Battles in Russia in the 13th century. Campaign to North-Eastern Russia
Yaroslav the Wise tried to prevent civil strife after his death and established between his children order of succession to the throne of Kiev by seniority: from brother to brother and from uncle to eldest nephew. But even this did not help to avoid a struggle for power between the brothers. IN 1097 Yaroslavichi gathered in the city of Lyubich ( Lubian Congress of Princes) And forbade princes to move to reign from principality to principality. Thus, the prerequisites for feudal fragmentation were created. But this decision did not stop internecine wars. Now the princes took care of expanding the territories of their principalities.
For a short time, the world was restored to the grandson of Yaroslav Vladimir Monomakh (1113-1125). But after his death, war broke out with renewed vigor. Kyiv, weakened by the constant struggle against the Polovtsy and internal strife, is gradually losing its leading role. The population is looking for salvation from the constant plunder and moves to more peaceful principalities: Galicia-Volyn (Upper Dnieper) and Rostov-Suzdal (interfluve of the Volga and Oka). In many ways, the boyars, who were interested in expanding their patrimonial lands, pushed the princes to seize new lands. Due to the fact that the princes established the Kievan order of succession in their principalities, processes of fragmentation began in them: if at the beginning of the 12th century there were 15 principalities, then by the end of the 13th century there were already 250 principalities.
Feudal fragmentation was a natural process in the development of statehood. It was accompanied by the revival of the economy, the rise of culture and the formation of local cultural centers. At the same time, during the period of fragmentation, the awareness of national unity was not lost.
Reasons for fragmentation: 1) the lack of solid economic ties between the individual principalities - each principality produced everything necessary within itself, that is, it lived by subsistence farming; 2) the emergence and strengthening of local princely dynasties; 3) weakening of the central power of the Kiev prince; 4) the decline of the trade route along the Dnieper "from the Varangians to the Greeks" and the strengthening of the importance of the Volga as a trade route.
Galicia-Volyn principality located in the foothills of the Carpathians. Trade routes from Byzantium to Europe passed through the principality. In the principality, a struggle arose between the prince and the big boyars - landowners. Poland and Hungary often intervened in the struggle.
The Galician principality was especially strengthened under Yaroslav Vladimirovich Osmomysl (1157–1182). After his death, the Galician principality was annexed to Volhynia by the prince Roman Mstislavovich (1199–1205). Roman managed to capture Kyiv, declared himself the Grand Duke, and pushed the Polovtsy from the southern borders. Roman's policy was continued by his son Daniel Romanovich (1205–1264). During his time, the Tatar-Mongols invaded and the prince had to recognize the power of the khan over himself. After the death of Daniel, a struggle broke out between the boyar families in the principality, as a result of which Volhynia was captured by Lithuania, and Galicia by Poland.
Novgorod principality stretched throughout the Russian North from the Baltic to the Urals. Through Novgorod there was a lively trade with Europe along the Baltic Sea. The Novgorod boyars were also drawn into this trade. After uprisings of 1136 Prince Vsevolod was expelled and the Novgorodians began to invite princes to their place, that is, a feudal republic was established. Princely power was significantly limited city council(meeting) and Council of gentlemen. The function of the prince was reduced to organizing the defense of the city and external representation. The one elected at the veche actually ruled the city posadnik and the council of gentlemen. Veche had the right to expel the prince from the city. The veche was attended by delegates from the city ends ( Konchan veche). All free citizens of this end could participate in the Konchan veche.
The republican organization of power in Novgorod had a class character. Novgorod became the center of the fight against German and Swedish aggression.
Vladimir-Suzdal Principality It was located between the Volga and Oka rivers and was protected from the steppes by forests. Attracting the population to the desert lands, the princes founded new cities, did not allow the formation of urban self-government (veche) and large boyar land ownership. At the same time, settling on princely lands, free community members became dependent on the landowner, that is the development of serfdom continued and intensified.
The beginning of the local dynasty was laid by the son of Vladimir Monomakh Yuri Dolgoruky (1125–1157). He founded a number of cities: Dmitrov, Zvenigorod, Moscow. But Yuri sought to get to the great reign in Kyiv. The real owner of the principality became Andrei Yurievich Bogolyubsky (1157–1174). He founded the city Vladimir-on-Klyazma and moved the capital of the principality there from Rostov. Wanting to expand the boundaries of his principality, Andrei fought a lot with his neighbors. The boyars, removed from power, organized a conspiracy and killed Andrei Bogolyubsky. Andrey's policy was continued by his brother Vsevolod Yurievich Big Nest (1176–1212) and son of Vsevolod Yuri (1218–1238). In 1221 Yuri Vsevolodovich founded Nizhny Novgorod. The development of Russia was slow Tatar-Mongolian invasion of 1237–1241.
Russia in XII - XIIIcenturies. political fragmentation.
IN 1132 The last powerful prince Mstislav, the son of Vladimir Monomakh, died.
This date is considered the beginning of the period of fragmentation.
Reasons for fragmentation:
1) The struggle of the princes for the best principalities and territories.
2) The independence of the boyars-patrimonials in their lands.
3) Subsistence economy, strengthening the economic and political power of cities.
4) The decline of the Kiev land from the raids of the steppes.
Characteristic features of this period:
The aggravation of relations between the princes and the boyars
Princely strife
The struggle of the princes for the "Kyiv table"
The growth and strengthening of the economic and political power of cities
The heyday of culture
Weakening of the military potential of the country (fragmentation caused the defeat of Russia in the fight against the Mongols)
The main centers of political fragmentation:
Novgorod land
The supreme power belonged to the veche, which called the prince.
Officials were elected at the veche: the posadnik, the thousand, the archbishop. Novgorod feudal republic
Vladimiro - Suzdal Principality
Strong princely power (Yuri Dolgoruky (1147 - the first mention of Moscow in the annals), Andrei Bogolyubsky, Vsevolod the Big Nest)
Galicia-Volyn principality
Powerful boyars that fought for power with the princes. Famous princes - Yaroslav Osmomysl, Roman Mstislavovich, Daniil Galitsky.
Before the Mongol invasion - the heyday of Russian culture
1223 - the first battle with the Mongols on the Kalka River.
The Russians tried to fight back along with the Polovtsy, but were defeated
1237-1238 - the campaign of Batu Khan to North-Eastern Russia (the Ryazan principality was the first to be defeated)
1239-1240- to South Russia
Reasons for the defeat of Russia in the fight against the Mongol-Tatars
- Fragmentation and strife between the princes
- The superiority of the Mongols in the art of war, the availability of experienced and large army
Consequences
1) The establishment of a yoke - the dependence of Russia on the Horde (payment of tribute and the need for princes to receive a label (a khan's letter that gave the prince the right to manage his lands) Baskak - a khan's governor in Russian lands
2) The ruin of lands and cities, the deportation of the population into slavery - undermining the economy and culture
Invasion of German and Swedish knights to the northwestern lands - Novgorod and Pskov
Goals
*seizure of new territories
* Conversion to Catholicism
Novgorod prince Alexander Nevsky at the head of the Russian troops won victories:
Russian principalities and lands in the XII-XIII centuries
on the river Neve over the Swedish knights
1242 on Lake Peipsi over the German knights (Battle on the Ice)
1251 -1263 - the reign of Prince Alexander Nevsky in Vladimir. Establishing friendly relations with the Golden Horde to prevent new invasions from the West
Work plan.
I. Introduction.
II. Russian lands and principalities in XII-XIII centuries.
1. Causes and essence of state fragmentation. Socio-political and cultural characteristics of Russian lands in the period of fragmentation.
§ 1. The feudal fragmentation of Russia is a natural stage in the development of Russian society and the state.
§ 2. Economic and socio-political reasons for the fragmentation of Russian lands.
Vladimir-Suzdal principality as one of the types of feudal state formations in Russia in the XII-XIII centuries.
§ 4 Features geographical location, natural and climatic conditions of the Vladimir-Suzdal land.
Russian lands and principalities in the XII - the first half of the XIII century.
Features of the socio-political and cultural development of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality.
2. Mongol-Tatar invasion of Russia and its consequences. Russia and the Golden Horde.
§ 1. The originality of the historical development and way of life of the nomadic peoples of Central Asia.
Batu's invasion and the formation of the Golden Horde.
§ 3. The Mongol-Tatar yoke and its influence on ancient Russian history.
The struggle of Russia against the aggression of the German and Swedish conquerors. Alexander Nevskiy.
§ 1. Expansion to the East of Western European countries and religious and political organizations at the beginning of the XIII century.
§ 2. Historical meaning military victories of Prince Alexander Nevsky (Battle of the Neva, Battle of the Ice).
III. Conclusion
I. INTRODUCTION
XII-XIII centuries, which will be discussed in this control work, barely visible in the fog of the past.
In order to understand and understand the events of this most difficult era in the history of medieval Russia, it is necessary to get acquainted with the monuments of ancient Russian literature, study fragments of medieval chronicles and annals, read the works of historians related to this period. Exactly historical documents help to see in history not a simple collection of dry facts, but the most complex science, the achievements of which play an important role in further development society, allow a deeper understanding major events national history.
Consider the reasons that led to feudal fragmentation - the political and economic decentralization of the state, the creation of Ancient Russia practically independent from each other, independent state formations; to understand why the Tatar-Mongol yoke on Russian soil became possible, and what was the domination of the conquerors for more than two centuries in the field of economic, political and cultural life, and what consequences it had for the future historical development of Russia - this is the main task of this work.
XIII century, rich in tragic events, to this day excites and attracts the eyes of historians and writers.
After all, this century is called the “dark period” of Russian history.
However, its beginning was bright and calm. The vast country, larger than any European state, was full of young creative power. The proud and strong people who inhabited it did not yet know the oppressive gravity of the foreign yoke, did not know the humiliating inhumanity of serfdom.
The world in their eyes was simple and whole.
They did not yet know the destructive power of gunpowder. Distance was measured by the span of arms or the flight of an arrow, and time was measured by the change of winter and summer. The rhythm of their life was unhurried and measured.
At the beginning of the XII century, axes were knocked all over Russia, new cities and villages grew. Russia was a country of masters.
Here they knew how to weave the finest lace and build soaring cathedrals, forge reliable, sharp swords and draw the heavenly beauty of angels.
Russia was a crossroads of peoples.
On the squares of Russian cities one could meet Germans and Hungarians, Poles and Czechs, Italians and Greeks, Polovtsians and Swedes... Many were surprised how quickly the “Rusichs” assimilated the achievements of neighboring peoples, applied them to their needs, enriched their own ancient and unique culture.
At the beginning of the XIII century, Russia was one of the most prominent states in Europe. The power and wealth of the Russian princes were known throughout Europe.
But suddenly a thunderstorm approached the Russian land - a hitherto unknown terrible enemy.
A heavy burden fell on the shoulders of the Russian people, the Mongol-Tatar yoke. The exploitation of the conquered peoples by the Mongol khans was ruthless and comprehensive. Simultaneously with the invasion from the East, Russia also faced another terrible misfortune - the expansion of the Livonian Order, its attempt to impose Catholicism on the Russian people.
In this difficult historical era, the heroism and love of freedom of our people manifested itself with particular force, people whose names were forever preserved in the memory of descendants were exalted.
II. RUSSIAN LANDS AND PRINCIPALITIES IN THE XII-XIII CENTURIES.
1. CAUSES AND ESSENCE OF STATE Fragmentation. SOCIO-POLITICAL AND CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE RUSSIAN LANDS
THE PERIOD OF Fragmentation.
§ 1. FEUDAL Fragmentation of RUSSIA - A NATURAL STAGE
DEVELOPMENT OF RUSSIAN SOCIETY AND THE STATE
From the 30s of the XII century, the process of feudal fragmentation began in Russia.
Feudal fragmentation is an inevitable step in the evolution of feudal society, the basis of which is a subsistence economy with its isolation and isolation.
The natural economy system that had developed by that time contributed to the isolation from each other of all individual economic units (family, community, inheritance, land, principality), each of which became self-sufficient, consuming all the product it produced. There was practically no trade in goods in this situation.
Within the framework of the unified Russian state, independent economic regions have developed over three centuries, new cities have grown, large patrimonial farms have arisen and developed, and the possessions of many monasteries and churches.
Feudal clans grew up and rallied - the boyars with their vassals, the rich top of the cities, church hierarchs. The nobility was born, the life of which was based on the service to the overlord in exchange for a land grant for the time of this service.
The huge Kievan Rus with its superficial political cohesion, which was necessary, first of all, for defense against an external enemy, for organizing long-range campaigns of conquest, now no longer corresponded to the needs of large cities with their branched feudal hierarchy, developed trade and craft strata, and the needs of votchinniki.
The need to unite all forces against the Polovtsian danger and the mighty will of the Grand Dukes - Vladimir Monomakh and his son Mstislav - temporarily slowed down the inevitable process of fragmentation of Kievan Rus, but then it resumed with renewed vigor.
“The whole Russian land was irritated,” as the chronicle says.
From the point of view of general historical development, the political fragmentation of Russia is a natural stage on the way to the future centralization of the country, the future economic and political rise on a new civilizational basis.
Europe also did not escape the collapse of the early medieval states, fragmentation and local wars.
Then the process of formation of secular nation-states, which still exist, was developed here. Ancient Russia, having gone through a period of disintegration, could come to a similar result. However, the Mongol-Tatar invasion disrupted this natural development of political life in Russia and threw it back.
§ 2. ECONOMIC AND SOCIO-POLITICAL REASONS
Fragmentation of RUSSIAN LANDS
We can single out the economic and socio-political reasons for feudal fragmentation in Russia:
1.Economic reasons:
- the growth and development of feudal boyar land ownership, the expansion of estates by seizing the lands of smerds-communists, buying land, etc.
All this led to the strengthening of the economic power and independence of the boyars and, ultimately, to the aggravation of the contradictions between the boyars and the Grand Duke of Kiev. The boyars were interested in such a princely power that could provide them with military and legal protection, in particular in connection with the growing resistance of the townspeople, smerds, contribute to the seizure of their lands and intensify exploitation.
- the dominance of subsistence farming and the lack of economic ties contributed to the creation of relatively small boyar worlds and the separatism of local boyar unions.
- in the XII century, trade routes began to bypass Kyiv, "the path from the Varangians to the Greeks", which once united the Slavic tribes around itself, gradually lost its former meaning, because.
European merchants, as well as Novgorodians, were increasingly attracted to Germany, Italy, and the Middle East.
