principalities. The chronicle tradition brought to us the names of some of the tribal princes - legendary (Kiy, Radim, Vyatko) and, probably, historical (Drevlyansky Prince Mal). The third stage is connected with the formation of the early states among the Eastern Slavs. One of them arises in the Middle Dnieper, on the territory of the glades and their neighbors. In some sources, it appears as Cuiaba. Historians call it differently - Lower Russia, Russian land, fair-haired kaganate. Its center was Kiev. The title of the ruler of this country - kagan - in terms of political significance correlates with the title of the rulers of the strong neighboring state of the Khazars. We have almost no reliable information about the history of the Dnieper East Slavic state, with the exception of data on several campaigns against Byzantium in the 9th century. (in 860) and the names of her last princes (kagans?) Askold and Dir. Another early state formation is formed in the north of Eastern Europe, around Ladoga and, later, Novgorod and correlates with Slavia mentioned in various sources. It is his story that is firmly linked with the invitation to the reign of Rurik in the middle of the 9th century. The very fact of such an invitation speaks of the unconditional presence of the institution of reigning, otherwise, on what grounds would the relations of the newcomer military leader with the local population develop? The practice of inviting a ruler from outside is not unusual for the early Middle Ages and is common in Europe. In this case, according to the chronicle, Rurik and his retinue were needed as a neutral force to restore order among the tribes that called them, which, according to the chronicle, were at enmity with each other. Obviously, the Eastern Slavs also had other early state associations. For example, Arab sources also mention Arsu (Artania), the location of which scientists argue. _ Finally, the last, fourth, stage in the development of East Slavic statehood is associated with the unification of Kiev, Novgorod and some other East Slavic lands into a single ancient Russian state - Kievan Rus. This will be discussed in the next section. one.

2.1 Occupations of the Eastern Slavs

2.2 Family and clan.

2.3 Social organization.

2.4 Religion of the Eastern Slavs.

Conclusion

List of used literature

Introduction

History in a sense is the sacred book of peoples: the main, necessary, covenant of ancestors to posterity, addition, explanation of the present and an example of the future.

The theme of the life of the Eastern Slavs in the pre-state period is the most interesting for research, because it was in those days that the foundations were laid for the formation of the Russian people, and later education. Russian state. This is a topic that deals, first of all, with the origin of the Eastern Slavs, their structure and way of life.

The purpose of this work is to study the life of the Eastern Slavs, their origin.

For my research, I used several historical sources- "The Tale of Bygone Years", "Course of Russian History" by V.O. Klyuchevsky.

The beginning of the history of the people should be marked by some clear, perceptible signs that must be sought, first of all, in the memory of the people themselves. The first thing that the people remembered about themselves, and should point the way to the beginning of their history. Such a memory is not accidental, unreasonable. A people is a population that not only lives together, but also acts collectively, having mutual language and common destinies. Therefore, in the memory of the people, events are usually retained for a long time, which for the first time touched the whole people, in which they all took part and through this participation for the first time felt themselves to be a single whole. That is why, in order to study such an ancient period of the existence of our people, it is worth turning to one of the first historical sources - chronicles.

1. The origin of the Eastern Slavs.

Ancient Greek and Roman writers tell us about the southern steppe Russia a number of news, unequally reliable, received by them through the Greek colonies along the northern shores of the Black Sea from merchants or from personal observations. Before our era, various nomadic peoples who came from Asia dominated here one after another: the Cimmerians, the Scythians, and later, during the time of Roman rule, the Sarmatians. Around the beginning of our era, the change of newcomers becomes more frequent, the nomenclature of barbarians in ancient Scythia becomes more complicated, more confusing. The Sarmatians were replaced or the Getae, Iazygs, Roxalans, Alans, Bastarnas, Dacians stood out from them. It can be seen that a great migration of peoples was being prepared. Southern Russia served as a temporary stop for these Asian explorers, where they prepared to play this or that European role, making their way to the lower Danube or crossing the Carpathians. These peoples, who have passed in a chain over the centuries along the southern Russian steppes, left here behind countless barrows, with which the vast expanses between the Dniester and the Kuban are dotted. Archeology is working diligently and successfully over these grave mounds and discovers in them curious historical indications that supplement and clarify the ancient Greek writers who wrote about our country.

