One of the most important events in history. The power of the cult
One of the most important events in the history of world law was the adoption
Napoleonic Code. A special commission of four major lawyers under
Napoleon's leadership within a short time improved and
brought into compliance all applicable laws, regulations and local
customs of France. In 1804, this grandiose code of laws, consisting of 2281
article, was approved under the title of the Civil Code. The main thing in this
code that he affirmed the equality of all before the law, freedom of conscience, non-
privacy of person and property.
Napoleon himself understood historical meaning his
legislative activity. "My true glory," he said, "is not
that I have won forty battles. But what cannot be forgotten is what will live
forever - this is my Civil Code."
Added 1 year ago
The Napoleonic Code outlived its creator. The empire collapsed, but France,
and after it, many other states of Europe and America continue
be guided by the legal principles set forth in the Napoleonic code
One of the most important events in the history of world law was the adoption of the Napoleonic Code. A special commission of four major lawyers, under the leadership of Napoleon, within a short time improved and brought into line all the existing laws, regulations and local customs of France. In 1804, this grandiose code of laws, consisting of 2281 articles, was approved under the name of the Civil Code. The main thing in this code is that it affirmed the equality of all before the law, freedom of conscience, inviolability of the person and property. Napoleon himself was well aware of the historical significance of his legislative activity. "My true glory," he said, "is not that I won forty battles. But what cannot be forgotten, what will live forever, is my Civil Code." Updated 1 year ago The Napoleonic Code outlived its creator. The empire collapsed, but France, and after it many other states of Europe and America, continue to be guided by the legal principles set forth in the Napoleonic Code
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One of the most important events in the history of world law was the adoption of Code Napoleon. The Special Commission of the four largest lawyers under the leadership of Napoleon for a short time and improved in compliance with all applicable laws, regulations and local Customs of France. In 1804, this grandiose laws, consisting of 2281 the article was approved under the name of the civil code. The main thing in this code that he asserted the equality of all before the law, freedom of conscience, the non- the implication of persons and property. Napoleon himself was well aware of the historical significance of his legislative activities. "My true glory, he said, is not whether I won forty battles. But what cannot be forgotten, what will live forever is my civil code ".Supplemented with 1 year agoCode Napoleon survived its creator. Empire collapsed, but France, followed by many other countries in Europe and America continue to be guided by the legal principles set out in the Code Napoleon
One of the most important events in the history of the right to the adoption
CodeNapoleon. A special commission of the four largest lawyers under the
leadership of Napoleon for a short time has improved and
brought into compliance with all applicable laws, regulations and local
customs in France. In 1804, this grand set of laws, which consists of 2281
articles, was approved under the name of the Civil Code. The main thing in this
code that he claimed the equality of all before the law, freedom of conscience,
non-implication of person and property.
Napoleon himself was well aware of the historic significance of their
legal activities. "My true glory, - he said - not that
I won forty battles. But what can not be forgotten, that will live
forever - this is my Civil Code".
Supplemented 1 year ago
Code Napoleon survived his creator. Empire disintegrated, but France,
followed by the many other countries of Europe and America continue to
be guided by legal principles laid down in the Code Napoleon
translating, please wait..
Lord one of the most important events in the history of the world was the adoption
Code Napoleon. The Special Commission of the largest four jurists under
The Napoleon in a short period of time has improved and
has led in line all the laws, regulations and local
customs France. In 1804, this intended set of laws, consisting of 2281
Article approved by the Civil Code. The main in this
code that he claimed equality of all before the law, freedom of conscience, not-
labor person and property.
Napoleon himself is well understood the historical importance of his
legal activity. "My true glory, - he said, - not the
that I won't forty-battles. But then, that may not be forgotten, however, that it would be to live
Forever - this is my civil code" .
supplemented by 1 year ago
Code Napoleon had survived its creator. Empire disintegrated, but France,
and followed by many other states of Europe and America continue to
Guided by the principles set forth in the code Napoleon
translating, please wait..
Europe in 1799-1815
Option 1
Modernization is:
a) replacement of defective parts of the mechanism with serviceable ones;
b) the processes of renewal of the traditional society, entering the path of movement towards a modern society;
c) the use of models to rationalize the way structures are built.
What is the name of the period from 1799 to May 18, 1804 in the history of France:
a) Directory;
b) Empire;
c) Consulate.
Specify the name of a systematized single legislative act regulating any homogeneous area of social relations:
a) the code;
a) the opening of the Congress of Vienna;
b) the foreign campaign of the Russian army;
c) Consulate in France (beginning);
d) the battle of Waterloo;
e) announcement of a continental blockade;
f) entry of the allies into Paris.
Indicate the year of the conclusion of the treaties of peace and alliance between Russia of Alexander I and Napoleonic France:
"Battle of the Nations" is called the battle under (choose the correct answer):
a) Austerlitz;
b) Borodin;
c) Waterloo;
The main goals of the participants in the Congress of Vienna 1814-1815. were to:
c) legal.
Determine the sequence of events:
a) "Hundred Days" by Napoleon Bonaparte (beginning);
b) the campaign of the "Great Army" in Russia;
c) abdication of Emperor Napoleon I;
d) formation of the Holy Alliance;
e) the coronation of Napoleon;
In what year did the "Battle of the Nations" take place:
The treaty of peace and alliance between the Russia of Alexander I and Napoleonic France was concluded in:
a) Austerlitz
b) Tilsit;
d) Paris;
The main goals of the participants in the Congress of Vienna 1814-1815. were to:
a) to help peoples seeking to free themselves from foreign oppression or influence;
b) to prevent the maturing of revolutions;
c) restore the order that existed before the French Revolution late XVIII v.
Crossword. Political figures.
Russian Emperor in 1801-1825 2. French Minister of Foreign Affairs in 1814-1815 3. Austrian Minister of Foreign Affairs in 1809-1821
Option 1.
B C A C-d-b-e-a-d C E B 1. Napoleon. 2. Kutuzov. 3. Wellington
Option 2.
C B C E-b-e-c-a-g D B Bc 1. Alexander. 2. Talleyrand 3. Metternich.
Europe in the Age of Napoleon Bonaparte
What place did the Vendée occupy in the history of the French Revolution of the 18th century?
What religious policy did the revolutionary governments of France pursue?