2. Socio-political reasons :
- strengthening the power of individual princes;
- weakening the influence of the great Kiev prince;
- princely strife; they were based on the Yaroslavl appanage system itself, which could no longer satisfy the overgrown family of Rurikovich.
There was no clear, precise order either in the distribution of inheritances or in their inheritance. After the death of the great prince of Kiev, the "table" according to existing law did not go to his son, but to the eldest prince in the family. At the same time, the principle of seniority came into conflict with the principle of “fatherland”: when the princes-brothers moved from one “table” to another, some of them did not want to change their homes, while others rushed to the Kiev “table” over the heads of their older brothers.
Thus, the preserved order of inheritance of the "tables" created the prerequisites for internecine conflicts. In the middle of the XII century, civil strife reached an unprecedented severity, and the number of their participants increased many times due to the fragmentation of princely possessions.
At that time in Russia there were 15 principalities and separate lands. In the next century, on the eve of Batu's invasion, there were already 50.
- the growth and strengthening of cities as new political and cultural centers can also be considered the reason for the further fragmentation of Russia, although some historians, on the contrary, regard the development of cities as a consequence of this process.
- the fight against nomads also weakened Kiev principality, slowed down his progress; in Novgorod and Suzdal it was much calmer.
Feudal fragmentation in Russia in the 12th-13th centuries. Specific Russia.
- Feudal fragmentation– political and economic decentralization. The creation on the territory of one state of independent independent principalities, formally having a common ruler, a single religion - Orthodoxy, uniform laws of "Russian Truth".
- The energetic and ambitious policy of the Vladimir-Suzdal princes led to an increase in the influence of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality on the entire Russian state.
- Yuri Dolgoruky, son of Vladimir Monomakh, received the Vladimir principality in his reign.
- 1147 Moscow first appears in chronicles. The founder is boyar Kuchka.
- Andrei Bogolyubsky, son of Yuri Dolgoruky. 1157-1174. The capital was moved from Rostov to Vladimir, the new title of the ruler is tsar and Grand Duke.
- The Vladimir-Suzdal principality flourished under Vsevolod the Big Nest.
1176-1212. The monarchy was finally established.
Consequences of fragmentation.
Positive
- the growth and strengthening of cities
– Active development of crafts
— Settlement of undeveloped lands
- laying roads
— Development of internal trade
— The flourishing of the cultural life of the principalities
Strengthening the local self-government apparatus
Negative
— continuation of the process of fragmentation of lands and principalities
- internecine wars
- weak central government
- Vulnerability to external enemies
Specific Russia (XII-XIII centuries)
With the death of Vladimir Monomakh in 1125.
the decline of Kievan Rus began, which was accompanied by its disintegration into separate states-principalities. Even earlier, the Lyubech Congress of Princes in 1097 established: “... let each one keep his fatherland” - this meant that each prince becomes the full owner of his hereditary principality.
The collapse of the Kievan state into small principalities-patrimonies, according to V.O.
Klyuchevsky, was caused by the existing order of succession to the throne. The princely throne was not passed from father to son, but from the elder brother to the middle and younger. This gave rise to strife in the family and the struggle for the division of estates. External factors played a certain role: nomad raids devastated the southern Russian lands and interrupted the trade route along the Dnieper.
As a result of the decline of Kyiv in southern and southwestern Russia, the Galicia-Volyn principality rose, in the northeastern part of Russia - the Rostov-Suzdal (later Vladimir-Suzdal) principality, and in northwestern Russia - the Novgorod Boyar Republic, from which in the XIII century stood out Pskov land.
All these principalities, with the exception of Novgorod and Pskov, inherited the political system of Kievan Rus.
They were led by princes, relying on their squads. The Orthodox clergy had great political influence in the principalities.
Question
The main occupation of the inhabitants of the Mongolian state was nomadic cattle breeding.
The desire to expand their pastures is one of the reasons for their military campaigns. It must be said that the Mongol-Tatars conquered not only Russia, it was not the first state they took. Prior to that, they subjugated Central Asia, including Korea and China, to their interests. From China, they adopted their flamethrower weapons, and because of this they became even stronger. The Tatars were very good wars. They were armed "to the teeth", their army was very large.
They also used psychological intimidation of enemies: in front of the troops were soldiers who did not take prisoners, brutally killed opponents. The very sight of them frightened the enemy.
But let's move on to the Mongol-Tatar invasion of Russia. The first time the Russians faced the Mongols was in 1223. The Polovtsy asked the Russian princes to help defeat the Mongols, they agreed and a battle took place, which is called the Battle of the Kalka River. We lost this battle for many reasons, the main of which is the lack of unity between the principalities.
In 1235, in the capital of Mongolia, Karakorum, a decision was made on a military campaign to the West, including Russia.
In 1237, the Mongols attacked the Russian lands, and the first city captured was Ryazan. There is also in Russian literature the work “The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu”, one of the heroes of this book is Yevpaty Kolovrat. The "Tale .." says that after the ruin of Ryazan, this hero returned to his native city and wanted to take revenge on the Tatars for their cruelty (the city was plundered and almost all the inhabitants were killed). He gathered a detachment of the survivors and rode after the Mongols.
All wars fought bravely, but Evpaty distinguished himself with special courage and strength. He killed many Mongols, but in the end he himself was killed. The Tatars brought the body of Yevpatiy to Batu, talking about his unprecedented strength. Batu was struck by the unprecedented power of Yevpaty and gave the body of the hero to the surviving tribesmen, and ordered the Mongols not to touch the Ryazans.
In general, the years 1237-1238 were the years of the conquest of northeastern Russia.
After Ryazan, the Mongols took Moscow, which resisted for a long time, and burned it. Then they took Vladimir.
After the conquest of Vladimir, the Mongols split up and began to ravage the cities of northeastern Russia.
In 1238, a battle took place on the Sit River, the Russians lost this battle.
The Russians fought with dignity, no matter what city the Mongol attacked, the people defended their homeland (their principality). But in most cases, the Mongols still won, only Smolensk was not taken. Kozelsk also defended for a record long time: as many as seven weeks.
After a trip to the north-east of Russia, the Mongols returned to their homeland to rest.
But already in 1239 they returned to Russia again. This time their goal was South part Russia.
1239-1240 - the campaign of the Mongols in the southern part of Russia. First they took Pereyaslavl, then the Principality of Chernigov, and in 1240 Kyiv fell.
This ended the Mongol invasion. The period from 1240 to 1480 is called the Mongol-Tatar yoke in Russia.
What are the consequences of the Mongol-Tatar invasion, the yoke?
- Firstly, this is the backwardness of Russia from the countries of Europe.
Europe continued to develop, but Russia had to restore everything destroyed by the Mongols.
- Second is the decline of the economy. A lot of people were lost. Many crafts disappeared (the Mongols took artisans into slavery).
Russian lands and principalities in the 12th - first half of the 13th centuries
Also, farmers moved to more northern regions of the country, safer from the Mongols. All this hindered economic development.
- Third- the slowness of the cultural development of Russian lands. For some time after the invasion, no churches were built in Russia at all.
- Fourth- termination of contacts, including trade, with countries Western Europe.
Now the foreign policy of Russia was focused on the Golden Horde. The Horde appointed princes, collected tribute from the Russian people, and, in case of disobedience of the principalities, carried out punitive campaigns.
- Fifth consequences are highly controversial.
Some scientists say that the invasion and the yoke preserved the political fragmentation in Russia, others argue that the yoke gave impetus to the unification of Russians.
Question
Alexander is invited to reign in Novgorod, he was then 15 years old, and in 1239 he marries the daughter of the Polotsk prince Bryachislav.
With this dynastic marriage, Yaroslav sought to consolidate the union of the northwestern Russian principalities in the face of the threat looming over them from the German and Swedish crusaders. The most dangerous situation developed at that time on the Novgorod borders. The Swedes, who had long competed with the Novgorodians for control over the lands of the Finnish tribes of Em and Sum, were preparing for a new onslaught. The invasion began in July 1240. The Swedish flotilla under the command of Birger, the son-in-law of the Swedish king Eric Kortavy, passed from the mouth of the Neva to the fall of the river.
Izhora. Here the Swedes made a stop before advancing on Ladoga, the main northern fort of the Novgorodtsev post. Meanwhile, Alexander Yaroslavich, warned by the sentinels about the appearance of the Swedish flotilla, hastily left Novgorod with his squad and a small auxiliary detachment. The calculation of the prince was based on the maximum use of the element of surprise. The blow should have been delivered before the Swedes, who outnumbered the Russian army, had time to completely disembark from the ships. On the evening of July 15, the Russians swiftly attacked the Swedes' camp, trapping them on a cape between the Neva and Izhora.
Thanks to this, they deprived the enemy of freedom of maneuver and at the cost of small losses, all 20 people. This victory secured the northwestern border of the Novgorod land for a long time and earned the 19-year-old prince the glory of a brilliant commander. In memory of the defeat of the Swedes, Alexander was nicknamed Nevsky. In 1241, he expelled the Germans from the fortress of Koporye, and soon freed Pskov. The further advance of the Russian troops to the northwest, bypassing Lake Pskov, ran into fierce resistance from the Germans.
Alexander retreated to Lake Peipsi, pulling up all available forces here. The decisive battle took place on April 5, 1242. The battle formation of the Germans had the traditional wedge shape for the crusaders, at the head of which were several rows of the most experienced heavily armed knights. Knowing about this feature of knightly tactics, Alexander deliberately concentrated all his forces on the flanks, in the regiments of the right and left hands. He left his own squad - the most combat-ready part of the army - in ambush in order to bring it into battle at its most critical moment.
In the center, along the very edge of the Uzmeni bank (channels between Lake Peipsi and Pskov), he placed the Novgorod infantry, which could not withstand the frontal attack of the knightly cavalry. In fact, this regiment was initially doomed to defeat. But having crushed and thrown it to the opposite shore (to the island of Voronii Kamen), the knights inevitably had to substitute the weakly protected flanks of their wedge under the blow of the Russian cavalry.
In addition, now the Russians would have a shore behind their backs, and the Germans would have thin spring ice. The calculation of Alexander Nevsky was fully justified: when the knightly cavalry broke through a pig regiment, it was taken in pincers by the regiments of the Right and Left hands, and a powerful attack by the prince's squad completed the rout.
The knights turned into a stampede, while, as Alexander Nevsky expected, the ice could not stand it, and the water Lake Peipsi swallowed up the remnants of the crusader army.
World around 4th grade
Hard times on Russian soil
1. Circle the border of Russia at the beginning of the 13th century with a red pencil.
Mark on the map with arrows the path of Batu Khan in Russia.
Write down the dates when Batu Khan attacked the cities.
Ryazan- end of 1237
Vladimir- in February 1238
Kyiv- in 1240
3. Read the poem by N. Konchalovskaya.
Previously, Russia was specific:
Each city separate
Avoiding all neighbors
Ruled by a specific prince,
And the princes did not live together.
They would need to live in friendship
And one big family
Protect your native land.
I would be afraid then
Horde attack them!
Answer the questions:
- What does specific prince mean?
Russia by the middle of the XII century broke up into separate principalities, which were ruled by specific princes.
- How did the princes live? The princes did not live together, there were civil strife.
- Why were the Mongol-Tatars not afraid to attack Russian lands? The Russian princes were unable to unite to repulse the enemy because of the fragmentation of the Russian principalities.
Match the battle with its date.
5. Read the description of the battle on Lake Peipsi.
The Russians fought furiously. Yes, and how not to fight without rage, when children and wives were left behind, villages and cities were left, native land with a short and sonorous name Rus was left.
And the crusaders came like robbers.
But where there is theft, there is cowardice side by side.
Fear took the dogs-knights, they see - the Russians are pushing them from all sides. Heavy horsemen cannot turn around in a crush, do not escape.
And then the Russians used hooks on long poles. They will hook the knight - and off the horse. He crashes on the ice, but he cannot get up: it hurts awkwardly in thick armor. Here he is off his head.
When the battle was in full swing, the ice suddenly crackled under the knights and cracked. The crusaders went to the bottom, pulled their heavy armor.
The crusaders did not know such a defeat until that time.
Since then, the knights have looked eastward with fear.
They remembered the words spoken by Alexander Nevsky. And this is what he said:
(O. Tikhomirov)
Answer the questions:
- Why did the Russians fight furiously? They defended their native land
- Why was it hard for the crusader cavalry in battle?
Russian lands and principalities 12-13 century (p. 1 of 6)
The Crusader cavalry were heavy, clumsy.
- What did the Russians use hooks for? They hooked the knights with hooks and dragged them off the horse.
- What words of Alexander Nevsky did the knights remember? Underline these words of the Russian prince in the text. Remember them.
The social, political and cultural development of the Old Russian state took place in close cooperation with the peoples of the surrounding countries. One of the first places among them was occupied by the powerful Byzantine Empire, the nearest southern neighbor of the Eastern Slavs. Russian-Byzantine relations of the 9th-11th centuries are a complex complex that includes both peaceful economic, political and cultural ties, and sharp military clashes On the one hand, Byzantium was a convenient source of military booty for the Slavic princes and their warriors On the other hand, Byzantine diplomacy sought to prevent the spread of Russian influence in the Black Sea region, and then try to turn Russia into a vassal of Byzantium, especially with the help of Christianization. At the same time, there were constant economic and political contacts. ) the existence of permanent colonies of Russian merchants in Constantinople Trade exchange with Byzantium is reflected in a large number of Byzantine things found on the territory of our country After Christianization, cultural ties with Byzantium intensified
Russian squads, crossing the Black Sea on ships, raided coastal Byzantine cities, and Oleg even managed to take the capital of Byzantium - Constantinople (in Russian - Tsargrad) Igor's campaign was less successful
In the second half of the 10th century, some Russian-Byzantine rapprochement was observed. Olga's trip to Constantinople, where she was friendly received by the emperor, strengthened relations between the two countries. Byzantine emperors sometimes used Russian squads for wars with their neighbors.