Most of the pre-revolutionary historians connected the issues of the origin of the Russian state with the issues of the ethnicity of the people of Rus, which the chroniclers talk about. Russian historians, proving that the annalistic legend about the calling of princes from across the sea cannot be considered the beginning of Russian statehood, they also found out that the identification of the people of Russia with the Varangians in the annals is erroneous.
Iranian geographer of the middle of the 9th century. Ibn-Khordadbeh points out that "the Rus are a tribe of Slavs." The Tale of Bygone Years speaks of the identity of the Russian language with the Slavic. The sources also contain more precise indications that help to determine among which part of the Eastern Slavs one should look for Rus. Firstly, in the Tale of Bygone Years, it is said about the meadows: "I am now calling Rus." Consequently, the ancient Rus tribe was located somewhere in the Middle Dnieper region, near Kiev, which arose in the land of glades, on which the name of Rus subsequently passed. Secondly, in various Russian chronicles of the time of feudal fragmentation, a twofold geographical name words "Russian land", "Rus". Sometimes they understand all the East Slavic lands, sometimes the words "Russian land", "Rus" are used in a very narrow, geographically limited sense - to refer to the forest-steppe strip from Kiev and the Ros River to Chernigov, Kursk and Voronezh. This narrow understanding of the Russian land should be considered more ancient and be traced back to the 6th-7th centuries, when it was within these limits that a homogeneous material culture existed, known from archaeological finds.

By the middle of the VI century. the first mention of Russia in written sources also applies. One Syrian author mentions a people growing up who lived in the neighborhood of the mythical Amazons (whose residence is usually confined to the Don basin). Outstanding historians N.M. Karamzin, S.M. Soloviev, V.O. Klyuchevsky supported the version of Russian chronicles (primarily the Tale of Bygone Years) that the Danube was the ancestral home of the Slavs. True, V.O. Klyuchevsky made an addition: from the Danube, the Slavs got to the Dnieper, where they remained for about five centuries, after which in the 7th century. Eastern Slavs gradually settled in the Russian (East European) Plain. Most modern scientists believe that the ancestral home of the Slavs was located in more northern regions (the Middle Dnieper and Pripyat, or the interfluve of the Vistula and Oder).

The Tale of Bygone Years does not speak of the five-century Carpathian camp of the Slavs, nor of their secondary movement from there in different directions; but she notes some of its individual signs and consequences. In an outline of the settlement of the Slavs from the Danube, she clearly distinguishes the Western Slavs, Moravians, Czechs, Poles, Pomeranians, from the eastern ones - Croats, Serbs and Khorutans. Slavs who settled along the Dnieper and other rivers of our plain, it leads from eastern branch, and the seat of the tribes that made it up, where Byzantine writers later know these Croats and Serbs, was the country of the Carpathians, present-day Galicia with the region of the upper Vistula.

Eastern Slavs to the VIII - IX centuries. reached in the north of the Neva and Lake Ladoga, in the east - the middle Oka and the upper Don, gradually assimilating part of the local Baltic, Finno-Ugric, Iranian-speaking population.
The resettlement of the Slavs coincided with the collapse of the tribal system. As a result of the crushing and mixing of tribes, new communities were formed, which were no longer consanguineous, but territorial and political in nature.
Tribal fragmentation among the Slavs has not yet been overcome, but there was already a tendency towards unification. This was facilitated by the situation of the era (wars with Byzantium; the need to fight against nomads and barbarians; back in the 3rd century, the Goths passed through Europe in a tornado, in the 4th century the Huns attacked; in the 5th century, the Avars invaded the Dnieper region, etc.).
During this period, unions of Slavic tribes begin to form. These unions included 120-150 separate tribes, whose names have already been lost.
A grandiose picture of the settlement of Slavic tribes on the great East European Plain is given by Nestor in The Tale of Bygone Years (which is confirmed by both archaeological and written sources).
The names of tribal principalities were most often formed from the habitat: landscape features (for example, "glade" - "living in the field", "Drevlyans" - "living in the forests"), or the name of the river (for example, "Buzhan" - from the river Bug ). If we turn to The Tale of Bygone Years, we can trace how the settlement of peoples along the Danube took place: “After a long time, the Slavs settled along the Danube, where now the land is Hungarian and Bulgarian. From those Slavs, the Slavs dispersed throughout the earth and were called by their names from the places where they sat down. So some, having come, sat down on the river by the name of Morava and were called Morava, while others were called Czechs. And here are the same Slavs: white Croats, and Serbs, and Horutans. When the Volokhi attacked the Danubian Slavs, and settled among them, and oppressed them, these Slavs came and sat on the Vistula and were called Poles, and from those Poles came Poles, other Poles - Lutich, others - Mazovshan, others - Pomeranians.