Consider how justified the remark of the American historian A. Mahan: "Great Britain, rather than France, acted defiantly." Justify your position.
What are the main transformations of the period of the French Revolution of the XVIII century.
Determine specific traits Consulate regime.
What measures of Napoleon were aimed at ensuring the support of various groups of the population of France for the regime of the Consulate?
Why did Napoleon decide to declare France an empire?
What is the significance of the Napoleonic Codes?
Name the achievements of culture during the period of the First Empire.
In his declining years, Napoleon said: “My true glory is not that I won 40 battles. But what cannot be forgotten, what will live forever is my Civil Code.” How right was Napoleon in assessing his deeds? Justify your position.
What fixed the Criminal Code of 1810? How did it regulate relations between entrepreneurs and employees?
Using the map, determine the changes that have occurred in the international position of European states as a result of the War of the Third Coalition.
Under what circumstances was Poland divided?
Imagine how the peace treaty and the alliance agreement were beneficial for France, and how - for Russia.
What are the reasons for Napoleon's victory over the Third and Fourth Coalitions?
What is the continental system?
What were the consequences of the establishment of the continental system for France and England?
What changes took place in the states of Europe that were captured during the Napoleonic Wars or became dependent on France?
Using a map, describe the course of the Napoleonic Wars in 1803-1809.
Were the wars of the First Empire different in character from those of the Directory?
Why did Napoleon go to war with Russia?
Can we assume that Russian diplomacy in 1812 played a significant role in the collapse of Napoleon's military plans?
Do you agree with the words of the French historian that “Napoleonic Europe was primarily a Europe of military camps and battlefields. Almost all those who represented it perished on the plains of Russia. Argument your position.
Why did the First Empire in France fall?
To what extent were the victorious powers able to realize the tasks set for themselves at the Congress of Vienna?
Based on the analysis of the map, indicate what contradictions and possible conflicts were laid as a result of the post-war structure of Europe.
Do you agree with the assessment of the results of Napoleon's reign by the French historian: "He sacrificed a whole generation of people, 6-7 million human lives, of which a fourth were French" to his ambition? Justify your position.
The personality of Napoleon was of great interest to. Pick up poems dedicated to this outstanding French commander and statesman. What image does the Russian poet recreate?
Using Internet resources, prepare a selection of maps "Europe in the era of the Napoleonic wars." What information can be obtained about this period based on the analysis of maps?
Read a fragment from Napoleon Bonaparte's note: “Let them try to curtail, disgrace, distort my actions, it will still be difficult to completely destroy me. The historian of France will still tell what happened during the empire, and will be forced to allocate a certain part of the exploits to my share, and this will hardly present any difficulty for him: the facts speak for themselves, shine like the sun. I killed the monster, cleared up the chaos. I curbed the revolution, ennobled the nation, and established the power of sovereignty. I stirred up competition, rewarded all kinds of merit, and pushed back the limits of glory. All this is worth something! At what point will they attack me that the historian could not defend? Will my intentions be scolded? He will explain them. My despotism? The historian will prove that it was necessary under the circumstances. Will they say that I hampered freedom? He will prove that liberties, great riots, have been knocking at our door. Will I be accused of passion for war? He'll prove that I've always been attacked. Or in the pursuit of a world monarchy? He will show that it came from a combination of unexpected circumstances, that my enemies themselves led me to it. Finally, will my ambition be blamed? A! The historian will find in me a lot of ambition, but the greatest, the highest! I wanted to establish the kingdom of the mind and give scope to all human abilities. And here the historian will have to regret that such ambition remained unsatisfied! .. Here, in a few words, is my whole story! Do you think the imaginary historian will defend or blame Napoleon? Justify your position.
Imagine what criticisms might appear in the journalist's article "Europe after the Congress of Vienna."
When was Napoleon proclaimed consul? Why is the period of Napoleon's consulate called a dictatorship?
What population groups did Napoleon's dictatorship rely on? Has anything changed since the establishment of the empire?
Compare Ingres' paintings "Bonaparte, First Consul" and "Napoleon on the Imperial Throne". What artistic means did the painter emphasize Napoleon's change of position?
Fill in the table "Napoleon's domestic policy" and draw a conclusion about Napoleon - a statesman.
Remember what an industrial revolution is. What were the difficulties of the industrial revolution in France early XIX v.? Suggest measures that could eliminate them.
Make a description of Napoleon according to the plan: appearance; historical conditions and social environment in which views were formed, life values; upbringing and education; character traits and personality traits that manifested themselves in various circumstances; activity, its goals and means of achievement. Use additional sources information.
What in the French Constitution of 1799 testifies to the dictatorial nature of the power of the first consul?
What can be said on the basis of the Napoleonic Civil Code about the role of property in society, the family? How is it determined?
What wars did revolutionary France wage and what were their results? In what campaigns did Napoleon's military talent manifest itself?
Consider why many European sovereigns wanted to fight revolutionary and then Napoleonic France.
What were Napoleon's goals in foreign policy and what was the nature of the wars he waged?
Compose chronological table"Napoleonic Wars". What European countries by the beginning of 1812 were dependent on France and in alliance with it?
How did the Napoleonic wars differ from the dynastic wars of the 18th century?
What is a continental blockade? What were its goals, means of implementation and results?
How did the Napoleonic Wars affect the internal situation of European states?
What is the significance of the Napoleonic Wars?
Find in the additional literature assessments of his personality and activities by contemporaries and historians. What do you think about this historical figure?
What were the consequences domestic policy Napoleon for France?
Do you think it is natural that the Napoleonic wars ended in complete defeat? What contributed to this?
What were the positive and negative effects of the Napoleonic Wars? European history? Give examples.
What were the results of the Napoleonic Wars for the European powers? What was the fate of Napoleon after the Allies entered Paris?
Do you think Napoleon had a real opportunity to restore his power?
Tell us about the work of the Congress of Vienna.
Why did the victorious countries allow France to participate in the negotiations on virtually an equal footing?
Fill in the table "The main decisions of the Congress of Vienna" according to the scheme: controversial issues, the essence of disagreements, results.
What is legitimism? How was the legitimate order understood? European monarchs?
What is the Holy Union and for what purpose was it created?
Which countries had constitutions in 1815 and which did not? Try to explain why.