A new stage in Russia's relations with both Byzantium and other neighboring nations falls on the time of the reign of Svyatoslav, the ideal hero of Russian chivalry Svyatoslav conducted an active foreign policy He clashed with the powerful Khazar Khaganate, which once levied tribute from the territory of Southern Russia Already under Igor, in 913, 941 and 944, Russian warriors made campaigns against the Khazars, achieving a gradual release of the Vyatichi from paying tribute to the Khazars. Svyatoslav (964- 965), defeating the main cities of the Khaganate and capturing its capital Sarkel. The defeat of the Khazar Khaganate led to the formation of Russian settlements on the Taman Peninsula. Tmutarakan Principality and to the liberation from the power of the Khaganate of the Volga-Kama Bulgarians, who after that formed their own state - the first state formation of the peoples of the Middle Volga and Kama region
The fall of the Khazar Khaganate and the advance of Russia in Pricher- 54
In an effort to mutually weaken Russia and Danubian Bulgaria, against which Byzantium pursued an aggressive policy, the Byzantine emperor Nikephoros II Phocas offered Svyatoslav a campaign in the Balkans Svyatoslav won a victory in Bulgaria and captured the city of Pereyaslavets on the Danube This result was unexpected for Byzantium There was a threat of uniting the Eastern and Southern Slavs into one state, with which Byzantium would not have been able to cope. Svyatoslav himself said that he would like to transfer the capital of his land to Pereyaslavets
To weaken Russian influence in Bulgaria, Byzantium used Pechenegs This Turkic nomadic people was first mentioned in the Russian chronicle under 915. Initially, the Pechenegs roamed between the Volga and by the Aral Sea, and then, under pressure from the Khazars, they crossed the Volga and occupied the Northern Black Sea Region. Svyatoslav in Bulgaria, they, apparently at the instigation of Byzantium, raided Kiev. Svyatoslav had to urgently return to defeat the Pechenegs, but soon he again went to Bulgaria, where the war with Byzantium began. Russian squads fought fiercely and bravely, but the Byzantine forces were too superior to them in population in 971
a peace treaty was concluded, Svyatoslav's squad got the opportunity to return to Russia with all their weapons, and Byzantium was satisfied only with the promise of Russia not to attack
However, on the way, on the Dnieper rapids, apparently having received a warning from Byzantium about the return of Svyatoslav, the Pechenegs attacked him. Svyatoslav died in battle, and the Pecheneg prince Kurya, according to chronicle legend, made a bowl from the skull of Svyatoslav and drank from it at feasts. According to the ideas of that era , this manifested, paradoxically as it may seem, respect for the memory of the fallen enemy, it was believed that the military prowess of the owner of the skull would go to the one who drinks from such a bowl
A new stage of Russian-Byzantine relations falls on the reign of Vladimir and is associated with the adoption of Christianity by Russia. Shortly before this event, the Byzantine emperor Vasily II turned to Vladimir with a request to help with the armed forces in suppressing the uprising of the commander Varda Foka, who captured Asia Minor, threatened the field of Constantine and claimed to the imperial throne In exchange for help, the emperor promised to marry his sister Anna to Vladimir
was in no hurry with the promised marriage.
This marriage was of great political importance. Just a few years earlier, the German emperor Otto II had failed to marry the Byzantine princess Theophano. Byzantine emperors occupied the highest place in the feudal hierarchy of the then Europe, and marriage to a Byzantine princess sharply raised the international prestige of the Russian state.
In order to achieve the fulfillment of the terms of the agreement, Vladimir laid siege to the center of the Byzantine possessions in the Crimea - Chersonese (Korsun) and took it. The emperor had to fulfill his promise. Only after that, Vladimir made the final decision to be baptized, because, having defeated Byzantium, he ensured that Russia did not have to follow in the wake of Byzantine policy. Russia became on a par with the largest Christian powers of medieval Europe.
This position of Russia was also reflected in the dynastic ties of the Russian princes.
So, Yaroslav the Wise was married to the daughter of the Swedish king Olaf - Indigerda. Yaroslav's daughter - Anna was married to the French king Henry I, another daughter - Elizabeth became the wife of the Norwegian king Harald. The Hungarian queen was the third daughter - Anastasia.
The granddaughter of Yaroslav the Wise - Eupraxia (Adelheida) was the wife of the German Emperor Henry IV.
Russian lands and principalities 12-13 century
One of the sons of Yaroslav - Vsevolod was married to a Byzantine princess, the other son Izyaslav - to a Polish one. Among the daughters-in-law of Yaroslav were also the daughters of the Saxon margrave and Count Stadensky.
Russia also had lively trade relations with the German Empire.
Even on the remote periphery of the Old Russian state, on the territory of present-day Moscow, was found dating back to the 11th century. a lead trade seal originating from some Rhenish city.
The constant struggle of Ancient Russia had to be waged with the nomads. Vladimir managed to establish a defense against the Pechenegs. Nevertheless, their raids continued. In 1036, taking advantage of the absence of Yaroslav, who had left for Novgorod, in Kiev, the Pechenegs laid siege to Kiev.
But Yaroslav quickly returned and inflicted a severe defeat on the Pechenegs, from which they were never able to recover. They were forced out of the Black Sea steppes by other nomads - the Polovtsy.
Polovtsy(otherwise - Kipchaks or Cumans) - also a Turkic people - back in the 10th century.
lived in the territory of North-Western Kazakhstan, but in the middle of the X century. moved to the steppes of the Northern Black Sea region and the Caucasus. After they ousted the Pechenegs, a huge territory came under their rule, which was called the Polovtsian steppe or (in Arabic sources) Desht-i-Kipchak.
It stretched from the Syr Darya and the Tien Shan to the Danube. For the first time, the Polovtsians are mentioned in Russian chronicles under 1054, and in 1061.
first encounter with them. 56
“The Polovtsy came first to the Russian land to fight” The second half of the XI-XII centuries - the time of the struggle of Russia with the Polovtsian danger
So, the Old Russian state was one of the largest European powers and was in close political, economic and cultural relations with many countries and peoples of Europe and Asia.
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In the History of Russia of the 13th century, constant wars with external invaders are mainly noted. Batu Khan attacked the lands of Russia from the southwest, from northeast Russia followed the danger that came from the Baltic.
At the beginning of the 13th century, Russia began to exert very strong pressure on the entire Baltic. Novgorod and the Polotsk land established quite close relations with the people. This consisted in the constant collection of taxes from the people. But the Baltic lands seemed to attract feudal lords from Germany. These were mainly representatives of knightly and spiritual orders. The Vatican gave its blessing to the campaign of the crusade troops in the Baltic lands, after which they rapidly began to advance.
In 1200, a detachment of crusaders, led by the monk Albert, took control of the mouth of the Dvina from the west. A year later, they built a fortress in Riga, and the position of the first archbishop of Riga went to the monk Albert accompanying the crusaders. He was subordinate to a whole order of swordsmen, which in Russia was called the Livonian Order.
The Baltic population resisted the invaders in every possible way, because a detachment of crusaders completely destroyed the local residents. Fearing that the crusaders, after the capture of the Baltic states, will move on them, they decide to help the Baltic states in the struggle for their liberation. The government of Russia expected after a crushing victory to retain the right to own this state. The people of the Baltics did their best to help Russia, because their taxes were much lower than those of the German invaders.
Meanwhile, in the east of the country, the troops of Denmark and Sweden were rapidly attacking. On the site of the current city of Tallinn, the inhabitants of Denmark erected a fortress called Revel. The Swedes, in turn, sought to settle in the Gulf of Finland.
In 1240, a detachment of Swedes, led by one of the royal relatives, appeared on the Gulf of Finnish territory. He walked along the Neva River and stopped at the mouth of the Izhora. There they decided to set up their temporary camp. The Russians simply did not expect such a sharp appearance of the Swedish troops. At that time, Novgorod was ruled by the son of Yaroslav Vsevolodovich, who was only 19 years old. Throughout 1239, he built a fortification from the side of the Shelon River, which is located in the southern part of Novgorod. He feared that the prince of Lithuania would attack them.
But as soon as the 19-year-old Alexander found out that the Swedes were attacking, he immediately took his squad and went on a campaign. The Russians decided to launch a surprise attack on the Swedish camp. This happened in 1240 in mid-July.
The Swedes suffered a crushing defeat, and were forced to flee, forever losing the opportunity to gain dominance on the territory of the Neva. After this battle, Alexander was given the nickname Nevsky. With this name he is remembered to this day.
But the threat of an attack by the Livonian warriors still loomed. In 1240, the order managed to seize power over Pskov. The situation in Novgorod was quite difficult, because after the Battle of the Neva, Alexander had a strong quarrel with the boyars of Novgorod and went to his father in Pereyaslavl. But after some time, the Novgorod veche again asks Alexander to ascend the throne in connection with the onset of a strong enemy. The boyars made the right choice, because in 1241 Alexander managed to recapture Pskov from the invaders almost without loss. In 1242, a memorable event took place on the ice of Lake Peipsi. This battle is described in history as the Battle of the Ice. The forces of nature helped the Russian army. The Livonian knights were dressed in metal armor, and the Russian troops in plank armor. The April ice could not bear the weight of the Livonian knights in their armor and simply collapsed under their weight.
The Russian state, formed on the border of Europe with Asia, which reached its peak in the 10th - early 11th centuries, has always been distinguished by its mentality: unity, strength and courage. The people have always united against the enemy. But at the beginning of the 12th century, as a natural stage in the development of the country, it broke up into many principalities in the course of feudal fragmentation. The reason for this was, firstly, the feudal mode of production, and, secondly, the formation of almost independent politics, economics and other areas of individual principalities. The communication of the princes almost ceased, the lands became isolated. The external defense of the Russian land was especially weakened. Now the princes of individual principalities pursued their own separate policy, taking into account, first of all, the interests of the local feudal nobility and entered into endless internecine wars. This led to the loss of centralized control and to a strong weakening of the state as a whole. It was during this period that the Mongol-Tatars invaded the Russians, who were not prepared for a long and strong confrontation with opponents, lands.
Background of the campaign of the Tatars to Russia
At kurultai 1204 - 1205 the Mongols were tasked with the conquest of world domination. Northern China was already in the hands of the Mongols. Having won and realizing their military power, they wanted more significant conquests and victories. And now, without stopping and without deviating from the outlined path, they went to the west. Soon, after some events, their military mission was more clearly defined. The Mongols decided to conquer the big and rich, as they believed, Western countries, and first of all Russia. They understood that in order to accomplish this task, they first needed to take the small, weak peoples located near Russia and on its borders. So what served as the main prerequisites for the Mongol-Tatars' campaign against Russia and further, to the west?
Battle on the Kalka
Moving west, in 1219 the Mongols first defeated the Central Asian Khorezmians, then advanced into Northern Iran. In 1221, the army of Genghis Khan, under the leadership of his best commanders Jebe and Subede, invaded Azerbaijan, and then received an order to cross the Caucasus. Pursuing their old enemies, the Alans (Ossetians), who were hiding with the Polovtsy, both commanders had to hit the latter and return home bypassing the Caspian Sea.
In 1222, the Mongol army moved into the lands of the Polovtsians. The battle on the Don took place, in which their army defeated the main forces of the Polovtsians. At the beginning of 1223, she invaded the Crimea, where she captured the ancient Byzantine city of Surozh (Sudak). The Polovtsy fled to Russia to ask for help. But the Russian princes did not trust their old opponents and met their request with doubt. And they perceived the appearance of a new Mongol army on the border of Russia as a way out of the steppe of another weak horde of nomads. Therefore, only a small part of the Russian princes came to the aid of the Polovtsy. A small but strong Russian-Polovtsian army was formed, ready to defeat the still unprecedented Mongolian one.
On May 31, 1223, the Russian-Polovtsian army reached the Kalka River. There they were met by a powerful onslaught of the Mongol cavalry. Already at the beginning of the battle, part of the Russians could not resist the skillful Mongol archers and ran. Even the furious onslaught of the squad of Mstislav the Udaly, who almost broke through the battle lines of the Mongols, ended in failure. The Polovtsian troops turned out to be very unstable in battle: the Polovtsians could not withstand the blow of the Mongol cavalry and fled, upsetting the battle formations of the Russian squads. Even one of the strongest Russian princes, Mstislav of Kyiv, never went into battle with his numerous and well-armed regiment. He died ingloriously, surrendering to the Mongols surrounding him. The Mongolian cavalry pursued the remnants of the Russian squads to the Dnieper. The rest of the Russian-Polovtsian squad tried to fight to the last. But in the end, the Mongol army won. The Russian soldiers were slaughtered. The Mongols themselves put the princes under a wooden platform and crushed them, arranging a festive banquet on it.
Russian losses in the battle were very high. The Mongolian army, already exhausted by battles in Central Asia and the Caucasus, was able to defeat even the elite Russian regiments of Mstislav the Udaly, which speaks of its military force and power. In the Battle of Kalka, the Mongols first encountered Russian methods of warfare. This battle showed the advantage of Mongolian military traditions over European ones: collective discipline over individual heroism, well-trained archers over heavy cavalry and infantry. These tactical differences became the key to the Mongol success on the Kalka, and subsequently the lightning conquest of Eastern and Central Europe.
For Russia, the battle on the Kalka turned into a disaster, "which has never happened." The historical center of the country - the southern and central Russian lands lost their princes and army. Fifteen years before the start of the Mongol invasion of Russia, these territories were never able to restore their potential. The battle turned out to be a harbinger of the hard times that befell Kievan Rus during the Mongol invasion.
Kurultai 1235
In 1235, the Mongols held another kurultai, at which they decided on a new conquest campaign in Europe, "to the last sea." After all, according to their information, Russia was located there, and it was famous for its numerous riches.
All of Mongolia began to prepare for a new grandiose conquest campaign against the West. The army was carefully prepared. The best military leaders, a number of Mongol princes, were involved. A new khan, the son of Genghis Khan Jochi, was put at the head of the campaign. But in 1227 they both died, so the trip to Europe was entrusted to the son of Jochi - Batu. New Great Khan Udegei sent troops from Mongolia to reinforce Batu under the command of one of the best commanders - the wise old Subede, who participated in the battle on Kalka, to conquer the Volga Bulgaria and Russia. As always, Mongolian intelligence was on highest level. With the help of merchants who traded along the Great Silk Road (from China to Spain), all the necessary information was collected about the state of the Russian lands, about the routes leading to the cities, about the size of the Russian army, and many other information. After that, it was decided to first completely defeat the Polovtsy and the Volga Bulgars in order to secure the rear, and then attack Russia.