In the same way, these Slavs came and sat down along the Dnieper and called themselves glades, and others - Drevlyans, because they sat in the forests, while others sat down between Pripyat and Dvina and called themselves Dregovichi, others sat down along the Dvina and were called Polochans, along the river flowing into the Dvina , called Polota, from which the Polotsk people were named. The same Slavs who sat down near Lake Ilmen were called by their name - Slavs, and built a city, and called it Novgorod. And others sat down along the Desna, and along the Seim, and along the Sula, and called themselves northerners. And so the Slavic people dispersed, and after his name the charter was called Slavic.

The structure of these communities was two-stage: several small formations ("tribal principalities"), as a rule, formed larger ones ("unions of tribal principalities").

The Eastern Slavs to the VIII - IX centuries. There were 12 unions of tribal principalities. In the Middle Dnieper region (the area from the lower reaches of the Pripyat and Desna rivers to the Ros river) lived a glade, to the north-west of them, south of the Pripyat, - Drevlyans, west of the Drevlyans to the Western Bug - Buzhans (later called Volhynians), in the upper reaches of the Dniester and In the Carpathian region - Croats (part of a large tribe that broke up into several parts during settlement), below the Dniester - Tivertsy, and in the Dnieper region south of the glades - Ulichi. On the Dnieper Left Bank, in the basins of the Desna and Seim rivers, a union of northerners settled, in the Sozh river basin (the left tributary of the Dnieper north of the Desna) - Radimichi, on the upper Oka - Vyatichi. Between the Pripyat and the Dvina (to the north of the Drevlyans), the Dregovichi lived, and in the upper reaches of the Dvina, Dnieper and Volga, the Krivichi. The northernmost Slavic community, settled in the area of ​​Lake Ilmen and the Volkhov River up to the Gulf of Finland, was called "Slovene", which coincided with the common Slavic self-name.

Within the tribes, their own dialect of the language, their own culture, features of the economy and idea of ​​\u200b\u200bthe territory are formed.
So, it was established that the Krivichi came to the upper Dnieper region, absorbing the Balts who lived there. The rite of burial in long mounds is associated with the Krivichi. Their length, unusual for mounds, was formed because a mound was poured over the urn of another to the buried remains of one person. Thus, the mound gradually grew in length. There are few things in the long mounds, there are iron knives, awls, clay whorls, iron belt buckles and vessels.

At this time, other Slavic tribes, or tribal unions, were clearly formed. In a number of cases, the territory of these tribal associations can be traced quite definitely due to the special construction of mounds that existed among some Slavic peoples. On the Oka, in the upper reaches of the Don, along the Ugra lived the ancient Vyatichi. Mounds of a special type spread in their lands: high, with the remains of wooden fences inside. The remains of the cremation were placed in these enclosures. In the upper reaches of the Neman and along the Berezina in the swampy Polesie lived the Dregovichi; according to Sozh and Desna - radimichi. In the lower reaches of the Desna, along the Seim, northerners settled, occupying a fairly large territory. To the south-west of them, along the Southern Bug, the Tivertsy and the Ulichi lived. In the very north of the Slavic territory, along Ladoga and Volkhov, the Slovenes lived. Many of these tribal unions, especially the northern ones, continued to exist even after the formation of Kievan Rus, since the process of decomposition of primitive relations with them proceeded more slowly.