On behalf of a representative of one of the countries participating in the Congress of Vienna, prepare a declaration outlining the requirements of that country.
Explain what years and why historians identify as the period of the Napoleonic Wars.
Compare the images of Napoleon Bonaparte in the paintings by A. Gros "Napoleon on the Arcole Bridge" and "The Coronation of Napoleon I and Empress Josephine." Which aspects of Napoleon's personality are shown in one picture, and which in another?
What position did Napoleon Bonaparte take after the coup of 18 Brumaire?
What do you think, what policy did Napoleon Bonaparte pursue in the field of property relations?
Why did the French population as a whole support Napoleon's assumption of the title of Emperor?
Why do you think Napoleon himself highly appreciated the importance of the Civil Code he published?
What do you think was the point of the continental blockade?
What are the causes of the crisis Napoleonic Empire?
Why was England perceived as the main enemy of the empire?
What is the novelty of the Napoleonic Civil Code? What is the effect of his traditionalism? Why did Napoleon consider the Civil Code his main achievement?
What problems do you think France faced during the reign of Napoleon Bonaparte?
What were the reasons for the war with Russia?
What problems did France face in the conquered territories?
Who was at the head of the troops of the anti-French coalition?
Whose dynasty reigned in France?
What do you think is the reason for such a triumphant return of Napoleon?
Which countries benefited the most from the victory over France?
What was the reason for Napoleon's triumphant return to power in 1815?
Why do you think the Bourbons were not popular in France?
Name this person:
Until now, historians often commemorate him as a "little corporal";
He came to power on the 18th Brumaire and lost it;
It was he who was the first person of France during the period of the First Empire;
During the coronation, he snatched the crown from Pope Pius VII and placed it on his own head;
The favorite horse of this emperor was called Marengo;
It was to him that Beethoven dedicated the Eroica Symphony, but, disappointed, destroyed his dedication;
By his order, roads, infirmaries, schools were built on the Elbe;
Fouche, Napoleon's Minister of Police, is credited with saying: "This is more than a crime, this is ...". What did Fouche consider greater than crime?
Reflecting at the end of his life about what his glory really is, Napoleon Bonaparte came to the conclusion that these were not 40 battles he won at all. The real glory brought Napoleon ...
Talleyrand called her "a more terrible weapon than slander."
Back in the 18th century this ceremonial dress was an officer's uniform.
The Prussian military theorist Carl von Clausewitz called it the continuation of politics by other means.
It was in this country that Napoleon first encountered guerrilla methods of warfare.
The capture of Toulon in 1793. The suppression of the royalist uprising in Paris in October 1795. The Egyptian expedition in 1799. The defeat of the Great Army in 1812. The phrase "From the great to the ridiculous - one step." Name the author of the theory based on these events.
This marshal of Napoleon founded the dynasty of Swedish kings.
What, according to Napoleon, follows after the order and the counter-order?
This "battle of the three emperors" Napoleon considered the most remarkable victory.
The highest of the five degrees of this Napoleonic order was the badge of the Great Eagle.
Symbols of the victories of the English fleet are Aboukir, Cap Finisterre and this.
For this necessary military invention, Francois Appert was awarded the title "Benefactor of Humanity" by Napoleon.
Near this Belgian village, the largest battle of the seventh coalition war took place.
This bridge reminds Londoners of the victory over Napoleon.
That is how many days Napoleon had a chance to reign after returning from Elba.
This quartermaster of Napoleon, after the overthrow of the emperor, took up literary activity but wrote under a pseudonym.
It is known that UA. Gagarin from the senior lieutenant of the Air Force immediately became a major. History also knows a sharper jump, when the captain immediately became a general. Who is this captain and what kind of troops did he belong to?
80. Napoleon Bonaparte.
81. Joseph Fouche is credited with saying: "This is more than a crime, this is a mistake."
82. Civil Code. Napoleon was very proud to be the author of this document, which remains relevant today.
83. In his life, Talleyrand survived 5 governments, succeeded with all, betrayed everyone. He already knew that the language was given to a diplomat in order to hide his thoughts. And he firmly believed that there was a weapon of terrible slander. It is truth.
84. Indeed, the tailcoat, which we are used to seeing on musicians, conductors, diplomats, was an officer's uniform in the 18th century: its floors were comfortable for riding and hiking.
85. War. Major General of the Prussian army von Clausewitz knew firsthand about her. Twice fought with the troops of Napoleon himself. How can this invaluable experience not be passed on to posterity? As soon as he won it, he set to work on the fundamental work “On War”. So far, the book has not been outdated.
86. In Spain. The benefactor Napoleon wanted only good for the peoples of Europe. In Spain, he was going to abolish the Inquisition, in Russia - serfdom. So what? Instead of bread and salt, his valiant troops faced guerrilla warfare.
87. The author of this theory is the hero of the novel, Rodion Raskolnikov. This, of course, is about Napoleon. “The real one, who is allowed everything, smashes Toulon, massacres Paris, forgets the army in Egypt, spends half a million people on a Moscow campaign and gets off with a pun in Vilna.”
88. The Bernadotte dynasty is one of the youngest in Europe. Its founder - Marshal Bernadotte - went from a simple soldier of the Great French Revolution to the "son" and heir of the childless Swedish king. In memory of his youth, he wore a tattoo on his chest all his life: “Death to kings!”
89. Disorder.
90. "The radiant sun of Austerlitz has risen!" - said the military bulletin. Two emperors in the "Battle of the Three Emperors" in 1805 were utterly defeated. The Austrian and Russian troops did exactly what Napoleon had envisioned.
91. it was assumed that there would be a little more than 8 thousand heroes of honor worthy of wearing the image of "Bonaparte - First Consul" on their chests. But the ranks of heroes grew and grew. The Order of the Legion of Honor with the profile of the founder and the corrected inscription on the sign "Napoleon, Emperor of the French" was received by about 50 thousand distinguished people.
92. Horatio Nelson was born in England on the mountain to the French; At the beginning of August 1798. he defeated the French at Aboukir in 1799. threw them out. The last blow struck in 1805 at Cape Trafalgar.
93. François Appert invented canned food to supply the army. However, Napoleon was right, thanks to the inventor on behalf of all mankind. Summer residents, tourists, travelers, just gourmets liked canned food no less.