Campaign to the North-Eastern Russia. On the way to Russia
The Mongol-Tatars headed towards the southeast of Europe. In the autumn of 1236 their main forces, which came from Mongolia, united with the detachments of Jochi sent to help within Bulgaria. In the late autumn of 1236, the Mongols began to conquer it. “Toe of autumn,” as the Laurentian Chronicle says, “come from the eastern countries to the Bulgarian land of the godlessness of the Tatars, and taking the glorious Great City of Bulgaria and beating with weapons from an old man and to a unago and to a living baby, and taking a lot of goods, and burning their city fire, and took their whole land captive.” Eastern sources also report the complete defeat of Bulgaria. Rashid-ad-Din ("In that winter") writes that the Mongols "reached the city of Bulgar the Great and its other regions, defeated the army there and forced them to submit." Volga Bulgaria was terribly devastated. Almost all of its cities were destroyed. Rural areas were also massively devastated. In the basin of the Berda and Aktai rivers, almost all settlements were destroyed.
By the spring of 1237, the conquest of the Volga Bulgaria was completed. A large Mongol army led by Subede moved to the Caspian steppes, where the war with the Polovtsy, which began back in 1230, continued.
The first blow in the spring of 1237 was dealt by the Mongols to the Polovtsy and Alans. From the Lower Volga, the Mongol troops moved "in a raid, and the country that fell into it was captured, marching in formation." The Mongol-Tatars crossed the Caspian steppes on a wide front and united somewhere in the Lower Don region. The Polovtsians and Alans suffered a strong, crushing blow.
The next stage of the war of 1237 in South-Eastern Europe was a blow to the Burtases, Moksha and Mordovians. The conquest of the Mordovian lands, as well as the lands of the Burtases and Arjans, ended in the autumn of the same year.
The campaign of 1237 was aimed at preparing a bridgehead for the invasion of North-Eastern Russia. The Mongols dealt a strong blow to the Polovtsians and Alans, pushing the Polovtsian nomad camps to the west, beyond the Don, and conquered the lands of the Burtases, Mokshas and Mordovians, after which preparations began for a campaign against Russia.
In the autumn of 1237, the Mongol-Tatars began preparations for a winter campaign against North-Eastern Russia. Rashid-ad-Din reports that "in the autumn of the mentioned year (1237), all the princes who were there held a kurultai and, by common agreement, went to war against the Russians." This kurultai was attended by both the Mongol khans who smashed the lands of the Burtases, Mokshas and Mordovians, as well as the khans who fought in the south with the Polovtsians and Alans. All the forces of the Mongol-Tatars gathered to march on North-Eastern Russia. The lower reaches of the Voronezh River became the place of concentration of the Mongolian troops in the autumn of 1237. Mongol detachments approached here, ending the war with the Polovtsians and Alans. The Tatars were ready for an important and difficult offensive against the Russian state.
Campaign to the North-East of Russia
In December 1237, Batu's troops appeared on the frozen rivers Sura, Voronezh, a tributary of the Volga and Don. Winter opened the way for them along the ice of the rivers to North-Eastern Russia.
“An unheard-of army came, the godless Moabites, and their name is Tatars, but no one knows who they are and where they came from, and what their language is, and what tribe they are, and what kind of faith they are. And some speak taurmen, and others - Pechenegs. With these words begins the chronicle of the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars on Russian soil.
Ryazan land
At the beginning of the winter of 1237, the Mongol-Tatars moved from the Voronezh River along the eastern edge of the forests stretching in its floodplain to the borders of the Ryazan principality. Along this path, covered by forests from the Ryazan guard posts, the Mongol-Tatars silently passed to the middle reaches of the Lesnoy and Polny Voronezh. But there they were noticed by the Ryazan sentinels and from that moment came into the field of view of the Russian chroniclers. Another group of Mongols also approached here. Here their rather long parking took place, during which the troops were arranged and prepared for the campaign.
The Russian troops could not oppose anything to the strong Mongol detachments. The strife and strife between the princes did not allow united forces to be put up against Batu. The princes of Vladimir and Chernigov refused to help Ryazan.
Approaching the Ryazan land, Batu demanded from the Ryazan princes a tenth of everything that was in the city. In the hope of reaching an agreement with Batu, the Ryazan prince sent an embassy to him with rich gifts. The Khan accepted the gifts, but put forward humiliating and impudent demands: in addition to a huge tribute, to give princely sisters and daughters as wives to the Mongol nobility. And for himself personally, he looked after the beautiful Evpraksinya, Fedor's wife. The Russian prince responded with a decisive refusal and, together with the ambassadors, was executed. And the beautiful princess, together with her little son, in order not to get to the conquerors, rushed down from the high bell tower. The Ryazan army moved to the Voronezh River in order to strengthen the garrisons on the fortified lines and not let the Tatars deep into the Ryazan land. However, the Ryazan squads did not have time to reach Voronezh. Batu rapidly invaded the Ryazan principality. Somewhere on the outskirts of Ryazan, a battle took place between the united Ryazan army and the hordes of Batu. The battle, in which the Ryazan, Murom and Pronsk squads participated, was stubborn and bloody. 12 times the Russian squad left the encirclement, “one Ryazan fought with a thousand, and two with darkness (ten thousand)” - this is how the chronicle writes about this battle. But Batu's superiority in strength was great, the Ryazan army suffered heavy losses.
After the defeat of the Ryazan squads, the Mongol-Tatars immediately moved deep into the Ryazan principality. They passed through the space between Ranova and Pron, and went down the Pron River, destroying the cities of Pron. On December 16, the Mongol-Tatars approached Ryazan. The siege has begun. Ryazan held out for 5 days, on the sixth day, on the morning of December 21, it was taken. The entire city was destroyed and all the inhabitants were exterminated. The Mongol-Tatars left behind only ashes. The Ryazan prince and his family also perished. The surviving residents of the Ryazan land gathered a squad (about 1700 people), headed by Evpaty Kolovrat. They caught up with the enemy in the Suzdal land and began to wage partisan struggle against him, inflicting heavy losses on the Mongols.
Vladimir principality
Now in front of Batu lay several roads into the depths of the Vladimir-Suzdal land. Since Batu was faced with the task of conquering all of Russia in one winter, he went to Vladimir along the Oka, through Moscow and Kolomna. The invasion came close to the borders of the Vladimir principality. Grand Duke Yuri Vsevolodovich, who at one time refused to help the Ryazan princes, himself was in danger.
“And Batu went to Suzdal and Vladimir, intending to captivate the Russian land, and uproot the Christian faith, and destroy the churches of God to the ground,” the Russian chronicle writes. Batu knew that the troops of the Vladimir and Chernigov princes were coming against him, and he expected to meet them somewhere in the region of Moscow or Kolomna. And he turned out to be right.
The Laurentian Chronicle writes as follows: “The Tatars surrounded them at Kolomna, and fought hard, there was a great slaughter, they killed Prince Roman and the voivode Yeremey, and Vsevolod with a small retinue ran to Vladimir.” In this battle, the Vladimir army perished. Having defeated the Vladimir regiments near Kolomna, Batu approached Moscow, quickly took and burned the city in mid-January, and killed or took the inhabitants prisoner.
On February 4, 1238, the Mongol-Tatars approached Vladimir. The capital of North-Eastern Russia, the city of Vladimir, surrounded by new walls with powerful stone gate towers, was a strong fortress. From the south it was covered by the Klyazma River, from the east and north by the Lybed River with steep banks and ravines.
By the time of the siege, the situation in the city was very disturbing. Prince Vsevolod Yurievich brought the news of the defeat of the Russian regiments near Kolomna. New troops had not yet gathered, and there was no time to wait for them, since the Mongol-Tatars were already close to Vladimir. Under these conditions, Yuri Vsevolodovich decided to leave part of the collected troops for the defense of the city, and he himself went to the north and continued to collect troops. After the departure of the Grand Duke, a small part of the troops remained in Vladimir, headed by the governor and the sons of Yuri - Vsevolod and Mstislav.
Batu approached Vladimir on February 4 from the most vulnerable side, from the west, where a flat field lay in front of the Golden Gate. The Mongol detachment, leading Prince Vladimir Yurievich taken prisoner during the defeat of Moscow, appeared in front of the Golden Gate and demanded the voluntary surrender of the city. After the refusal of the Vladimirites, the Tatars killed the captured prince in front of his brothers. To inspect the fortifications of Vladimir, part of the Tatar detachments traveled around the city, and the main forces of Batu camped in front of the Golden Gate. The siege began.
Before the assault on Vladimir, the Tatar detachment defeated the city of Suzdal. This short trip is quite understandable. Starting the siege of the capital, the Tatars learned about the exit of Yuri Vsevolodovich from the city with part of the army and were afraid of a sudden blow. And the most likely direction of the blow of the Russian prince could be Suzdal, which covered the road from Vladimir to the north along the Nerl River. Yuri Vsevolodovich could rely on this fortress, which was only 30 km from the capital.
Suzdal was left almost without defenders and was deprived of its main water cover, due to winter time. That is why the city was taken by the Mongol-Tatars at once. Suzdal was plundered and burned, its population was killed or taken into captivity. Also, settlements and monasteries in the vicinity of the city were destroyed.
At this time, preparations for the assault on Vladimir continued. To intimidate the defenders of the city, the conquerors led thousands of prisoners under the walls. On the eve of the general assault, the Russian princes who led the defense fled the city. On February 6, the Mongol-Tatar wall-beating vehicles broke through the walls of Vladimir in several places, but on this day the Russian defenders managed to repulse the assault and did not let them into the city.
The next day, early in the morning, the wall-beating guns of the Mongol-Tatars still broke through the city wall. A little later, the fortifications of the "New City" were broken through in several more places. By the middle of the day on February 7 " New town", engulfed in fire, was captured by the Mongol-Tatars. The defenders who survived fled to the middle, "Pecherny city". Pursuing them, the Mongol-Tatars entered the "Middle City". And again, the Mongol-Tatars immediately broke through the stone walls of the Vladimir citadel and set it on fire. It was the last stronghold of the defenders of the Vladimir capital. Many residents, including the princely family, took refuge in the Assumption Cathedral, but the fire overtook them there too. The fire destroyed the most valuable monuments of literature and art. Numerous temples of the city turned into ruins.
The fierce resistance of the defenders of Vladimir, despite the significant numerical superiority of the Mongol-Tatars and the flight from the city of princes, caused great damage to the Mongol-Tatars. Eastern sources, reporting on the capture of Vladimir, create a picture of a long and stubborn battle. Rashid ad-Din says that the Mongols “took the city of Yuri the Great in 8 days. They (besieged) fought fiercely. Mengu Khan personally performed heroic deeds until he defeated them.
Hike deep into Russia
After the capture of Vladimir, the Mongol-Tatars began to smash the cities of the Vladimir-Suzdal land. This stage of the campaign is characterized by the death of most cities in the interfluve of the Klyazma and the Upper Volga.
In February 1238, the conquerors moved from the capital in several large detachments along the main river and trade routes, destroying the urban centers of resistance.
The campaigns of the Mongol-Tatars in February 1238 were aimed at defeating the cities - centers of resistance, as well as the destruction of the remnants of the Vladimir troops, which were collected by the fled Yuri Vsevolodovich. They also had to cut off the grand-princely "camp" from Southern Russia and Novgorod, from where reinforcements could be expected. Solving these tasks, the Mongolian detachments moved from Vladimir in three main directions: north - to Rostov, east - to the Middle Volga (to Gorodets), northwest - to Tver and Torzhok.
The main forces of Batu went from Vladimir to the north to defeat the Grand Duke Yuri Vsevolodovich. The Tatar army passed on the ice of the Nerl River and, not reaching Pereyaslavl-Zalessky, turned north, to Lake Nero. Rostov was abandoned by the prince and his retinue, so he surrendered without a fight.
From Rostov, the Mongol troops went in two directions: a large army headed north along the ice of the Ustye River and further along the plain to Uglich, and another large detachment moved along the Kotorosl River to Yaroslavl. These directions of movement of the Tatar detachments from Rostov are quite understandable. Through Uglich lay the shortest road to the tributaries of the Mologa, to the City, where Grand Duke Yuri Vsevolodovich was encamped. The campaign to Yaroslavl and further along the Volga to Kostroma through the rich Volga cities cut off Yuri Vsevolodovich's retreat to the Volga and provided somewhere in the Kostroma region a meeting with another Tatar detachment moving up the Volga from Gorodets.
The chroniclers do not report any details of the capture of Yaroslavl, Kostroma and other cities along the Volga. Only on the basis of archaeological data can we assume that Yaroslavl was badly damaged and could not recover for a long time. There is even less information about the capture of Kostroma. Kostroma, apparently, was the place where the Tatar detachments met, who came from Yaroslavl and Gorodets. Chroniclers report on the campaigns of the Tatar detachments even to Vologda.
The Mongolian detachment, which was moving from Vladimir to the northwest, was the first to meet the city of Pereyaslavl-Zalessky - a strong fortress on the shortest waterway from the Klyazma river basin to Novgorod. A large Tatar army along the Nerl River approached Pereyaslavl in mid-February and, after a five-day siege, took the city by storm.
From Pereyaslavl-Zalessky, the Tatar detachments moved in several directions. According to the chronicle, some of them went to the aid of the Tatar Khan Burundai to Rostov. Another part joined the Tatar rati, which had turned from the Nerl to Yuryev even earlier. The rest of the troops on the ice of Lake Pleshcheev and the Nerl River moved to Ksnyatin in order to cut the Volga route. The Tatar army, moving along the Nerl to the Volga, took Ksnyatin and quickly moved up the Volga to Tver and Torzhok. Another Mongol army captured Yuryev and went further west, through Dmitrov, Volokolamsky and Tver to Torzhok. Near Tver, the Tatar troops connected with the detachments rising up the Volga from Ksnyatin.
As a result of the February campaigns of 1238, the Mongol-Tatars destroyed Russian cities on a vast territory, from the Middle Volga to Tver.
Battle of the City
By the beginning of March 1238, the Mongol-Tatar detachments, which were pursuing the Prince of Vladimir Yuri Vsevolodovich, who had fled from the city, reached the border of the Upper Volga on a wide front. Grand Duke Yuri Vsevolodovich, who was gathering troops in a camp on the City River, found himself in the vicinity of the Tatar army. A large Tatar army moved from Uglich and Kashin to the City River. On the morning of March 4, they were at the river. Prince Yuri Vsevolodovich was never able to muster sufficient forces. A fight ensued. Despite the suddenness of the attack and the large numerical superiority of the Tatar army, the battle was stubborn and prolonged. But still, the army of the Vladimir prince could not withstand the blow of the Tatar cavalry and fled. As a result, the Russian army was defeated, the Grand Duke himself died. The historical source Rashid ad-Din did not attach much importance to the battle in the City, in his view it was just a pursuit of the prince who had fled and was hiding in the forests.