Differences between the East Slavic tribes can be traced not only in the construction of mounds. So, the archaeologist A.A. Spitsyn noticed that the temporal rings - specific women's jewelry often found among the Slavs, woven into the hair, are different in different territories of the settlement of the Slavic tribes.

The designs of mounds and the distribution of certain types of temporal rings allowed archaeologists to quite accurately trace the territory of distribution of one or another Slavic tribe. The noted features (burial structures, temporal rings) between the tribal associations of Eastern Europe arose among the Slavs, apparently not without the influence of the Baltic tribes. Eastern Balts in the second half of the 1st millennium AD as if "grown" into the East Slavic population and were a real cultural and ethnic force that influenced the Slavs.
The development of these territorial-political unions proceeded gradually along the path of their transformation into states.

1. 2. The structure and way of life of the Eastern Slavs.

2.1 Occupations of the Eastern Slavs

The basis of the economy of the Eastern Slavs was arable farming. The Eastern Slavs, mastering the vast forest areas of Eastern Europe, carried with them an agricultural culture.

For agricultural work, the following were used: ralo, hoe, spade, knotted harrow, sickle, rake, scythe, stone grain grinders or millstones. Among grain crops prevailed: rye (zhito), millet, wheat, barley and buckwheat. Garden crops were also known to them: turnips, cabbage, carrots, beets, radishes.

Thus, slash-and-burn agriculture was widespread. On the lands liberated from the forest as a result of cutting and burning, crops (rye, oats, barley) were grown for 2-3 years, using the natural fertility of the soil, enhanced by ash from burnt trees. After the land was depleted, the site was abandoned and a new one was developed, which required the efforts of the entire community.

In the steppe regions, shifting agriculture was used, similar to undercutting, but associated with the burning of not trees, but willow grasses.
From the 8th century in the southern regions, field arable farming is spreading, based on the use of a plow with iron fur, draft cattle and a wooden plow, which survived until the beginning of the 20th century.
The Eastern Slavs used three ways of settling: separately (individually, families, clans), in settlements (jointly) and on free lands between wild forests and steppes (zaymischa, zaimki, camps, repairs).
In the first case, the abundance of free land allowed everyone to cultivate as much land as was possible.

In the second case, everyone tried to have the lands allocated to him for cultivation located closer to the settlement. All convenient lands were considered common property, remained indivisible, cultivated jointly or divided into equal plots and after a certain period of time distributed by lot between individual families.

In the third case, citizens separated from the settlements, cleared and burned forests, developed wastelands and formed new farms.
Cattle breeding, hunting, fishing, and beekeeping also played a certain role in the economy.

Cattle breeding begins to separate from agriculture. The Slavs bred pigs, cows, sheep, goats, horses, oxen.

A craft developed, including blacksmithing on a professional basis, but it was mainly associated with agriculture. From swamp and lake ores, iron began to be produced in primitive clay furnaces (pits).
Of particular importance for the fate of the Eastern Slavs will be foreign trade, which developed both on the Baltic-Volga route, along which Arab silver entered Europe, and on the route “from the Varangians to the Greeks”, connecting the Byzantine world through the Dnieper with the Baltic region.
The economic life of the population was directed by such a mighty stream as the Dnieper, which cuts through it from north to south. With the then significance of rivers as the most convenient means of communication, the Dnieper was the main economic artery, a pillar trade road for the western strip of the plain: with its upper reaches it comes close to the Western Dvina and the Ilmen-Lake basin, that is, to the two most important roads to the Baltic Sea, and the mouth connects the central Alaun Upland with the northern coast of the Black Sea. The tributaries of the Dnieper, going from afar to the right and left, like the access roads of the main road, bring the Dnieper region closer. on the one hand, to the Carpathian basins of the Dniester and Vistula, on the other hand, to the basins of the Volga and Don, that is, to the Caspian and Azov seas. Thus, the region of the Dnieper covers the entire western and partly the eastern half of the Russian plain. Thanks to this, from time immemorial there was a lively trade movement along the Dnieper, the impetus to which was given by the Greeks.