94. The great powers sorted things out. And from the innocent Belgian village of Waterloo, there was no stone left unturned. Well, Alexander I did not forget about her: he ordered 2,000 rubles from the treasury to be given out for restoration. The Russian villages devastated by Napoleon were rebuilt on their own.
95. The unremarkable bridge bears a glorious name in honor of Wellington's greatest victory over Napoleon I. It is called Waterloo Bridge.
96. 1815 "Corsican monster" landed in the Bay of Juan; Emperor triumphant Paris. Nobody but the French liked his return. The allies again took up arms against the enemy of the human race, and he ruled for only 100 days.
97. Napoleon's quartermaster, Henri Marie Bayle, reached Moscow with the Grand Army and, fortunately for future readers, returned alive to France. Having become the writer Stendhal, he will create both the "Parma Convent" and "Red and Black" ... And he will write about Moscow: "The beauty of the palaces surpasses everything that Paris knows."
98. Type of troops - artillery. The captain's name is Napoleon Bonaparte.
Great French Revolution of the 18th century
One of the leaders of the Jacobins. Publisher of the newspaper "Friend of the People". 2 (horizontal). Marquis. Political figure. Commanded the National Guard. Member of the War of Independence North America. 2 (vertical). The name of the King of France, who was executed in January 1793. 3. Philosopher, educator and economist. As controller general (1774-1776) he carried out a number of progressive reforms, which were subsequently canceled. 4. Minister of Finance in 1777-1781 and in 1789-1790. With partial reforms, he tried to save the state from financial collapse.
Marat. (horizontally) Lafayette. (vertically) Louis. Turgot. Necker.
There is a legend that the last entry in the geography notebook of a cadet of the Royal Military School of Paris, Bonaparte, reads: "Small Island of St. Helena." A mystical coincidence: on this tiny patch of land - 122 sq. km - the former ruler of half of Europe spent the last six years of his life. In exile, he was allowed to take a few associates and servants. In total, 27 people voluntarily followed Napoleon. And the prisoner was guarded by 3 thousand soldiers and a whole squadron of warships.
The British were really afraid of their eminent prisoner. They were also aware of his temper (in particular, of the “tendency to escape”), and of the presence in France of secret Bonapartist organizations that hatched plans for the release of the emperor. In this regard, the precautionary measures were extreme: numerous sentries, and a special system of signal posts on the dominant peaks of the island, and regime restrictions for Napoleon himself, which became especially strict after the arrival of the new governor, Sir Hudson Low, on the island.
By the way, Lowe's superiors described their subordinate as a stupid, suspicious and envious person. These qualities were fully manifested in the position of the jailer: Lowe, who was terribly afraid of failing the task promising all sorts of rewards, sought to limit both the freedom of movement of the captive and his social circle as much as possible. As a result, the island was forced to leave the Count of Las Kazaz, the author of the famous book “Thoughts and Maxims of the Prisoner of St. Helena”, and O’Meara’s doctor, whom Napoleon truly trusted (the emperor did not have a relationship with his successor Antomarchy, and his qualifications caused a lot of criticism). By the way, historians, criminologists and doctors still argue about the causes of the death of the emperor. Stomach cancer (a disease from which his father died at one time), liver disease, arsenic poisoning - this is not a complete list of hypotheses and versions.
It was hard to imagine a more difficult test for Napoleon's active nature than the actual imprisonment on an island in the ocean. He reminisced, started an affair with the wife of the Marquis de Montolon Albina (which resulted in the birth of his last child, a girl with the speaking name Josephine Napoleone; she lived only one year), made friends with the daughters of a local farmer. But the quiet joys of friendship, leisurely communication, romance with the wife of a comrade-in-arms were not for Napoleon Bonaparte. His most beloved woman - Slava - continued to occupy the thoughts and feelings of the emperor in exile, from which he was no longer destined to return.
"Only I know"
In the last weeks of his life, at those moments when Napoleon was relieved of pain and he was conscious, he was concerned about quite understandable and natural things: to send greetings and instructions to his son, to dispose of his property, to reward associates and servants.
And he thought about posthumous fame much earlier. In conversations with Las Kazaz, the crowned prisoner constantly returned to the assessment of the perfect. The memory of him future generations worried him, although sometimes he spoke about it almost contemptuously: but that in which my true merit is known only to me alone. At the same time, he sometimes assessed himself primarily as outstanding commander, recalling the victories, of which he most valued Marengo, Austerlitz and Jena. Sometimes - as a legislator: "My true glory is not that I won forty battles ... But what cannot be forgotten, what will live forever, is my Civil Code." Sometimes - as the organizer of post-war Europe: “In Europe they write off my laws, imitate my institutions, complete my undertakings, follow my policy, and so on, up to the tone that my court set; so my reign was not so bad and absurd as they say? And always - as a man who brought greatness to France: "The day will come and history will tell what France was when I ascended the throne, and what it became when I prescribed laws to Europe."
In many ways, he was right. His Civil Code was not only not forgotten, but is still in force (of course, with certain amendments) in France and a number of its former colonies. At one time, he had a decisive influence on the legislation of the German and Italian states, as well as several countries. Latin America and the state of Louisiana in the USA. Traces of this influence are visible today.
Enormous in scope and revolutionary in content, the code finally destroyed the old feudal law and in practice consolidated one of the fundamental slogans of the French Revolution - equality - both in the field of business, and in matters of family legal relations, inheritance law and other important areas. It is thanks to this document that the inhabitants of France, regardless of social affiliation and the thickness of the wallet, began to feel protected by law. Two thousand two hundred and eighty-two articles, divided into three books, consistently affirmed this principle, hitherto unknown to law.
Interestingly, not only the content and legal technique of the code, but also its impeccable style found their fans. So, for example, Stendhal used to read several pages a day to sharpen his sense of language, and Paul Valery generally considered him the greatest work of French literature.
Of course, Napoleon was not its only author. Among the associates were brilliant lawyers - for example, Jean Cambacérès, who published the outline of the future document back in 1794, or Jean Portalis, its chief editor. But the main author, who personally dictated the text of hundreds of articles, was still a man whom descendants remember primarily as a commander.
With regard to the greatness of France, her emperor was also not mistaken. Today, the vast majority of the French consider the Napoleonic era the period of the greatest rise of their homeland. The ring of boulevards in the center of Paris, named after marshals, the Vendome column and the tombstone of Bonaparte himself in the cathedral of Les Invalides are a topographical memory of Napoleon.