Siege of Torzhok
Almost simultaneously with the battle on the City, in March 1238, the city of Torzhok, a fortress on the southern borders of Novgorod land, was taken by a Tatar detachment. The city was a transit point for wealthy Novgorod merchants and merchants from Vladimir and Ryazan, who supplied Novgorod with bread. There were always large stocks of grain in Torzhok. Here the Mongols hoped to replenish their fodder supplies, which had become depleted over the winter.
Torzhok occupied an advantageous strategic position: it blocked the shortest route from the "Nizovsky Land" to Novgorod along the Tvertsa River. The defensive earthen rampart on the Borisoglebskaya side of Torzhok had a height of 6 sazhens. However, in winter conditions, this important advantage of the city largely disappeared, but still Torzhok was a serious obstacle on the way to Novgorod and delayed the Mongol-Tatar offensive for a long time.
The Tatars approached Torzhok on February 22. There was neither a prince nor a princely squad in the city, and the posad population, headed by elected posadniks, took on the entire burden of defense. After a two-week siege and the continuous work of the Tatar siege engines, the city people weakened. Finally, Torzhok, exhausted by a two-week siege, fell. The city was subjected to a terrible defeat, most of its inhabitants died.
Campaign to Novgorod
Regarding Batu's campaign against Novgorod, historians usually say that significant forces of the Mongol-Tatars had concentrated near Torzhok by this time. And only the Mongol troops, weakened from continuous battles, due to the approach of spring with its thaw and floods, were forced to return, not having reached 100 miles to Novgorod.
However, the chroniclers report that the Mongol-Tatars headed for Novgorod immediately after the capture of Torzhok, pursuing the surviving defenders of the city. Taking into account the location at that time of all the Mongol-Tatar troops, it can be reasonably assumed that only a small separate detachment of the Tatar cavalry was moving towards Novgorod. Therefore, his campaign did not have the goal of taking the city: it was a simple pursuit of a defeated enemy, common to the tactics of the Mongol-Tatars.
After the capture of Torzhok, the Mongol-Tatar detachment began to pursue the defenders of the city who had left the encirclement by the Seliger route further. But, before reaching Novgorod a hundred miles, this cavalry Mongol-Tatar detachment connected with the main forces of Batu.
And yet, the turn from Novgorod is usually explained by spring floods. In addition, in the 4-month battles with the Russians, the Mongol-Tatars suffered huge losses, and Batu's troops were scattered. So the Mongol-Tatars did not even try to attack Novgorod in the spring of 1238.
Kozelsk
After Torzhok, Batu turns south. He passed through the entire territory of Russia, using the tactics of a hunting round-up. In the upper reaches of the Oka, the Mongols met fierce resistance from the small fortress of Kozelsk. Despite the fact that the city prince Vasilko Konstantinovich was still too small, and despite the fact that the Mongols demanded to surrender the city, the Kozel residents decided to defend themselves. The heroic defense of Kozelsk continued for seven weeks. The Kozelchans destroyed about 4 thousand Mongols, but they could not defend the city. Bringing siege equipment to him, the Mongol troops destroyed the city walls and entered Kozelsk. Batu did not spare anyone, despite his age, he killed the entire population in the city. He ordered the city to be destroyed to the ground, plowed up the ground and covered with salt so that it could never recover again. Prince Vasilko Konstantinovich, according to legend, drowned in blood. The city of Kozelsk Batu called "evil town". From Kozelsk, the combined forces of the Mongol-Tatars, without stopping, moved south to the Polovtsian steppes.
Mongol-Tatars in the Polovtsian steppes
The stay of the Mongol-Tatars in the Polovtsian steppes from the summer of 1238 to the autumn of 1240. is one of the least studied periods of the invasion. In historical sources, there is an opinion that this period of the invasion is the time of the retreat of the Mongols to the steppes for rest, the restoration of regiments and the horse army after a hard winter campaign in North-Eastern Russia. The entire time of the Mongol-Tatars' stay in the Polovtsian steppes is perceived as a break in the invasion, filled with recuperation and preparation for a big campaign to the West.
However, Eastern sources describe this period in a completely different way: the entire period of Batu's stay in the Polovtsian steppes is filled with continuous wars with the Polovtsians, Alans and Circassians, numerous invasions of Russian frontier cities, and suppression of popular uprisings.
Hostilities began in the autumn of 1238. A large Mongol-Tatar army headed for the land of the Circassians, beyond the Kuban. Almost simultaneously, a war began with the Polovtsy, whom the Mongol-Tatars had previously driven out beyond the Don. The war with the Polovtsy was long and bloody, a huge number of Polovtsy were killed. As the annals write, all the forces of the Tatars were thrown into the fight against the Polovtsy, so it was peaceful in Russia at that time.
In 1239, the Mongol-Tatars stepped up military operations against the Russian principalities. Their campaigns fell upon the lands that were located next to the Polovtsian steppes, and were carried out in order to expand the land they had conquered.
In winter, a large Mongol army moved north, to the region of Mordva and Murom. During this campaign, the Mongol-Tatars suppressed the uprising of the Mordovian tribes, took and destroyed Murom, devastated the lands along the Lower Klyazma and reached Nizhny Novgorod.
In the steppes between the Northern Donets and the Dnieper, the war of the Mongol troops with the Polovtsians continued. In the spring of 1239, one of the Tatar detachments that approached the Dnieper defeated the city of Pereyaslavl, a strong fortress on the borders of Southern Russia.
This capture was one of the stages in the preparation of a large campaign to the west. The next campaign had the goal of defeating Chernigov and the cities along the Lower Desna and the Seim, since the Chernigov-Seversk land had not yet been conquered and threatened the right flank of the Mongol-Tatar army.
Chernihiv was a well-fortified city. Three defensive lines protected him from his enemies. Geographical position near the borders of Russian land and Active participation in internecine wars, they created in Russia an opinion about Chernigov as a city famous for a large number of soldiers and a courageous population.
Mongol-Tatars appeared within the Chernigov Principality in the autumn of 1239, invaded these lands from the southeast and surrounded them. A fierce battle began on the walls of the city. The defenders of Chernigov, as the Lavrentiev Chronicle describes, threw heavy stones at the Tatars from the walls of the city. After a fierce battle on the walls, the enemies broke into the city. Taking it, the Tatars beat the local population, robbed the monasteries and set fire to the city.
From Chernigov, the Mongol-Tatars moved east along the Desna and further along the Seim. There they destroyed numerous cities built to protect against nomads (Putivl, Glukhov, Vyr, Rylsk, etc.), and devastated the countryside. Then the Mongol army turned south, to the upper reaches of the Northern Donets.
The last Mongol-Tatar campaign in 1239 was the conquest of the Crimea. Defeated by the Mongols in the Black Sea steppes, the Polovtsy fled here, to the steppes of the northern Crimea and further to the sea. Pursuing them, the Mongol troops came to the Crimea. The city was taken.
Thus, during 1239, the Mongol-Tatars defeated the remnants of the Polovtsian tribes that they had not conquered, made significant campaigns in the Mordovian and Murom lands, conquered almost the entire Left Bank of the Dnieper and the Crimea. Now the Tatar possessions came close to the borders of Southern Russia. The southwestern direction of Russia was the next object for the Mongol invasion.
Campaign to South-Western Russia. Preparing for a hike
At the beginning of 1240, in winter, the Mongol army approached Kiev. This campaign can be regarded as reconnaissance of the area before the start of hostilities. Since the Tatars did not have the strength to take fortified Kyiv, they limited themselves to reconnaissance and a short throw to the right bank of the Dnieper to pursue the retreating Kiev prince Mikhail Vsevolodovich. Having captured the "full", the Tatars turned back.
In the spring of 1240, a significant army was moved south along the Caspian coast to Derbent. This advance to the south, to the Caucasus, was not accidental. The forces of the Juchi ulus, partially released after the campaign against North-Eastern Russia, were used to complete the conquest operation of the Caucasus. Previously, the Mongols continuously attacked the Caucasus from the south: in 1236, the Mongol troops devastated Georgia and Armenia; 1238 conquered the lands between the Kura and the Araks; in 1239 they captured Kars and the city of Ani, the former capital of Armenia. The troops of the ulus of Jochi took part in the general Mongol offensive into the Caucasus with strikes from the north. The peoples of the North Caucasus offered stubborn resistance to the conquerors.
By the autumn of 1240, preparations for a large campaign to the west were completed. The Mongols conquered areas that were not conquered in the campaign of 1237-38, suppressed popular uprisings in the Mordovian lands and Volga Bulgaria, occupied the Crimea and North Caucasus, destroyed the Russian fortified cities on the left bank of the Dnieper (Pereyaslavl, Chernigov) and came close to Kiev. It was the first point of attack.
Campaign to the southwest of Russia
In historical literature, the presentation of the facts of Batu's campaign against South Russia usually begins with the siege of Kyiv. He, "the mother of Russian cities", was the first major city on the path of a new invasion of the Mongols. The bridgehead for the invasion of it was already prepared: Pereyaslavl, the only large city that covered the approaches to Kiev from this side, was taken and destroyed in the spring of 1239.
The news of the impending campaign of Batu reached Kyiv. However, despite the immediate danger of invasion, in Southern Russia there were no noticeable attempts to unite to repel the enemy. Princely strife continued. Kyiv was actually left to its own forces. He received no help from other South Russian principalities.
Batu began the invasion in the autumn of 1240, again gathering all the people devoted to himself under his command. In November, he approached Kiev, the Tatar army surrounded the city. Spread out on high hills above the Dnieper, the great city was heavily fortified. The powerful ramparts of Yaroslav's city covered Kyiv from the east, south and west. Kyiv resisted the incoming enemies in full force. Kievans defended every street, every house. But, nevertheless, with the help of powerful battering rams and rapids, on December 6, 1240, the city fell. It was terribly devastated, most of the buildings perished in a fire, the inhabitants were killed by the Tatars. Kyiv lost its importance as a major urban center for a long time.
Now, after the capture of the great Kyiv, the way to all the centers of Southern Russia and Eastern Europe was open for the Mongol-Tatars. Now it's Europe's turn.
Exit Batu from Russia
From the destroyed Kyiv, the Mongol-Tatars moved further west, to general direction to Vladimir-Volynsky. In December 1240, under the onslaught of the Mongol-Tatar troops, the cities along Sredny Teterev were abandoned by the population and garrisons. Most of the Bolokhov cities surrendered without a fight. Tatars confidently, without turning, went to the west. On the way, they met strong resistance from small towns on the outskirts of Russia. Archaeological studies of the settlements in this area recreate a picture of the heroic defense and the death of fortified towns under the blows of superior Mongol-Tatar forces. Vladimir-Volynsky was also taken by the Mongols by storm after a short siege. The final point of the “raid”, where the Mongol-Tatar detachments united after the devastation of South-Western Russia, was the city of Galich. After the Tatar pogrom, Galich became deserted.
As a result, having defeated the Galician and Volyn lands, Batu left the Russian lands. In 1241 a campaign began in Poland and Hungary. The whole campaign of Batu in South Russia thus took very little time. With the departure of the troops of the Mongol-Tatars abroad, the campaign of the Mongol-Tatars to the Russian lands ended.
Coming out of Russia, Batu's troops invade the states of Europe, where they terrify and fear the inhabitants. In Europe, it was stated that the Mongols had escaped from hell, and everyone was waiting for the end of the world. But Russia still resisted. In 1241 Batu returned to Russia. In 1242, in the lower reaches of the Volga, he set up his new capital - Sarai-bata. At the end of the 13th century, after the creation of the state of the Golden Horde by Batu, the Horde yoke was established in Russia.
Establishing a yoke in Russia
The campaign of the Mongol-Tatars to the Russian lands ended. Russia was in devastation after a terrible invasion, but gradually it begins to recover, normal life is restored. The surviving princes return to their capitals. The dispersed population is gradually returning to the Russian lands. Cities are being restored, villages and villages are populated in a new way.
In the first years after the invasion, the Russian princes were more worried about their destroyed cities, were engaged in their restoration, and the distribution of princely tables. To a lesser extent now they were worried about the problem of establishing any relations with the Mongols-Tatars. The invasion of the Tatars did not have a great impact on the interpersonal relations of the princes: in the capital of the country, Yaroslav Vsevolodovich sat on the grand prince's throne, and transferred the rest of the lands to his younger brothers.
But the peace of Russia was broken again when the Mongol-Tatars, after a campaign against Central Europe, appeared on Russian lands. Before the Russian princes, the question arose of establishing some kind of relationship with the conquerors. Touching upon the issue of further relations with the Tatars, the problem of disputes between the princes arose: opinions differed in further actions. The cities captured by the Mongol armies were in a terrible ruined state. Some cities were completely burned out. Temples, churches, cultural monuments were destroyed, also burned. To restore the city before the time of the Mongol invasion, huge forces, funds and time were needed. The Russian people had no strength: neither to restore cities, nor to fight the Tatars. The opposition was joined by strong and wealthy cities in the northwestern and western outskirts, which were not subjected to the Mongol invasion (Novgorod, Pskov, Polotsk, Minsk, Vitebsk, Smolensk). They, accordingly, opposed the recognition of dependence on the Horde khans. They did not suffer, retaining their lands, wealth and armies.
The existence of these two groups - the northwestern one, which opposed the recognition of dependence on the Horde, and the Rostov group, which was inclined to establish peaceful relations with the conquerors - largely determined the policy of the Grand Prince of Vladimir. In the first decade after the invasion of Batu, it was ambivalent. But the people of northeastern Russia did not have the strength to openly resist the conquerors, which made it inevitable that Russia was dependent on the Golden Horde khans.
In addition, a significant circumstance influenced the decision of the prince: the voluntary recognition of the power of the Horde Khan provided the Grand Duke personally with certain advantages in the struggle for subordinating other Russian princes to his influence. In the case of non-recognition of the dependence of the Russian land on the Horde, the prince could be overthrown from his grand prince's table. But on the other hand, the prince's decision was influenced by the existence of strong opposition to the Horde authorities in North-Western Russia and the repeated promises of the West military aid against the Mongol-Tatars. These circumstances may have inspired hope in certain conditions resist the claims of the conquerors. In addition, in Russia, the masses constantly opposed the foreign yoke, with whom the Grand Duke could not ignore. As a result, a formal recognition of Russia's dependence on the Golden Horde was proclaimed. But the fact of recognition of this power did not mean in reality the establishment of a foreign yoke over the country.