2.2 Family and clan.

In the Carpathians, the Slavs, apparently, still lived in primitive tribal unions. The features of such a life flash in the obscure and meager Byzantine news about the Slavs of the 6th and early 7th centuries. According to this news, the Slavs were ruled by numerous kings and philarchs, i.e., tribal princes and tribal elders, and had a habit of gathering for meetings on common affairs. Apparently, we are talking about family gatherings and tribal meetings. At the same time, Byzantine news points to a lack of agreement, to frequent strife between the Slavs - a common sign of life in small, disunited clans. Already in the VI century. small Slavic clans began to merge into larger unions, tribes or tribes, although tribal isolation still prevailed.

In The Tale of Bygone Years, Nestor writes about the customs of the Slavic tribes: “The tribes had their own customs, and the laws of their fathers, and traditions, and each had its own temper. Glades have the custom of their fathers meek and quiet, bashful in front of their daughters-in-law and sisters, mothers and parents; before mothers-in-law and brothers-in-law they have great modesty; they also have a marriage custom: the son-in-law does not go for the bride, but brings her the day before, and the next day they bring for her - what they give. And the Drevlyans lived as an animal custom, lived like a beast: they killed each other, ate everything unclean, and they did not have marriages, but they kidnapped the girls by the water. And the Radimichi, Vyatichi and Northerners had a common custom: they lived in the forest, like all animals, ate everything unclean and shamed with their fathers and daughters-in-law, and they did not have marriages, but games were arranged between villages, and converged on these games, on dances and all sorts of demonic songs, and here they kidnapped their wives in collusion with them; and they had two and three wives. And if someone died, they arranged a funeral feast for him, and then they made a large deck, and laid the dead man on this deck, and burned it, and then, having collected the bones, they put them in a small vessel and placed them on poles along the roads, as they still do now. Vyatichi. The same custom was followed by the Krivichi and other pagans, who did not know the law of God, but established the law for themselves.

Umychka (“kidnapping of the bride”), veno, in the sense of a ransom for the lychka, vein as the sale of the bride, going after the bride, bringing the bride with payment of the vein and then with the issuance of a dowry - all these forms of marriage that replaced one another were successive moments of the destruction of family ties, preparing the mutual convergence of the clans. Marriage opened the clan from both ends, making it easier not only to leave the clan, but also to join it. The relatives of the bride and groom became each other's people, brother-in-law; property has become a kind of kinship. This means that already in pagan times marriage brought together clans alien to each other. In its primary, untouched composition, the clan represents a closed union, inaccessible to strangers: a bride from a foreign clan broke the kinship with her blood relatives, but, having become a wife, did not make them related to her husband’s relatives. The related villages, which the chronicle speaks of, were not such primary unions: they were formed from the ruins of the clan, grew from separate households into which the clan broke up during the era of settlement.

The economic unit (VIII-IX centuries) was mainly a small family. The organization that united the households of small families was the neighboring (territorial) community - verv.

The transition from a consanguineous community to a neighboring one occurred among the Eastern Slavs in the 6th - 8th centuries. Vervi members jointly owned hay and forest land, and arable land was, as a rule, divided among separate peasant farms.

The community (world, rope) played a big role in the life of the Russian village. This was due to the complexity and volume of agricultural work (which could only be performed by a large team); the need to monitor the correct distribution and use of land, the period of agricultural work.

There were changes in the community: the collective of relatives who owned all the land together was replaced by an agricultural community. It also consisted of large patriarchal families, united by a common territory, traditions, and beliefs, but small families ran an independent economy here and independently disposed of the products of their labor.
As noted by V.O. Klyuchevsky, in the structure of a private civil hostel, an old Russian courtyard, a complex family of a householder with a wife, children and unseparated relatives, brothers, nephews, served as a transitional step from an ancient family to the newest simple family and corresponded to an ancient Roman surname.

This destruction of the tribal union, its disintegration into households or complex families left some traces in itself in popular beliefs and customs.