As for military victories, they, of course, are also not forgotten. The military genius of Bonaparte is taken to be denied by a few (although among them, for example, there is Leo Tolstoy), and the number of only special monographs and articles exploring various aspects of his military activities, has long exceeded ten thousand. Titles greatest battles this era still sound almost like sacred to every lover military history(and there are many of them: there are more than a hundred historical reenactment clubs in Europe alone dealing with this period), and the places where some of them took place have been turned into museums (Austerlitz and Jena, Borodino and Waterloo among them).
At the same time, posthumous fame the greatest commander overshadowed by the reputation of a politician who sought to solve both domestic and international problems primarily with the help of guns, and who thought little about the price to be paid for these decisions.
When Napoleon Wept
The Napoleonic wars were not only colossal bloody battles (about half a million soldiers met in the three-day battle near Leipzig, and about 60 thousand dead and dying were left on the battlefield near Borodino), but also relatively small clashes. The number of only those military operations in which both sides lost at least 2 thousand people in fifteen years from Marengo to Waterloo is at least 230. In addition, in the same period, seven major naval battles and 91 sieges took place.
Napoleon repeatedly stressed that he did not want to shed blood. For example, on Saint Helena, he spoke about the circumstances of his first (1814) renunciation: “Instead of abdicating at Fontainebleau, I could fight: the army remained loyal to me, but I did not want to shed the blood of the French for my personal interests.” Here he, to put it mildly, prevaricates. For his attitude to the lives of his own soldiers and officers is rather akin to the attitude of a chess player to the pieces on the board - they must be protected in order to achieve victory, but the defeat of the enemy justifies any sacrifice. So, in 1805, he told the Austrian diplomat Metternich that "he could afford to spend 30 thousand people a month." Even during the period of the triumphal march through Europe, Napoleon's victories were very often achieved at the cost of huge sacrifices.
An accurate calculation of losses in the era of the Napoleonic Wars is hardly possible. In the period 1800-1815, France alone, according to the most minimal estimates, lost at least 370 thousand people killed and died from wounds. And the total irretrievable losses of the participants in the European wars of this period amount to at least a million people. Of course, the wars of the 20th century changed the threshold of sensitivity, but over the course of the previous century, these figures shook the imagination of contemporaries and posterity.
It is unlikely that Napoleon can be considered completely heartless, and his tears over the bodies of General Desaix at Marengo and Marshal Lann at Essling were sincere. However, historian Eugene Tarle claims that after the death of Lannes, Napoleon cried "for the second and last time in his life." And there is hardly any doubt that if he happened to repeat these two battles, he would once again, without hesitation, pay for the victories with the lives of his closest associates.
Paradoxes of memory
But Napoleon's halo of glory almost always overshadowed the bloody statistics of his deeds. It is no coincidence that he is sung the greatest poets both of his era (Pushkin and Lermontov, Byron and Heine), and subsequent ones (Bryusov, Mayakovsky and Tsvetaeva). To this day, a man who hatches ambitious plans is compared primarily with him. They likened to Napoleon Yermolov and Pestel, Tukhachevsky (“red Bonaparte”) and Zhukov (officially accused of “Bonapartism”), French Marshal Petain, Hitler's General Rommel and American General Patton.
Sometimes it sounded like flattery, more often it sounded like an accusation of intent to seize power through a military coup. The example of a young captain of artillery, who in 1794 took impregnable Toulon by storm, ascended in four years to the victorious army commander, and two more years later became the ruler of France, cut the map of the world at his own discretion, created and overthrew kings with a wave of his hand, commanded the lives of millions - cannot not disturb the minds of those who yearn for glory.
And not only them. Those who dream of a "strong hand" and "a state that everyone fears" are also admirers of the late emperor, although not always consciously. Such are the paradoxes of the memory of this man. Which is understandable, because he himself appreciated the laws - and put himself above them, freed entire nations - and immediately enslaved them. "Rebellious liberty heir and murderer" - hardly anyone defined him historical role more precisely Pushkin.
However, we owe Napoleon quite harmless and even useful things. For example, it was he who introduced right-hand traffic in continental Europe (for reasons of convenience in the transfer of troops). By his order, the first industrial batch of dark glasses (for the Egyptian campaign) and the first wrist watch were made. And it was he who introduced canned food into everyday life, assigning them to the inventor high rank"benefactor of mankind"
"The key to Moscow has been taken!"
After the first failed attempts to repulse the Napoleonic troops that invaded Russia on June 12, 1812, they immediately started talking about Mikhail Kutuzov as the only person capable of taking the post of commander in chief. But Alexander I did not like Kutuzov. Only after the election of the commander as the head of the Moscow and St. Petersburg militias and the urgent advice of those close to rely on an experienced military leader did Emperor Alexander yield. Meanwhile, the French troops were already near Smolensk. Appointed commander-in-chief, on the way to the army, Kutuzov repeated: "If only I find Smolensk in our hands, then the enemy will not be in Moscow". Behind Torzhok, he learned that Smolensk had been surrendered. "The key to Moscow has been taken!" Kutuzov exclaimed in despair. The abandonment of Moscow by Russian troops was predetermined.
“We will not defeat Napoleon. We'll deceive him."
The appointment of Kutuzov to replace the foreigner Barclay de Tolly as commander-in-chief of the retreating Russian army was supposed to cause a patriotic upsurge in the troops and people. But the field marshal himself, having lost the battle of Austerlitz in 1805, was not in the mood for an open and decisive battle against Napoleon. According to the recollections of eyewitnesses, he put it this way about the methods by which he would act against the French: “We will not defeat Napoleon. We will deceive him."
Already on August 17, Kutuzov arrived in the army as commander in chief. The troops greeted him with general jubilation, hoping that the end of military failures had come. Officers and soldiers joked: "Kutuzov has come to beat the French!" At the review, in order to raise the spirit of his army, the commander-in-chief exclaimed: “With such good fellows - and retreat?”. But these words were only an expression of Kutuzov's gratitude for the love of the soldiers. The commander again gave the order to retreat - the great superiority of the French forces forced this. The retreat of the Russians lasted more than two months and stopped only at Moscow ...