The first decade after the invasion is the period when the foreign yoke was just taking shape. At that time, in Russia, the people's forces were fighting for Tatar rule, and so far they were winning.
The Russian princes, recognizing their dependence on the Mongol-Tatars, tried to establish relations with them, for which they often visited the Horde Khan. Following the Grand Duke, other princes reached out to the Horde “about their fatherland”. Probably, the trip of the Russian princes to the Horde was somehow connected with the formalization of tributary relations.
Meanwhile, strife continued in North-Eastern Russia. And among the princes, two oppositions stood out: for and against dependence on the Golden Horde.
But in general, at the beginning of the 50s of the 13th century, a rather strong anti-Tatar group was formed in Russia, ready to resist the conquerors.
However, the policy of Grand Duke Andrei Yaroslavich, aimed at organizing resistance to the Tatars, faced foreign policy Alexander Yaroslavich, who considered it necessary to maintain peaceful relations with the Horde in order to restore the strength of the Russian princes and prevent new Tatar campaigns.
It was possible to prevent new Tatar invasions by establishing peaceful relations with the Horde, that is, by recognizing its power. Under these conditions, the Russian princes made a certain compromise with the Mongol-Tatars. They recognized the supreme power of the khan and donated part of the feudal rent to the Mongol-Tatar feudal lords. In return, the Russian princes received confidence in the absence of the danger of a new invasion from the Mongols, and they also more firmly established themselves on their princely throne. The princes who opposed the power of the khan risked losing their power, which, with the help of the Mongol khan, could pass to another Russian prince. The Horde khans, in turn, were also interested in an agreement with the local princes, as they received an additional tool to maintain their rule over the masses.
Later, the Mongol-Tatars established a "regime of systematic terror" in Russia. The slightest disobedience of the Russians caused punitive expeditions of the Mongols. During the second half of the 13th century, they carried out at least twenty devastating campaigns against Russia, each of which was accompanied by the ruin of cities and villages, and the deportation of Russian people into captivity.
As a result of the recognition by Russia of dependence on the Golden Horde in Russia for many years there was a restless, difficult, stressful life. Between the princes there was a struggle for and against the Golden Horde, there were frequent strife. Anti-Tatar groups constantly acted. Both some Russian princes and the Mongol khans opposed the popular mass uprisings. The people experienced constant pressure from the Golden Horde. Russia, already once shaken by the terrible tragedy of the Mongol invasion, now again lived in constant fear of a new destructive offensive of the Golden Horde. Russia was in such a position dependent on the Golden Horde until the end of the 14th century on September 8, 1380. Grand Duke Dmitry Donskoy in the Battle of Kulikovo defeated the main forces of the Golden Horde, and dealt a serious blow to its military and political dominance. It was a victory over the Mongol-Tatars, and the final liberation of Russia from the dependence of the Golden Horde.
Pannonia- Roman province, located on the territory of modern Hungary, Austria, Serbia, Croatia and Slovenia. and to the east (in the direction of the upper reaches of the Volga, the Upper and Middle Dnieper). The ancestors of today's Poles were among those who decided to stay on the land of their fathers and grandfathers. In the 9th-10th centuries, the rulers of the Glade tribe, from which the name of the state originated, began the successful conquest of the surrounding tribes. The legendary founder of the first dynasty was the peasant Piast, who was elevated to the throne by God's providence. Boleslav the Brave with Svyatopolk enter the Golden Gate in Kyiv. Painting by Jan Matejko. 1884 Wikimedia CommonsRelations with Russia. The development of Russia and Poland took place in parallel. Already at a very early stage of their relationship, wars and conflicts happened much more often than alliances and cooperation. The reason for this was the civilizational choice made by their rulers with a difference of 20 years. In 966, Mieszko I adopted Christianity according to the Western model, and in 988, Prince Vladimir - according to the Eastern one. In medieval Europe, there was no concept of ethnic solidarity: the main criterion in determining "friend or foe" was religious affiliation. Different faith predetermined the hostility of the two kindred Slavic peoples. However, there were also more utilitarian reasons. Russia and Poland were in conflict over the Cherven lands (now Western Ukraine). After the victories of Vladimir in 981 and Yaroslav the Wise in 1030-1031, these territories were ceded to Kiev.
Poles also participated in Russian strife. In 1018, Boleslav I the Brave supported his son-in-law Svyatopolk the Accursed in the fight against Yaroslav the Wise and for some time even took possession of Kiev - however, the rebellious citizens soon expelled the Poles. In 1069, similar events took place: Izyaslav Yaroslavich, expelled by his brothers from Kyiv, fled to Poland to his nephew Boleslav II the Bold, who made a trip to Russia and restored his uncle to the throne. Occasionally, Russians and Poles entered into military alliances, as, for example, in 1076, when the Smolensk prince Vladimir Monomakh and the Volyn prince Oleg Svyatoslavich made an alliance with Boleslav II against the Czechs.
Mongols near Legnica. At the peak is the head of Henry II of Silesia. From Freytag's Hedwig manuscript. 1451 Wroclaw University Library In 1237 (the beginning of the Batu invasion of the Russian principalities). The history of the two Slavic states continued to develop in parallel in the future. In 1138, after the death of Bolesław III Wrymouth, the appanage period began in Poland, just as it had been a few years earlier in Russia. In the XIII century, Poland entered as a conglomerate of warring principalities: Kuyavia, Mazovia, Sandomierz, Silesia and others. A characteristic feature of Polish feudalism was the tradition of veche meetings (the prototype of future Sejms), which were necessary to establish control over the appanage prince by the feudal lords. In the 1230s, the unifying trend was associated with the names of the Silesian princes - Henry the Bearded and Henry the Pious. However, the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars and the defeat Polish army in the battle of Legnica in 1241, led to a new round of strife and civil strife.
Livonian Order
Map of Livonia. Prepared by cartographer Joanness Portantius. 1573 Wikimedia Commons Where did it come from. In the VIII-XIII centuries, the Germans waged an irreconcilable struggle with the Slavic tribes for the expansion of their lands to the east. To conquer the Slavic neighbors, and later the pagan Baltic and Finno-Ugric tribes of Livonia (present-day Latvia and Estonia), knightly orders were created and crusades were carried out. In 1202, the Order of the Sword was created. The knights subjugated the Livonian tribes and founded a number of fortress cities, including Revel (present-day Tallinn) to control these lands. The swordsmen also fought with the Novgorodians and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. In 1236, in the battle of Siauliai, they suffered a crushing defeat from the Lithuanians - 48 knights and the master of the order were killed. In 1237, the Order of the Swordsmen joined the Teutonic Order, which moved from Palestine to Prussia, and became its Livonian branch.
Minnesinger Tannhäuser in the garb of the Teutonic Knights. Illustration from the Codex Manes. 14th century Universitatsbibliothek Heidelberg Relations with Russia. The Livonian Order claimed not only the Baltic lands: the knights sought to spread their faith (and with it power) further to the northeast - the southern coast of the Gulf of Finland, Izhora land, Pskov, and eventually Novgorod. The Novgorod troops, in turn, inflicted a number of defeats on the Livonian knights. In 1242, Alexander Nevsky defeated the knights in the Battle of the Ice, and in 1253, his son Vasily, at the head of the Novgorod and Pskov troops, continued his father's work. Somewhat less well known is the Battle of Rakovor in 1268, during which, according to the chronicler, the Pskov, Novgorod and Vladimir troops defeated the Livonians and Danes. It is worth noting that the confrontation was not widespread and permanent. In particular, in 1224, the Pskov boyars concluded an agreement with the Order of the Sword, according to which they refused an alliance with Novgorod, promised not to interfere in the Novgorod-German conflicts and recognized the order as allies in the event of an attack by the Novgorodians on Pskov.
In 1237. Pope Gregory IX and Grand Master of the Teutonic Order Hermann von Salza performed the ceremony of joining the remnants of the Order of the Sword to the Teutonic Order. The emerging Livonian Order lasted until 1562, and in the 14th-16th centuries, in fact, turned into an independent state on the territory of the Baltic states.
Lithuanian principality
Where did it come from. The consolidation of the tribes of the Southern Baltic refers to
to the 11th-13th centuries. The Lithuanian tribe became the core of the new state, uniting around itself the tribes of Aukshtaits, Samogitians (in the Russian tradition - Zhmud) and partly Yotvingians and Zemgalians. Mindovg (ruled in the middle of the 13th century) is considered the founder of the Principality of Lithuania. The emergence of the state was a response to the expansion of the Order of the Sword, the Teutonic Order, the Kingdom of Sweden and Russian principalities into the Baltic states. Unlike its northern neighbors - the Livs, Latgalians and Estonians, who quickly fell under the rule of the Livonian knights, Lithuania managed for quite a long time not only to maintain its independence and pagan faith, but also to become a powerful force in Eastern Europe.
Prince Mindovg. Illustration for the chronicle of Alessandro Guanini. 16th century Wikimedia Commons Relations with Russia. In the Tale of Bygone Years (XII century), Lithuania is mentioned among the peoples who paid tribute to Russia. Military campaigns in the Baltic States were made by Vladimir, who imposed tribute on the Yotvingians. With the beginning of strife in Russia, the tribes of the Southern Baltic, apparently, first paid tribute to the prince of Polotsk, but already in the 1130s, their dependence on Russia ceased. Moreover, taking advantage of the weakening of the Russian lands, Lithuania turned to active expansion. At the end of the 12th century, the Principality of Polotsk fell under its rule. Thus, the Slavic component was present in the Lithuanian state from the very moment of its appearance. In the future, the inhabitants of Polotsk, Vitebsk and a number of other smaller principalities became the core of the formation of the Belarusian people, in whose ethnogenesis Lithuanian domination played a significant role. In the XII-XIII centuries, the Lithuanians made numerous trips to Smolensk, Pskov, Novgorod and the Galicia-Volyn principality.
In 1237. The Mongol invasion and the subsequent decline of the Russian lands played into the hands of the ambitious plans of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. It was at this time that Prince Mindovg succeeded in finally uniting the state and initiating Lithuanian expansion into Russian lands. In the XIV century, most of modern Belarus passed under the rule of Lithuania, and in 1362, after the victory of Prince Olgerd over the Tatars in the Battle of Blue Waters, most of modern Ukraine (including Volhynia, Kiev and Seversk lands). Now up to 90 percent of the inhabitants of the Grand Duchy were Slavs. The Tatar yoke was abolished in the conquered lands, and the pagan Lithuanians were tolerant of Orthodoxy. Thus, Lithuania became one of the possible centers for the unification of Russia. However, in the war with Moscow (1368-1372), the Lithuanian prince Olgerd was defeated and recognized the right of Dmitry Donskoy to a great reign. Already the new Lithuanian ruler, the son of Olgerd Jagiello, converted to Catholicism and began to oppress the interests of the Russian boyars and the Orthodox clergy. In 1385, under the terms of the Union of Kreva, having married Queen Jadwiga, Jagiello also became the Polish king, effectively uniting these two states under his rule. Over time, the Baltic tribes for the most part adopted Catholicism, and the predominantly Orthodox Slavic population of the country found itself in a difficult and unequal situation.
Volga Bulgaria
Bulgarian silver dish with the image of two lions. 11th century Where did it come from. During the Great Migration of Peoples (4th-6th centuries), along with the Huns, many other Turkic peoples, in particular the Bulgars, ended up in Europe. After the collapse of the Great Bulgaria (the state that briefly united the Bulgar tribes ceased to exist around 671), one of the hordes led by Khan Kotrag moved from the Black Sea steppes to the north and settled in the region of the Middle Volga and Kama. There, the Turks managed to take a leading position in the multi-ethnic public entities VIII-IX centuries, the most active of which were Bulgar and Bilyar. At the same time, another Bulgar horde under the command of Khan Asparuh subjugated the Slavs in the east of the Balkan Peninsula. As a result of the merger of these two ethnic components, the Bulgarian state appeared. The section of the Volga, which was controlled by the Bulgars, was part of the Volga trade route, which connected Northern Europe with the Arab Caliphate and other countries of the East. This ensured their well-being, but dependence on the Khazar Khaganate hampered the process of the formation of the Bulgarian statehood until the beginning of the 10th century. As an eyewitness, traveler and writer of the early tenth century Ibn Fadlan testifies, the formation of an independent political tradition in Bulgaria was associated with the adoption of Islam around 922.
Bulgar shield to protect the hand from the bowstring. XII-XIV centuries From the album-catalog "Svetozarnaya Kazan", St. Petersburg, 2005 Relations with Russia. Prince Svyatoslav "helped" the Bulgars to free themselves from the power of the Khazar Khaganate, having defeated the Khazar capital Sarkel in 965. During the tenth century, Kievan Rus repeatedly organized campaigns against the Volga Bulgaria (in 977, 985, 994 and 997) - one of these campaigns (probably in 985) ended with the signing of a peace treaty in Kyiv. According to Russian chronicles, in 986 the Bulgar embassy came to the capital of Ancient Russia not only to strengthen friendly relations, but also with the offer of their religion - Islam. For the Volga Bulgaria, Russia was both the main trading partner and the main competitor in the Western markets; Islamization opened up leverage for manipulating the neighbor's economy. The refusal of Prince Vladimir was taken calmly by the Bulgars, since trade relations were a priority in relations between the Bulgars and Kiev. In 1006, the "partnership agreement" was renegotiated on new terms: Prince Vladimir gave the Bulgars the right to free trade in the cities along the Volga and Oka, Russian merchants received the same opportunities on the territory of Volga Bulgaria.
The aggravation of the Bulgaro-Russian conflict fell on the reign of Yuri Dolgoruky and Andrei Bogolyubsky. The final point in the frontier confrontation was put by Vsevolod the Big Nest: in 1183 he destroyed the new Bulgarian capital, the city of Bilyar. This campaign showed the clear superiority of Russia, which continued the colonization of the Volga-Oka basin. The rivalry of the princes of North-Eastern Russia and Volga Bulgaria for the Mordovian lands continued later. The last armed conflict dates back to 1228-1232.
Even the presence of a common formidable enemy did not lead to the reconciliation of recent trade partners, and now foreign policy rivals.