2.3 Social organization.

At the head of the East Slavic unions of tribal principalities were the princes, who relied on the military service nobility - the squad. The princes were also in smaller communities - tribal principalities that were part of the unions.
Information about the first princes is contained in the Tale of Bygone Years. The chronicler notes that tribal unions, although not all of them, have their own "principles". So, in relation to the meadows, he recorded a legend about the princes, the founders of the city of Kiev: Kyi, Shchek, Khoryv and their sister Lebed. From the 8th century among the Eastern Slavs, fortified settlements - "grads" - spread. They were, as a rule, the centers of unions of tribal principalities. The concentration of tribal nobility, warriors, artisans and merchants in them contributed to the further stratification of society.

The story of the beginning of the Russian land does not remember when these cities arose: Kiev, Pereyaslavl. Chernigov, Smolensk, Lyubech, Novgorod, Rostov, Polotsk. At the moment from which she begins her story about Russia, most of these cities, if not all of them, apparently, were already significant settlements. A cursory glance at the geographical distribution of these cities is enough to see that they were created by the success of Russia's foreign trade.
The Byzantine author Procopius of Caesarea (6th century) writes: “These tribes, Slavs and Antes, are not ruled by one person, but since ancient times they have lived in the government of the people, and therefore decisions are made jointly regarding all happy and unfortunate circumstances.”
Most likely, we are talking about meetings (veche) of community members (male warriors), at which the most important issues of the life of the tribe were decided, including the choice of leaders - “military leaders”. At the same time, only male warriors participated in veche meetings.

Arabic sources speak of education in the 8th century. on the territory occupied by the Eastern Slavs, three political centers: Cuiaba, Slavia and Artsania (Artania).

Kuyaba is a political association of the southern group of East Slavic tribes, headed by the glades, with the center in Kiev. Slavia is an association of the northern group of Eastern Slavs, led by the Novgorod Slovenes. The center of Artania (Artsania) causes controversy among scientists (the cities of Chernihiv, Ryazan and others are called).

Thus, during this period, the Slavs experienced the last period of the communal system - the era of "military democracy" that preceded the formation of the state. This is also evidenced by such facts as the sharp rivalry between military leaders, recorded by another Byzantine author of the 6th century. - Mauritius Strategist: the appearance of slaves from captives; raids on Byzantium, which, as a result of the distribution of looted wealth, strengthened the prestige of the elected military leaders and led to the formation of a squad consisting of professional military men - the prince's comrades-in-arms.

At the beginning of the ninth century the diplomatic and military activity of the Eastern Slavs is intensifying. At the very beginning of the IX century. they made campaigns against Surazh in the Crimea; in 813 - to the island of Aegina. In 839 a Russian embassy from Kiev visited the emperors of Byzantium and Germany.

In 860, the boats of the Rus appeared at the walls of Constantinople. The campaign is associated with the names of the Kiev princes Askold and Dir. This fact indicates the presence of statehood among the Slavs who lived in the middle Dnieper region.
Many scientists believe that it was at that time that Russia entered the arena of international life as a state. There is information about the agreement between Russia and Byzantium after this campaign and about the adoption by Askold and his entourage, warriors of Christianity.

2.4 Religion of the Eastern Slavs.

The worldview of the Eastern Slavs was based on paganism - the deification of the forces of nature, the perception of the natural and human world as a whole.

The origin of pagan cults occurred in ancient times - in the era of the Upper Paleolithic, about 30 thousand years BC.
With the transition to new types of management, pagan cults were transformed, reflecting the evolution public life person. At the same time, it is noteworthy that the most ancient layers of beliefs were not replaced by new ones, but were layered on top of each other, so restoring information about Slavic paganism is extremely difficult. It is also difficult because to this day there are practically no written sources.
The most revered of the pagan gods were Rod, Perun and Volos (Veles); at the same time, each of the communities had its own, local gods.
Perun was the god of lightning and thunder, Rod - fertility, Stribog - the wind, Veles - cattle breeding and wealth, Dazhbog and Hora - the deities of the sun, Mokosh - the goddess of weaving.