“This day will remain an eternal monument of courage and excellent bravery Russian soldiers»
The surrender of Moscow was inevitable, but it seemed politically and morally impossible to surrender the ancient Russian capital without a fight. Kutuzov decides to give a general battle to Napoleon. The first and only in this war. The Battle of Borodino on August 26, 1812 was one of the bloodiest in the 19th century. On the Borodino field in one day of the battle, 46 thousand Russian soldiers and officers were killed, the French lost about 50 thousand people. Despite the losses, our troops won a moral victory over the enemy, which turned the tide of the war.
“This day will remain an eternal monument to the courage and excellent courage of the Russian soldiers, where all the infantry, cavalry and artillery fought desperately. Everyone's desire was to die on the spot and not yield to the enemy. French army did not overcome the firmness of the spirit of the Russian soldier, who sacrificed his life with vigor for his fatherland, ”- this is how Mikhail Kutuzov reported to Emperor Alexander I about the battle of Borodino. For the battle of Borodino on August 30, 1812, Kutuzov was promoted by the Russian emperor to field marshal general.
"In order to save Russia, we must burn Moscow"
After the Battle of Borodino, the balance of power did not shift in favor of the Russian army. Kutuzov spoke in one of his letters about a difficult choice: “The question has not yet been resolved: should I lose the army or lose Moscow?” In Fili, it was decided to surrender the ancient capital to the enemy. And although rumor stubbornly ascribes the words: "To save Russia, we must burn Moscow" Kutuzov, the commander did not give the order to burn the city after the retreat.
However, the fire of Moscow, which began on September 2, 1812, during the occupation by the French, became another blow to the enemy, and delayed his advance. Meanwhile, Kutuzov's troops undertook the famous Tarutinsky maneuver, which cut off Napoleon's road to southern Russia on the eve of the coming winter. Realizing the critical situation, Napoleon sent an adjutant to Kutuzov with a proposal to peace talks, but the Russian commander replied that "the war is just beginning ..."
"The war ended with the complete annihilation of the enemy"
Napoleon had no choice but to start the withdrawal of troops from Moscow on October 7, which then turned into a stampede. During the retreat, the French emperor lost his army in Russia - more than 500 thousand people killed, wounded and captured, almost all of the artillery and cavalry. On December 21, Kutuzov, in an order for the army, congratulated the Russian troops on the expulsion of the enemy from Russia, declaring: "The war ended with the complete annihilation of the enemy."
For the skillful leadership of the army in 1812, Mikhail Kutuzov was awarded the title of Prince of Smolensk. He also received the Order of St. George I degree as a reward, becoming his first full cavalier in the history of Russia.
The victorious liberation of Europe from the French was led by Emperor Alexander I, who decided to continue the war with Napoleon outside of Russia. With the arrival of the king to the troops, Kutuzov gradually withdrew from command. On April 5, the field marshal came down with a bad cold in the small Prussian town of Bunzlau, there was no hope for the recovery of the elderly commander. The Russian Tsar arrived to say goodbye to his commander. Their dialogue was passed down like a legend. “Forgive me, Mikhail Illarionovich!” Alexander I said to the dying Kutuzov. "I forgive, sir, but Russia will never forgive you" replied the field marshal.
Napoleon was perfectly aware of his exclusivity, his special existence in this world. While still an unknown artillery lieutenant, he experienced this revelation about himself: “I am always alone among people ... People are so different from me, like moonlight to sunlight.”
But he finally confirmed this opinion on May 10, 1796. On that day, General Bonaparte attacked the Austrian positions near the town of Lodi on the banks of the Adda River. The only bridge across the river was covered by the 10,000-strong detachment of General Sebotendorf with 20 guns. The enemy defense seemed invulnerable: the Austrian artillery threatened to sweep away anyone who dared to approach the bridge.
This problem was solved by Bonaparte with lightning speed, like a two-move chess move.
Bonaparte ordered General Beaumont with a detachment of cavalry to cross the river upstream; at the same time, the French artillery received orders to concentrate all their fire on the Austrian positions at Lodi. Behind the city rampart, which bordered the river, Augereau's grenadiers were built in an attacking column.
The Austrian infantry, forced to take cover from artillery fire, moved away from the bridge for a considerable distance. After waiting for Beaumont to divert Sebotendorf's attention with an attack from the right, Bonaparte led his soldiers into a bayonet attack. The grenadier column swept across the bridge in a whirlwind, took possession of the cannons, then fell upon the enemy infantry and put them to flight. The Austrians lost about two thousand people killed and wounded and almost all of their artillery. French losses were ten times less.
In the French camp, everyone praised the twenty-seven-year-old commander to the skies for the ingenious simplicity of a crushing blow. And Napoleon himself, who by that time had only 13 vandemieres behind him (October 5, 1795, when he suppressed the armed uprising of the royalists in Paris with artillery) and the battle of Montenotte (a place in Piedmont, where Bonaparte won the first decisive victory over united by the Austro-Sardinian army of Beaulieu), reacted to what had happened in the most serious way: “It was only on the evening of the battle of Lodi that I began to consider myself a person of a higher order, and an ambitious thought ignited in me - to accomplish things that until then I had thought only in minutes fantastic dreams.
He was lucky: the heyday of his genius came at a time when it seemed that impossible possibilities no longer existed. The revolution cleared all the barriers to the heights of a career for a wide variety of talents. But the fastest way to the top was provided by the army, which was the soul and vital nerve of the republic. In the late 1790s, it was clear to everyone that the revolution would end in a military dictatorship. The matter remained small: a man had to appear who would believe in himself and in his strength enough to turn war, republic and revolution into simple means for achieving personal success.
And such a man was born at the Battle of Lodi.
Later, an eloquent confession broke from the lips of Napoleon: “What gave rise to the revolution? - Ambition. What ended it? Also ambition. And what a wonderful pretext to fool the crowd was freedom for all of us!”
Several years passed, and on the day of the proclamation of Napoleon as First Consul, the Abbé Sieyes addressed the other two heads of the Consulate: “Congratulations, now we have a master. This man knows everything, wants everything and can do everything.