In 1237. The troops of Batu Khan swept away the Volga Bulgaria - by 1240 it was finally conquered and became part of the Golden Horde. By the 15th century, the Bulgars had actually restored their state, which was called the Kazan Khanate.
Polovtsy
Where did you come from. Polovtsy - that's what their Russian contemporaries called them
in the 11th-13th centuries, in Europe and Byzantium they were known as Cumans, and in Persia and Arab countries as Kipchaks. It was a people of Turkic origin, originally occupying territories from the South-Eastern Urals to the Irtysh River. Since the Polovtsians were an unliterate people, science draws information about their early history mainly from the works of Arab travelers. From the beginning of the XI century, they moved to the West, participating in the next "migration" of the Turks to the fat western pastures, and pushed the Pechenegs and Torks Torquay- one of the Turkic tribes that roamed the Black Sea steppes
in the X-XIII centuries., with which the Russian princes had already managed to establish relatively peaceful neighborly relations by this time.
The Tale of Prince Igor's Campaign against the Polovtsians: The First Battle. Radziwill Chronicle. 15th century
Relations with Russia. The first major clash occurred in 1068 on the Alta River, during which the united army of the sons of Yaroslav the Wise was defeated. After that, the raids of the Polovtsy acquired a regular character. The Russian princes were forced to adapt to such a neighborhood, and some were especially "successful" in this. In particular, Prince Oleg Svyatoslavich, in an attempt to return the Chernigov throne that belonged to him by right, hired the Polovtsy to fight against uncles Vsevolod and Izyaslav - in the end, Oleg got his way and allowed the Polovtsy to plunder the city. The confrontation peaked in the 1090s and was associated with the name of Oleg's cousin Vladimir Monomakh. In 1094, the Polovtsians inflicted the first and last defeat Vladimir Monomakh, forcing the prince to leave Chernigov to Oleg Svyatoslavich, but already in 1096 Monomakh struck back, defeating the Polovtsian army near the walls of Pereyaslavl. During the battle, Khan Tugorkan died, whose image, the worst enemy of Russia, was reflected in folklore: he is believed to be mentioned in epics under the name of Tugarin the Serpent, or Tugarin Zmeevich. As a result of numerous campaigns, Monomakh drove the Polovtsy deep into the steppe beyond the Don and Volga, and also destroyed twice (in 1111 and 1116) the main city of the nomads, Sharukan. After the death of Vladimir Monomakh in 1125, the Polovtsy again became active participants in the internecine struggle of the Russian princes: as a rule, they supported the Suzdal and Novgorod-Seversky princes in military campaigns. In 1169, the Polovtsy in the ranks of the troops of Andrei Bogolyubsky participated in the sack of Kyiv.
Russian princes, for their part, also participated in the Polovtsian strife. So in 1185 Prince Igor Svyatoslavich, main character"Words about Igor's Campaign", went on a campaign in the steppe against the horde of Khan Gzak (Gza), supporting the claims of his matchmaker, Khan Konchak. The last joint military venture of the Russian princes and the Polovtsian khans against the Mongol army of Jebe and Subedei ended in failure on the Kalka River on May 31, 1223.
In 1237. The Polovtsy were defeated by the troops of Batu in 1236-1243. Many Polovtsians were driven into slavery, most of them disappeared into the Turkic population of the Golden Horde, subsequently contributing to the formation of such ethnic groups as Tatars, Bashkirs, Kazakhs, Uzbeks, Balkars, Karachays, Crimean Tatars. The other part, headed by Khan Kotyan, was first accepted on favorable terms by the Hungarian king White IV, and after the death of their leader in 1241, they migrated to Bulgaria.
Mongols
Where did you come from. The Mongolian state arose at the beginning of the 13th century in the steppes of southern Siberia, south of Lake Baikal, on the border with China. The Mongol tribes were united by Temujin, named in 1206 at the kurultai (a meeting of the Mongol nobility) by Genghis Khan - the great khan. He created an army of many thousands, based on severe discipline, and gave the Mongols laws - Yasu. During his first campaigns, Genghis Khan subjugated the surrounding tribes of the Great Steppe, including the Tatars, who were almost completely destroyed. This ethnonym was preserved primarily thanks to the Chinese, who called all nomadic tribes to the northwest Tatars, as the Romans once called barbarians all those who lived outside the empire.
During his campaigns, Genghis Khan conquered the Qin Empire (North-Western China), the Central Asian Kara-Kitai kingdom, and the state of Khorezm in the lower reaches of the Amu Darya. In 1220-1224, several detachments of the Mongols, led by the commanders Dzhebe and Subedei, pursuing the Shah of Khorezm Muhammad, invaded Transcaucasia, defeated the Alans tribes and inflicted several defeats on the Polovtsians.
Relations with Russia. In 1223, the Polovtsian Khan Kotyan requested help from his son-in-law, the Galician prince Mstislav Udaly. At the congress of princes in Kyiv, it was decided to provide assistance to the Polovtsy: this was required by allied and family ties, besides, the Mongols directly threatened the Black Sea interests of the Russian lands. Regiments led by Mstislav of Kiev, Mstislav of Chernigov, Mstislav Udaly and Daniil Romanovich Galitsky set out for the steppe. However, the congress did not elect a chief military leader. The Russian-Polovtsian army was divided, each prince fought on his own, and Mstislav of Kyiv did not enter the battlefield at all, hiding with his army in the camp. The battle on the Kalka River, which took place on May 31, 1223, ended in complete defeat for the Russian-Polovtsian coalition. Six princes were killed, and from the ordinary soldiers, according to the chronicler, only one in ten returned. However, the defeat did not force the Russian principalities, carried away by internecine strife, to take any measures in case of a repetition of the invasion.
Capture of Suzdal by Batu. Miniature from the Illuminated Chronicle. 16th century Russian National Library In 1237 a huge Mongol army stood on the borders of the Russian lands, waiting for the order of their new overlord, Khan Batu, the grandson of Genghis Khan, to attack Ryazan and Vladimir. The Volga Bulgaria had just been erased from the political map of the world, the Mordovian and Burtas lands were devastated. In the winter of 1237-1238, the Mongol hordes moved to Russia. The princes did not even attempt to convene a congress to gather an all-Russian army. In a short time, Ryazan and Vladimir, Tver and Torzhok, Kyiv and Chernigov, Galich and Vladimir-Volynsky were subjected to defeat and plunder.
In 1243, the Russian princes were summoned to the Horde, where they recognized vassal dependence on the Mongol state, which until 1266 was part of the Mongol Empire, and later separated. The “yoke” consisted in the payment of tribute, the need to receive special permits from the khans - labels confirming the rights of the princes to manage their lands, and occasionally in the participation of Russian troops in the Mongol campaigns.
The invasion of Batu and long-term tributary relations with the horde weakened Russia, undermined its economic potential, made it difficult to contact with Western countries and indirectly led to the fact that a significant part of the southwestern and northwestern principalities was captured by Poland, Lithuania and Hungary. At the same time, a number of historians point to the important role of the "yoke" in the development of Russian statehood, overcoming fragmentation and uniting the lands around Moscow.
Byzantine Empire
Where did it come from. Byzantium, a colony of the Greek city of Megara, was founded in the 7th century BC on the shores of the Golden Horn Bay at the confluence of the Bosphorus Strait with the Sea of Marmara. The city was located at the crossroads of trade routes: in particular, through the city, to which Emperor Constantine moved the capital of the Roman Empire in 330 AD, the shortest land route connecting Europe and the Middle East, via militaris, passed. Roman emperors traveled along this road to the eastern provinces of the country, along it in the Middle Ages the crusaders went to conquer Jerusalem, the Great Silk Road and the route “from the Varangians to the Greeks” passed through Byzantium. In 395, after the division of the Roman Empire, Constantinople became the capital of its eastern part. Feeling like the civilizational successors of Rome, the Byzantines called themselves Romans, and their country - the Roman (Roman) Empire. In neighboring countries they were called Greeks, and their country was called the Kingdom of Greece: the Romans spoke Greek and belonged to the Greek culture. Byzantium reached its heyday in the middle of the 6th century under the emperor Justinian. Then the empire included Egypt and North Africa, the Middle East, Asia Minor, the Balkans, the islands mediterranean sea, the Apennine Peninsula and the southern part of the Pyrenees. Later wars with the Persians, Lombards, Avars and Slavs weakened Byzantium. Large territories were conquered from the Romans by the Arabs in the 7th century. From now on for the Byzantines great importance acquired land located north of the Black Sea coast.
The Byzantine fleet repels the attack of the Rus in 941. Miniature from the "Chronicle" of John Skylitzes. XIII century Wikimedia Commons Relations with Russia. Tsargrad (as Constantinople was called in the Russian chronicles) was perhaps the most important of the neighbors of the Russian lands at an early stage state development. The famous path “from the Varangians to the Greeks” led there, around which the ancient Russian proto-state arose at the end of the 9th - beginning of the 10th century. Traded with Byzantium, fought, concluded peace treaties and dynastic marriages. During the period of the formation of the ancient Russian state, it is clearly seen that the main direction of expansion was the south. Its reason was the desire to establish control over trade routes, and the main goal of the raids was Tsargrad. Byzantine sources record raids in the 830s and 860 (in the Russian chronicle tradition, this campaign is associated with the Kiev princes Askold and Dir). They were continued by the first Russian princes, who at the end of the 9th century managed to unite Novgorod and Kyiv under their rule and establish control over the route “from the Varangians to the Greeks”. Some historians deny the fact of Prince Oleg's campaigns against Constantinople, since they were not reflected in Byzantine sources, but it is definitely impossible to dispute the signing of Russian-Byzantine treaties: in 907 - on the right to duty-free trade in Constantinople and 911 - on peace, friendship and free hiring Russian squads for the Byzantine service. Prince Igor achieved less success in relations with the Romans, violating his allied obligations, he undertook two not very successful campaigns against Constantinople - as a result, in 944 a new Russian-Byzantine treaty was concluded on less favorable terms.
Skillful Greek diplomacy more than once used the Russian princes for their own purposes: in the late 960s, Prince Svyatoslav intervened on the side of the Romans in the Bulgarian-Byzantine conflict, and in 988, Prince Vladimir assisted the co-emperors Vasily II and Constantine VII in suppressing the rebellion of the commander Focky Wards. These events are associated with the most important civilizational choice made by Prince Vladimir - Orthodoxy. Thus, another important aspect appeared in Russian-Byzantine relations - strong and long-term cultural and religious ties were established. The Kyiv Metropolitan was appointed by the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople, often he was a Greek. Byzantine church art for a long time became a model for Russian masters: Russian frescoes and icons imitated Byzantine ones (and many were even created by Tsargrad icon painters), and churches of Hagia Sophia were erected in Kyiv and Novgorod - reflections of the Constantinople shrine.
The XII century was the time of the weakening of Byzantium. She survived heavy defeats from the Seljuk Turks and Pechenegs, in the Mediterranean the Greeks were pressed by the Italian trading republics - Venice and Genoa, the Normans conquered Southern Italy, and the crusader allies - Byzantine Syria. Under such conditions, ties with Russia acquired decisive importance for Constantinople. Thus, in the "Word on the Destruction of the Russian Land" Vladimir Monomakh is portrayed as a strong ally, before whom Byzantium fawned. After the beginning of the specific period in Russia, the relations of the Greeks with different lands developed differently. So, for example, the Vladimir-Suzdal principality for a long time remained an ally of Byzantium,
and Galicia-Volyn, on the contrary, often conflicted with it.
Crusaders enter Constantinople. Painting by Eugene Delacroix. 1840 Wikimedia Commons In 1237. The result of a long crisis in Byzantium was the fall of Constantinople, in 1204 captured and plundered by the Venetians during the Fourth crusade. For 60 years, the empire disappeared from the political map of the world. Only in 1261 it was restored by the Nicene emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos. The last 200 years of its history were spent in the fight against the Serbs in the Balkans and the Ottoman Turks in Asia Minor. In 1453, Constantinople was taken by storm by the Turks, after which the empire finally ceased to exist.
The table “Main events in the history of Ancient Russia in the 9th - early 13th centuries” compiled by students based on the materials of the textbook, may have the following form.
The main events in the history of Ancient Russia in IX – beginning XIII century
Year | Domestic political events | Foreign policy events |
Beginning of Rurik's reign in Novgorod | ||
Prince Oleg's campaign against Kyiv. Unification of the north (Novgorod) and south (Kyiv). Formation of the Old Russian state | ||
Prince Oleg's campaigns against Tsargrad (Constantinople). Signing a trade agreement beneficial for Russia |
||
Unsuccessful campaigns of Prince Igor against Constantinople |
||
Prince Igor was killed by the rebellious Drevlyans | ||
Prince Svyatoslav's campaign against the Khazar Khaganate. The defeat and death of the Khazar Khaganate. Russian control over the Volga trade route |
||
Embassy of Russia in Constantinople. Baptism of Princess Olga. Political union of Russia and Byzantium |
||
Russian-Byzantine war. Death of Prince Svyatoslav |
||
Adoption of Christianity in Russia under Prince Vladimir | ||
Lyubech Congress of Princes. Legalization of political fragmentation | ||
The defeat of the Polovtsians by Prince Vladimir Monomakh |
||
The assault and defeat of Kyiv by the combined troops of Russian princes and Polovtsian khans. The weakening of the all-Russian significance of Kyiv |
Lessons #14-15. Russia between East and West.
During the lessons:
to reveal the process of formation of the Mongolian state, noting the features in comparison with the Old Russian state;
determine the reasons for the military successes of the Mongols during the formation of the Mongol Empire;
note the role of the struggle of Russia with the Mongol invasion for medieval European civilization;
characterize the significance of the struggle of Russia with the German and Swedish invaders;
draw conclusions about the significance of the choice of the princes of North-Eastern Russia in favor of an alliance with the Horde against the Catholic West.
Lesson plan:
The formation of the Mongolian state and its conquest.
Mongol invasion of Eastern and Central Europe.
Mongolian state in the XIII century.
Russia under the rule of the Golden Horde.
Russia between the West and the Horde.
Means of education: textbook §12-13, historical map No. 7 "Russian lands in the XII - early XIII centuries."
Recommended methods and techniques for conducting lessons: independent work students with the text of the textbook, a historical map with elements of a generalizing characteristic, the solution of cognitive tasks, work on compiling the table "The struggle of Russia against the invasion of the Mongols and repelling the aggression of the West."
