What were the results of Catherine's foreign policy 2. The foreign policy of Catherine II

In the second half of the XVIII century. Russia solved several foreign policy tasks:

1) the first direction is south. Russia fought for access to the shores of the Black and Azov Seas, the development and settlement of the southern black earth steppes. This led to long wars with Turkey and the Crimean Khanate;

2) the second direction - in the foreign policy of Russia, a significant place was occupied by the issue of liberation from foreign domination of the lands of Ukraine and Belarus, occupied by Poland;

3) the third direction. It was predetermined by the Great French Revolution that began in 1789. Russia waged an active struggle against revolutionary France. In the second half of the XVIII century. significantly intensified foreign policy of the Russian government in the south. To this he was pushed by the interests of the country's security and the needs of the nobility, which sought to seize the rich southern lands. Industry and trade, which were developing rapidly, also dictated the need for access to the Black Sea.

Russian-Turkish wars

In the southern direction, Russia repeatedly entered into confrontation with Turkey.

1. During the Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774. Russia managed to win back Azov and Taganrog from Turkey. In the Battle of Chesme, the Russian fleet defeated the Turkish squadron.

Russian troops in the course of hostilities captured the Crimea and could move to Istanbul. At this time, Turkey asked for peace. In this war, Russian commanders showed their talent: P.A. Rumyantsev, A.V. Suvorov, V.M. Dolgorukov; the actions of the fleet were led by: L.G. Orlov, G.A. Spiridonov and I.S. Greig.

2. In 1787–1791 Russia again entered the war with Turkey. In military operations, Turkey demanded the return of Crimea from Russia. But the Russian army under the leadership of A.V. Suvorov defeated the Turkish military units at Kinbur, Focsani and on the Rymnik River. G.A. Potemkin occupied the Turkish fortress Ochakov on the Dnieper Estuary. Great importance also had the capture of Ishmael, the fortress, which was the citadel of Turkish rule on the Danube. In this battle, the future famous commander M.I. Kutuzov. Successful operations at sea were carried out by the Russian fleet, led by Admiral F.F. Ushakov. As a result of this war:

- Crimea was annexed to the Russian Empire;

- the Crimean Khanate was liquidated, which was a constant center of aggression on the southern borders of Russia;

- Turkey also recognized Russian patronage of Georgia.

At the end of the 1780s. Russia waged military operations against Sweden, which sought to regain the lands lost in the Northern War.

Russia also participated in the solution of the Polish question. As a result of the partitions of Poland (1772–1795), Belarus, Right-bank Ukraine, Lithuania, Courland, and Volhynia were annexed to Russia.

Russia's participation in the active struggle against revolutionary France began under Catherine II and continued under Paul I. In 1799, Russian troops under the command of Suvorov successfully fought in northern Italy. Under the command of Ushakov, the Russian fleet occupied the Ionian Islands and the fortress of Corfu. It was during these hostilities that Suvorov made his unparalleled crossing of the Alps.

(1762-1796). Russia's withdrawal from the Seven Years' War.

1763 - The expulsion from Courland of Charles of Saxony and the restoration there in the rank of Duke of the Russian client Biron.

1764 - Union treaty between Russia and Prussia. Election to the Polish throne of the Russian protege Stanislav Poniatowski.

1766 – Russia and Prussia demand equal rights for dissidents in Poland.

1768 - Agreement on the guarantee by Catherine II of the basic laws of the Commonwealth. The beginning of the war between the Bar Confederation and the Haidamaks. Russo-Turkish War (1768-1774). The ruin of the Elizavetgrad province by the Crimean Tatars.

1769 - The capture of Khotyn and Yass by Russian troops. Oath of Moldavia to Catherine II. Departure of Spiridov's squadron from St. Petersburg to the Mediterranean Sea.

Russian-Turkish war 1768-1774. Map

1770 - The uprising of the Greeks of Morea (Peloponnese) against the Turks. Chesme battle. The capture of the islands of the Aegean Archipelago by the Russian fleet and its attempt to attack Istanbul. Rumyantsev's victories at Larga and Cahul, the occupation of all Wallachia by the troops of Catherine II. Capture of Azov and Taganrog from the Ottomans.

1771 - Dolgorukov's campaign in the Crimea. Proclamation of the Russian protege Sahib Giray as the new Crimean Khan. The attacks of the flotilla of Orlov and Spiridov on Turkish possessions in Syria, Palestine and Egypt.

1772 - The first partition of Poland.

Partitions of Poland. Map

1773 - Two campaigns of Rumyantsev across the Danube, the siege of Silistria by him.

1774 - Rumyantsev's third campaign across the Danube. Suvorov's victory over the Ottomans at Kozludzha. Kyuchuk-Kaynardzhysky peace - the end of the Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774.