Indeed, since the time of Caesar, nature has not created a more perfect organism, adapted to rule over the world. Physical and mental overload for Napoleon, it seemed, did not exist. After spending half a day on his feet, he could jump into the saddle and ride several tens of miles "for rest." The people around had no reason to question his words when he proudly said that he did not know the limits of his performance: “I always work: at dinner, in the theater; I wake up at night to work. Work is my element, I was born and created for work. Placed in exceptional circumstances, Napoleon could not sleep for several nights in a row, while maintaining physical vigor and clarity of thought.
He demanded the same exhausting pace of work from his employees. Therefore, he was by no means joking when he said that his minister should begin to suffer from urinary retention no later than six months after taking office, otherwise he risks proving himself a loafer. Once, during the consulate, one state meeting dragged on well past midnight. The Minister of War fell asleep, the rest nodding off, barely holding on to their chairs. “Well, wake up, wake up, citizens! exclaimed Bonaparte. “It's only two in the morning. We have to earn the wages that the French people pay us.”
No wonder one of his contemporaries said that in the three years of the consulate he ruled France more than the kings in a hundred years.
The non-stop work of Napoleon's mind was based on an amazing memory. By his own admission, in his youth he knew by heart the logarithms of thirty or forty numbers, as well as “not only the names of all the officers in all the regiments of France, but also the places where these units were recruited, and where each of them distinguished himself, and even the political spirit of each of them".
Subsequently, managing multi-million dollar budgets and huge armies scattered from the Neman to Gibraltar, he immediately found the smallest errors in financial and military documents, dotted with columns of figures, whether it concerned a few centimes overspent, two four-inch guns forgotten in Ostend, or two squadrons of 20- of the cavalry regiment of chasseurs, sent three years ago to Spain and unrecorded in the regimental register. Reading well-written military reports gave him a peculiar pleasure. “Your reports about the states read like a beautiful poem,” he once wrote to General Lacuet.
In Napoleon's activity, the combination of painstaking black work with creative power, extraordinary imagination with cold calculation is striking. “I love power like an artist, like a violinist loves a violin,” he said. “I love power in order to extract sounds, consonances, harmonies from it.” The royalist Chateaubriand had no doubt: "He certainly would not have done what he did if the Muse had not been with him."
However, all this is not enough. Napoleon knew: "The most desirable thing that immediately puts a person in the first place is the balance of mind or talent with character or courage." Only it gives a person reliable integrity, makes him unshakable, like a rock. In other words, one must "be square in height as in the base," where the height is the mind and the base is the will.
It was this "squareness of genius" - an invincible will directed by an all-encompassing mind - that conquered people in Napoleon. He could say with satisfaction: "However great was my material power, the spiritual was even greater: it reached magic." There is not the slightest exaggeration in these words: the effect of his charms was indeed irresistible. Even people of a tense intimidation, such as General Vandamme, admitted: “This devilish man has such power over me that I myself do not understand it. I'm not afraid of God or the devil, and when I go up to him, I'm ready to tremble like a child: he could make me go through the eye of a needle to throw myself into the fire! Thousands of people saw bliss in dying in front of Napoleon - and he had the good fortune to be surrounded by friends, many of whom shielded him from bullets with their chests or died on the battlefield, following his orders.
The influence of Napoleon's personality penetrated people "to the liver", it affected the deepest recesses of the soul, which a person opens only to meet with the most intimate. Among the Poles, Napoleon was revered as a messiah sent by Providence to Poland to restore an independent Polish state (later these sentiments would take shape in the mystical teachings of Andrzej Towianski, where Napoleon would appear as a messenger of God like Christ). These feelings were familiar to the French. “In my childhood I knew old disabled people who could not distinguish him (Napoleon) from the Son of God,” recalled the Catholic writer and mystic Leon Blois. At other times, the appearance of Napoleon aroused religious enthusiasm in the crowd in the full sense of the word. Here is how an eyewitness, General Thiebaud, describes the apotheosis of his "Hundred Days" - a triumphant entry into Paris in 1815: "Those who carried him were like crazy, and thousands of others were happy when they managed to kiss his clothes or just touch her ... It seemed to me that I was present at the resurrection of Christ.
Napoleon's personal "magic" would not have been so effective if he had not been credited with truly great accomplishments. You need to know what France was like before 18 Brumaire and after, in order to understand what devastation the revolution made in it, and, therefore, what Bonaparte did for the country. Contemporaries paint a picture of complete desolation: the treasury is empty, soldiers are not paid salaries, all roads are broken, bridges threaten to collapse, rivers and canals are no longer navigable, public buildings and monuments are dilapidated, churches are locked, bells are silent, fields are deserted, robberies, poverty and hunger are everywhere .
Napoleon's first concern as First Consul was to restore France's Christian soul, desecrated by the revolution. He unmistakably determined what kind of poison the air was saturated with: "The most terrible enemy now is atheism, not fanaticism."
On July 15, 1801, the Concordat, an agreement with the Holy See, was signed: the Catholic religion was declared "the religion of the overwhelming majority of the French people", public worship guaranteed, the Gallican Church restored in all its rights, and the Pope of Rome again recognized as its head.
With this act, Napoleon immediately refuted all the revolutionary godlessness of the 18th century. “This is the most brilliant victory over the spirit of the Revolution, and all subsequent ones are only a consequence of this, the main one,” Baron Pasquier (French political figure(1767-1862), author of the memoirs "History of my time" ("Histoire de mon Temps"), published in Paris in 1893-1895).
On April 18, 1802, a solemn Easter service was held in Notre Dame Cathedral - the first after a nine-year break. The friends of the first consul and the whole army were amazed. The atheist Jacobin generals were especially loudly indignant. “A magnificent ceremony, it’s only a pity that one hundred thousand killed were not present at it in order to prevent such ceremonies from taking place,” General Pierre Augereau said through his teeth at the end of the liturgy.
“It was more difficult for me to restore religion than to win the battle,” Napoleon recalled. And yet, “the success of the Concordat showed that Bonaparte best of all his entourage guessed what was in the depths of their hearts” (Baron Pasquier).
The Catholic Church blessed Napoleon through the mouth of his holy father, Pius VII: "We must remember that after God to him, Napoleon, religion mainly owes its restoration ... Concordat is a Christian and heroic work of salvation."