Personalities: Genghis Khan, Batu, Alexander Nevsky.
Main dates: 1223 - the battle on the Kalka River.
1237-1242 - Batu's invasion of Russia.
1240 - Battle of the Neva.
Questions for follow-up conversation:
Reveal the causes of political fragmentation in Russia.
Prove that the period of political fragmentation was accompanied by the economic and cultural upsurge of the Russian lands.
Compare the development of the Novgorod land and the Vladimir-Suzdal principality, in terms of natural, economic, social and political features.
Describe the activities of Prince Andrei Bogolyubsky. Why did his contemporaries call him "autocratic"?
There are two lessons for this topic. It is advisable in the first lesson to focus on the consideration of the first three points of the lesson plan. Dedicate the second lesson to the characterization of the most difficult issue - Russia under the rule of the Golden Horde and the problem of choosing the princes of North-Eastern Russia for civilizational development.
Option number 1 . Since a significant part of the material of the paragraph is event-driven and largely familiar to students, the first lesson organizes independent work of students with the text of the textbook and map No. 7 to prepare answers to questions. In order to save time in the lesson, it is possible to work in groups.
Comparative characteristics of the formation of the state among the Mongols and Eastern Slavs.
Reasons for the successful conquests of the Mongols.
Baty's invasion of Russia and the consequences.
Russia between East and West.
Work on the first question will make it possible to repeat the process of formation of the Old Russian state and, on this basis, note main feature states of the Mongols - "nomadic feudalism", in which main value was cattle. This question is best entrusted to the most prepared group of students, since comparative analysis complicated enough. The last question of the assignment is completed by students and considered in the second lesson.
Reference point! Regarding the historical development of nomadic societies in domestic science, many different points of view have been expressed. There has been a discussion among historians about nomadic feudalism". Some scientists believed that the nomads developed according to the same laws as the agricultural peoples, and the basis of their feudal relations was land ownership(pasture). Their opponents argued that the pastures of the nomads were collectively owned, and the basis of feudalism was livestock ownership.
Option number 2. After a conversation with the class about the formation of the Mongol state and the reasons for the successful conquests of the Mongols led by Genghis Khan, students conduct independent work with the text of the textbook, map No. 7 (task No. 1, p. 93). In the course of the work, the table “The struggle of Russia against the invasion of the Mongols and the reflection of the aggression of the West” is filled in, followed by a discussion of the results. In the process of this work, it is necessary to use the analysis of the task document No. 2 of the textbook.
date of | Who did you fight? | Developments | Result |
Mongolian state | The Polovtsy turned to the Russian princes for help. The united Russian-Polovtsian army and the Mongols met in a decisive battle near the Kalka River. | The military superiority of the Mongols, disagreements among the Russian princes, the unexpected flight of the Polovtsy led to a terrible defeat for the Russian squads. |
|
December 1237 | The invasion of the Mongol army led by Batu Khan. | The defeat of the troops of the Ryazan prince at the borders of the principality. Capture of the city of Ryazan. | Other principalities did not help the people of Ryazan. The defeat of the Ryazan principality. |
January 1238 | The battle of the Vladimir-Suzdal troops with the Mongols near Kolomna. | The defeat of the Vladimir-Suzdal troops. Siege by the Mongols of the city of Vladimir. |
|
February 1238 | The assault and capture of Vladimir by the Mongols. | Another 14 cities of North-Eastern Russia were taken by the Mongols. |
|
March 1238 | The defeat of the Vladimir troops on the City River. | Most of the Russian soldiers and Grand Duke Yuri Vsevolodovich died. Before reaching Novgorod, the Mongols turned into the steppe. |
|
April 1238 | Siege of the city of Kozelsk 7 weeks. "Evil City" | Only by the beginning of summer did the Mongols manage to break out into the southern steppes. |
|
Autumn 1239 | The ruin of the lands and principalities of Southern Russia. | Invasion of Poland and Hungary. |
|
The Swedish fleet along the Neva invaded the Novgorod possessions. The defeat of the Swedes on the Neva from the Novgorod prince Alexander Yaroslavich (Nevsky). | The Swedes failed to block the trade route across the Baltic to the Novgorodians. |
||
Livonian Order | "Battle on the Ice". | The regiments of Alexander Nevsky inflicted a crushing defeat on the ice of Lake Peipsi. |
Question. Prove that the soldiers and inhabitants of Russia put up fierce resistance to the invaders.
As homework, tenth graders can be asked to complete historical facts and examples of textbook material. For the purpose of preliminary acquaintance, students at home get acquainted with the material of the textbook devoted to the issues of "Rus under the rule of the Golden Horde" and "Rus between the Mongols and the West."
In the second lesson, during the conversation, conclusions are analyzed and conclusions are drawn about the consequences of the Mongol invasion of Russia and the significance of the choice of the princes of North-Eastern Russia in favor of an alliance with the Horde against the Catholic West.
What were the consequences of the Mongol invasion for Russia?
Economic, social and cultural backwardness of Russia from the countries of Western Europe.
Heavy material damage, mass death of the population, ruin of cities. The decline of crafts, trade, cities.
Students should pay attention to the fact that this is the third factor that hindered the development of the country. Remember, what other factors hindered the development of Russia, determined its lagging behind the countries of Western Europe? Schoolchildren answering this question must name the natural-geographical factor (see § 6, pp. 44 and 46) and the absence during the formation of the Old Russian state, unlike the countries of Western Europe, on the territory in antiquity of a highly developed civilization, the inability to directly use the achievements of ancient civilization (see § 8 , page 59).
The military defeat delayed the political unification of the northeastern lands.
The connections of the Russian lands with the Orthodox countries, the countries of Europe, have ceased.
It contributed to the development of despotic forms of power in Russia.
Another point of view! What are the positive aspects of the dependence of the northeastern principalities on the Golden Horde noted by the historian Klyuchevsky V.O.? “In the devastated public consciousness (of the North-Eastern princes), there was only room for the instincts of self-preservation and capture. Only the image of Alexander Nevsky somewhat covered the horror of savagery and fraternal anger, which too often erupted among Russian rulers, relatives or cousins, uncles and nephews. If they were left completely to their own devices, they would smash their Russia into incoherent, eternally hostile appanage rags. But the principalities of the then Northern Russia were not independent possessions, but tributary "uluses" of the Tatars; their princes were called serfs of the "free king", as we called the Horde Khan. The power of this khan gave at least the specter of unity to the smaller and mutually alienated patrimonial corners of the Russian princes. True, even in the Volga Sarai it was in vain to look for rights. The Grand Prince's table of Vladimir was there the subject of bargaining and rebidding; the purchased khan's label covered all falsehoods. But the offended did not always immediately grab a weapon, but went to seek protection from the khan, and not always unsuccessfully. The storm of Khan's wrath held back the bully; mercy, that is, arbitrariness, more than once warned or stopped a devastating strife. The power of the khan was a rough Tatar knife, cutting the knots into which the descendants of Vsevolod III were able to confuse the affairs of their land. It was not in vain that the Russian chroniclers called the filthy Hagarians the batog of God, admonishing sinners in order to lead them to the path of repentance.
What was the dependence of Russia on the Golden Horde?
The Khan of the Golden Horde appointed the Grand Dukes. All princes were to receive from the khan labels to own their lands. Contributed to the development of despotic forms of power in Russia.
Dependence on the Golden Horde preserved political fragmentation.
The payment of tribute - "Tatar output". Census of the population, established norms for the collection of tribute. It made it difficult to restore and develop the economy of the north-eastern lands.
The administration of the Horde in the Russian principalities (until the middle of the XIV century) - Basques.
Punitive raids of the Golden Horde, during which the Horde took artisans and young people into slavery. The decline of crafts, trade, cities.
Was North-Eastern Russia part of the Golden Horde?
From the point of view of the text of the textbook, North-Eastern Russia became dependent on the Golden Horde, that is, it had "autonomy" - "the conquerors retained the system of government that had developed here, the army and religion." However, in the “to summarize” section, it is said that North-Eastern Russia turned out to be “within the framework of the formed Mongol Empire.” The complete personal dependence of the princes on the Mongol khan, who gave them the right to manage their own territories, the confirmation of this dependence by regular “outputs”, the supply of troops for joint military operations, the presence of the Horde administration (Baskaki), can hardly serve as a good reason for recognizing “autonomy »Russian lands within the Golden Horde (ulus of Jochi).
Solutiondilemmas (see page 91)(i.e. a difficult choice between two equally unpleasant possibilities) princes. Solving the dilemma by Prince Alexander Nevsky.
1 point of view. The prudent policy of Alexander Nevsky, who understood the futility of resistance to the Mongols, on the union and subordination of Odra, relying on the help of the Mongol khans against the Catholic West, made it possible to maintain their own statehood.
2 point of view. Relying on the help of the Mongol khans, Alexander Nevsky consolidated the despotic traditions of governing North-Eastern Russia. At the same time, he actually put an end to the effective resistance of the Russian princes to the Golden Horde for many years to come.
Lesson number 16. Final repetition and generalization the historical material of chapter 2 is conducted with the help of questions and tasks proposed in the textbook (pp. 93-94). The volume of oral and written work, the forms of conducting the final iterative and generalizing lesson are determined by the teacher, based on the level of preparation and other characteristics of a particular class. The organization of work in this lesson can be built using various methods and forms - a seminar, a test lesson, writing a micro-essay (see Thematic Planning).
Questions for final repetition and generalization:
The influence of natural and geographical conditions on the formation and development of Ancient Russia.
Highlight and justify the features of the emergence and development of the state among the Eastern Slavs.
Expand the main periods of the political development of Ancient Russia in the 10th - 13th centuries.
Describe the ancient Russian society, its main groups.
Determine the features of the development of the culture of Ancient Russia of this period.
Why do scientists call this period of development of Ancient Russia the pre-Mongolian period? What has changed in Russia as a result of the invasion of the Mongols led by Batu Khan?
Tests:
one). The Eastern Slavs were characterized by an economic and cultural type
nomadic pastoralists;
Farmers and settled pastoralists;
Nomadic pastoralists.
2). On the eve of the formation of the state, the worldview of the Eastern Slavs was
pagan;
Not religious;
3). Read an excerpt from the work "Strategikon" and determine social order Eastern Slavs.
“They do not keep those who are in their captivity, like other tribes, for an unlimited time, but, limiting (the term of slavery) to a certain time, they offer them a choice: whether they want to return home for a certain ransom or remain there in the position of free ?
slaveholding;
Feudal;
Tribal.
4). Most Russian epics are associated with the name:
Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich;
Prince Svyatopolk the Accursed;
Prince Igor Svyatoslavich.
five). What event in the history of Russia took place in 882?
Calling for the reign of Rurik;
The death of Prince Igor from the Drevlyans;
Prince Oleg's campaign against Kyiv.
6). Which of these events happened later than all the others?
Baptism of Russia;
Prince Oleg's campaign against Tsargrad;
The death of Prince Igor as a result of the uprising of the Drevlyans.
7). The consequence of the adoption of Christianity by Russia was
Acquaintance with the heritage of antiquity;
The split of Russian society along religious lines.
8). Who owns the words mentioned in the annals? "If someone does not come to the river tomorrow - whether it be rich, or poor, or a beggar, or a slave, he will be my enemy."
Prince Yaroslav the Wise;
Prince Alexander Nevsky;
Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich.
nine). The event to which the phrase refers: "Let everyone keep his fatherland" took place in
1. 1097; 2. 1113; 3. 1237.
10). Hereditary land ownership in medieval Russia is called:
1. Estate; Rope; Graveyard.
eleven). The Code of Laws of Ancient Russia was called:
"Salic Truth";
"Russian Truth";
"Ladder".
12). Servant, purchase, serf in Ancient Russia belonged to
dependent population;
free population;
notable population.
13). Which of the main groups of the population of the Old Russian state owns the article in Russkaya Pravda?
“If __________ hits a free person and runs away to the mansions, ... and after that, if a person beaten by him finds ________ somewhere, let him kill him like a dog.”
fourteen). Establish a correspondence between the genres of ancient Russian literature and the titles of works.
BUT). "The Word" 1. "The Tale of Boris and Gleb"
B). Life 2. "The Tale of Bygone Years"
C) Chronicle 3. "Instruction" by Vladimir Monomakh.
15). Read the passage from the chronicle and determine to which event the information given in it relates.
“Why are we destroying the Russian land, raising enmity against ourselves, and the Polovtsy are tearing our land to pieces and rejoice that there are wars between us to this day. From now on, we will unite in one heart and will protect the Russian lands. Let everyone keep his fatherland ... "and on that they kissed the cross ... and taking an oath, they went home ... ".
16). Establish a correspondence between concepts and their definitions.
BUT). Expansion 1. Detour by the prince and the retinue of the lands subject to Kiev with
purpose of collecting tribute.
B). Heresy 2. Expansion, capture of new territories.
IN). Votchina 3. A creed other than a system of religious
beliefs accepted by the church.
G). Polyudie 4. Hereditary land ownership in medieval Russia.
17). Read an excerpt from a historian's work and determine which of the princes of the 12th century it was dedicated to.
“Having not only a good heart, but also an excellent mind, he clearly saw the cause of state disasters and wanted to save at least his region from them: that is, he abolished the unfortunate system of destinies, reigned autocratically and did not give cities to either brothers or sons ... "
Key to test tasks:
Lyubech congress | Andrey Bogolyubsky |
Topic 3. Western Europe in the XI-XV centuries
The material of this topic gives an idea of the formation of the foundations of European civilization. The historical material of the chapter of the textbook considers important issues economic (urban development, handicraft small-scale production), political (formation of centralized states) and social (bourgeois and the formation of new bourgeois values) processes in countries medieval Europe. The historical material of the chapter, which is insignificant in volume, is important from the point of view of studying similar processes in Russia and for determining the features and differences that are similar, but only at first glance, the directions of the historical development of medieval Russia and Western countries.
Lesson number 17. Economic and political development.
During the lesson:
note the important changes in the economic life of the medieval society of Western Europe and their consequences for the rapid development of cities;
analyze the causal relationship between the processes of economic recovery, the transformation of townspeople into an influential political force in medieval society and the formation of centralized states in Western Europe;
give a comparative description of the strengthening royalty and the creation of centralized states on the example of France and England;
characterize the weakening of the power of the popes over secular monarchs, the growth of heretical movements in Europe.
Means of education: textbook §14.