In ancient times, the Slavs had a widespread cult of the Family and women in childbirth, closely associated with the worship of ancestors. The clan - the divine image of the tribal community contained the entire Universe: heaven, earth and the underground dwelling of the ancestors.

Each East Slavic tribe had its own patron god and its own pantheons of gods, different tribes were similar in type, but different in name.
In the future, the cult of the great Svarog - the god of heaven - and his sons - Dazhbog (Yarilo, Khore) and Stribog - the gods of the sun and wind, acquires special significance.

Over time, Perun begins to play an increasingly important role - the god of thunder and rain, the "creator of lightning", who was especially revered as the god of war and weapons in the princely retinue environment. Perun was not the head of the pantheon of gods, only later, during the formation of statehood and the strengthening of the importance of the prince and his squad, the cult of Perun began to strengthen.
Perun is the central image of Indo-European mythology - a thunderer (ancient Ind. Parjfnya, Hittite Piruna, Slavic Perunъ, Lithuanian Perkunas, etc.), located “above” (hence the connection of his name with the name of the mountain, rock) and entering into combat with the enemy , representing "down" - it is usually "under" a tree, mountain, etc. Most often, the opponent of the Thunderer appears in the form of a snake-like creature, correlated with the lower world, chaotic and hostile to man.

The pagan pantheon also included Volos (Veles) - the patron of cattle breeding and the guardian of the underworld of the ancestors; Makosh (Mokosh) - the goddess of fertility, weaving, and others.

Public worship has not yet been established, and even in the last times of paganism we see only its weak beginnings. Imperceptibly neither temples, nor the priestly class; but there were individual sorcerers, sorcerers, who were turned to for fortune-telling and who had a great influence on the people. In open places, mainly on the hills, images of the gods were placed, before which certain rites were performed and requirements, victims. So, in Kiev, on a hill, stood the idol of Perun, before which Igor in 945 took an oath to comply with the agreement concluded with the Greeks. Vladimir, having established himself in Kiev in 980, placed here on the hill the idols of Perun with a silver head and a golden mustache, Khors, Dazhbog, Stribog and other gods, to whom the prince and people made sacrifices.
Initially, totemic ideas were also preserved, associated with the belief in the mystical connection of the genus with any animal, plant, or even object.

In addition, the world of the Eastern Slavs was "inhabited" by numerous coastlines, mermaids, wood goblins, etc. Wooden and stone statues of gods were erected on pagan sanctuaries (temples), where sacrifices were made, including human ones.

Pagan holidays were closely connected with the agricultural calendar.
In the organization of the cult, a significant role was played by pagan priests - the Magi.
The head of the pagan cult was the leader, and then the prince. Pagan beliefs determined the spiritual life of the Eastern Slavs, their morality.
The Slavs did not have a mythology that explains the origin of the world and man, tells about the victory of heroes over the forces of nature, etc.
And by the X century. the religious system no longer corresponded to the level community development Slavs.

Conclusion

Having considered the picture of the settlement of Slavic tribes on the East European Plain, aspects of the life of the Slavs, we can conclude that the process of settlement was associated not so much with the progress of agriculture, but with the rapid depletion of soils during slash-and-burn agriculture: "nests" of Slavic settlements, open archaeologists, testify not to the "nesting" concentration of villages, but to the forced relocation of settlements to a new place. The "mobility" of the Slavs was also noted by ancient historians, but in the self-consciousness of the Slavic culture itself, "settledness", the desire for a settled way of life, were naturally dominant. In the ancient Slavic society, deep internal changes gradually took place - the processes of class formation were underway, a feudalized ruling elite arose, and the power of the tribal princes gradually developed into hereditary. Such associations of Slavs played a significant role in the subsequent ethno-social development of the Slavs and in the formation of Slavic ethnic identity.

In the 5th-8th centuries, the Slavs made the transition from the last stage of pre-class society - "military democracy" - to a class society and the process of state development began.

By the 11th century, most of the ancient Slavs were already forming states, many of which still exist today, and some have remained only in the memory of the people and history, leaving their cultural mark.

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