For the sake of completeness, remember that this Christian work was done by a man who said, "I've come to believe that Jesus never existed." He understood immortality in the ancient sense: “For me, immortality is a trace left in the memory of mankind. It is this idea that inspires great things. It is better not to live at all than not to leave traces of your stay on earth. This does not mean, however, that Napoleon was an atheist. True, he believed badly in the existence of any divine principle, but he never denied it - he simply believed that outside politics, religion makes no sense. The significance of the Church, especially the Roman one, with its enormous political authority, Napoleon understood incomparably better: “Can there be a state order without religion? Society cannot exist without property inequality, and inequality without religion. When one person dies of hunger next to another who is fed up, it is impossible for him to agree to this if there is no authority that tells him: “This is what God wants; it is necessary that here on earth there be poor and rich, but there, in eternity, it will be different.
Napoleon did not fight Christianity and did not accept it. Politically, he was using his sacred organization, the Church, but spiritually, he was simply passing by. In the depths of his soul, he believed that it was more useful to teach a person geometry than the Law of God. However, the lack of personal faith did not force him to encroach on the faith of others.
Following the adoption of the Concordat, he forced England to sign the Treaty of Amiens (March 25, 1802), which put an end to many years of war in Europe. By that time, Napoleon's campaigns were already evoking memories of the deeds of his contemporaries. greatest heroes antiquity - Alexander the Great and Julius Caesar. But Napoleon himself, in his declining years, considered not military victories to be his best monument: “My true glory is not that I won 40 battles: one Waterloo crossed them all out. That which will live forever is my civil code”; “my Code is the anchor of salvation for France; posterity will bless me for him.”
At that time, complete chaos reigned in French legislation. “Before my Civil Code appeared,” Napoleon recalled, “in France there were by no means real laws, but there were from five to six thousand volumes of various decrees, which led to the fact that judges could hardly honestly examine cases and pass sentences. ". And so, instead of this legal mess, the French received a coherent unified code of laws - the fruit of three years of work of the first consul and the best lawyers of France.
The Napoleonic Code was based on the principles of natural justice and reason, guaranteeing the equality of all French people before the law, civil liberty, the sacred nature of the family, and the impartiality of the court. Therefore, it had a worldwide impact, just like the revolution. Gradually, all the countries of Europe, as well as many peoples of the world, accepted it. The provisions proclaimed by the Code on the right of private property, indemnification, contract law are so fundamental that many of these articles have never been amended over the next 200 years.
The impression made by the Napoleonic Code on contemporaries was enormous. Friends and enemies of the first consul agreed that this is “one of the most beautiful creations of human genius,” in the words of General Marmont. “The victories of Bonaparte inspired me more fear than respect,” admitted one old minister of Louis XVI. “But when I looked into the Code, I felt reverent... And where did he get all this from?.. Oh, what kind of person did you have in him! Truly, it was a miracle.”
And then, for ten years in a row, Napoleon worked miracles, which descendants are unlikely to ever find a reasonable explanation for. He brought France out of revolutionary chaos and brought it back to order. He created a harmonious state, judicial chambers, schools, a powerful, efficient and intelligent system of government. He was able, by the exclusive power of his genius, to force thirty-six million subjects into obedience in an era when the reverence that once surrounded the throne dissipated. He made prominent people and townsfolk, republicans and monarchists, rich and poor, winners and losers think and talk about themselves, combining his name with the name of Destiny. But most of all, he was great in that he created himself, and together with himself created millions of other people who from now on rushed after him beyond the limits of human capabilities. That is why Napoleon, already during his lifetime, gained the immortality of legend, poetic fiction, soldier's legends and folk tales.
But in this temptation of immensity lurked the guarantee of his death.
The misfortune of Napoleon - and the whole world - was that the creative power of his genius and strength of character were not supported by his moral greatness. "He was as great as one can be without virtue," said Tocqueville. And according to the observation of Chateaubriand, his character was spoiled by monstrous pride and incessant affectation.
Accustomed to stand apart from the crowd, to feel like a happy exception from the universal destiny, Napoleon soon got used to seeing people as simple tools of his will. He was probably sincere when he said that he did not wish them harm, but this did not prevent him from publicly declaring his contempt for the lives of millions of people and calmly sacrificing them for the sake of his interests, military and political benefits. His throne is erected on the bones of at least three million people who died in his wars, almost half of whom are French. In his defense, one can only say that the clash of the two Europes - monarchist and revolutionary - was inevitable, and it is unlikely that even such a person as he was able to prevent it. In any case, the French were already grateful to him for putting an end to civil war, which took to the grave by no means a smaller number of lives.
From the outside it might seem that Napoleon crossed the line of good and evil. This is how Madame de Stael saw him: “He was neither good nor evil, neither merciful nor cruel, in the sense that other people are. Such a being, having no analogue, could, in fact, neither inspire nor experience sympathy; it was more or less than a man: his appearance, mind, speech - everything bore the stamp of some alien nature.
On one point, however, Madame de Stael was mistaken: it cannot be said that this supermundane being was not familiar with ordinary human compassion. “Napoleon was not only not angry, but was naturally kind,” testifies a person who had the opportunity to watch him day after day, Napoleon’s last secretary, Baron Fane. “The first thing he did after every battle was to take care of the wounded. He went around the field himself, ordered to pick up his own and others equally; I myself watched that dressings were made for those who had not yet been dressed, and that everyone, to the last, was transferred to outpatient stations or to the nearest hospitals. Some he assigned especially to his life surgeon ... and then carefully asked him about the smallest details in the course of treatment, about the properties of the wound, about the hope of recovery and about the danger - he wanted to know about everything.
Segur recalls how, after the Battle of Borodino, the horse of Napoleon, who was circling a field littered with dead bodies, touched the wounded man with his hoof, and he groaned. The emperor burst into abuse at the staff, because they do not care about the wounded. “Someone, to calm him down, noticed that this was a Russian soldier. But the emperor objected with vivacity that after the victory there are no enemies, but only people!”
In the end, this character trait of Napoleon will be confirmed by Alexander I: “They don’t know him and they judge him too harshly, maybe even unfairly ... When I got to know him better, I realized that he was a kind person.”
But natural kindness and compassion did not develop in him into love for people. The demonic nature of his genius took precedence over the makings of mercy. All the more, the colossal figure of Napoleon is set off by the personality of his main opponent - Emperor Alexander I, the last politician to whom history provided the opportunity to build a European world on the basis of Christian love.