1775 - The beginning of the vigorous development of Novorossia by the Russians. Foundation of Krivoy Rog. The deposition of Sahib-Girey in the Crimea, the party of supporters of Turkey erects Devlet-Girey instead.

1777 - The entry of Suvorov's troops into the Crimea. The deposition of Devlet Giray and his replacement by a new Russian client, Shahin Giray. Settlement of Russians in Ciscaucasia. Foundation of Stavropol.

1778 – Participation of Russia in the conflict over the Bavarian inheritance (1778-1779).

1779 - The gradual departure of Catherine II from the alliance with Prussia and the turn of Russian foreign policy towards friendship with Austria (1779-1780). The withdrawal of Russian troops from the Crimea and the expulsion of Shahin Giray from there.

1780 - Declaration of "armed neutrality".

1782 - Russian-Austrian treaty on the future division of the Balkans ("Greek project").

1783 - Accession of Crimea to Russia. The foundation of Sevastopol and the beginning of the construction of the Russian Black Sea Fleet. Transition to Russian citizenship of the Georgian king Erekle II.

1787 - Russian-Turkish war (1787-1791).

Russian-Turkish war 1787-1791. Map

1788 - The siege and capture of Ochakov by Potemkin. Russo-Swedish War (1788-1790). Naval battle of Hogland. "Four-year Sejm" in Poland (1788-1791).

1789 - Russian victories over the Turks at Focsani and Rymnik. Naval battles with the Swedes at Öland and Rochensalm.

1790 - Blockade by the Russian fleet of the squadron of the Swedish king in the Vyborg Bay. The Treaty of Verel ends the Russo-Swedish War. The Reichenbach Congress is an attempt by European rivals Austria and Russia to "mediate" in the war with the Turks. Under pressure from the Congress, the Austrians make peace with the Sultan, but Catherine II continues the war with him. The landing of the Ottoman army of Batal Pasha at Anapa. The defeat of Hussein's Turkish fleet by Ushakov in the Kerch Strait and at the mouth of the Danube. Capture of Izmail by Suvorov.

1791 - The defeat of Yusuf Pasha's army at Machin by the Russians. Ushakov's naval victory at Kaliakria. The peace of Jassy ends the Russo-Turkish war. “May 3rd Constitution” in Poland – the Polish “patriotic party”, with the help of France and Prussia, is trying to free itself from Russian-Austrian hegemony.

Synopsis on the history of Russia

Catherine II spent a very vigorous foreign policy, which eventually turned out to be successful for the Russian Empire. Her government dealt with several major foreign policy tasks.

The first one was to go to the shores of the Black Sea and gain a foothold there, secure the southern borders of the state from Turkey and the Crimea. Growth of marketability of production Agriculture The country was dictated by the need to own the mouth of the Dnieper, through which it was possible to export agricultural products.

The second task required continuing reunification of Ukrainian and Belarusian lands.

In the 60s of the 18th century, a complex diplomatic game took place in Europe. The degree of rapprochement of certain countries depended on the strength of the contradictions between them.

Nowhere did the interests of Russia clash so sharply with the position of Britain and France as in the Turkish question. In September 1768, spurred on by France and Austria, Turkey declared war on Russia. Attempts by the Turkish army to break through deep into Russia were paralyzed by troops under the command of P.A. Rumyantsev. The campaign of 1768-1769 ended in failure for the Turks, but did not bring special success and the Russian army. The turning point came only in 1770, when hostilities unfolded on the lower Danube. P.A. Rumyantsev, with a difference of several days, won two brilliant victories over the numerically superior enemy forces at Larga and Cahul (in the summer of 1770). Success was also achieved in the Caucasus: the Turks were thrown back to the Black Sea coast.

In the summer of 1770, the Russian fleet under the command of Alexei Orlov inflicted a crushing defeat on the Turks in the Chesme Bay. In 1771, Russian troops occupied the Crimea.

An attempt by Catherine II to conclude peace in 1772 was unsuccessful (the conditions of Turkey did not suit).

In 1773, the Russian army resumed hostilities. A.V. Suvorov took the Turtukai fortress on the southern bank of the Danube and in 1774 won a victory at Kozludzha. Rumyantsev crossed the Danube and moved to the Balkans. Turkey capitulated. In 1774, a peace treaty was signed in Kyuchuk-Kainardzhi, according to which the lands between the Bug and the Dnieper, including the sea coast, fortresses in the Crimea, were ceded to Russia, and the Crimean Khanate was declared independent. On the Black Sea, freedom of navigation was established for Russian merchant ships with the right to enter the Mediterranean Sea. Kabarda was annexed to Russia.

The liberated army was transferred to suppress the Pugachev uprising.

The fact that the peace treaty was only a respite was understood both in Russia and in Turkey. The question of Crimea remained controversial. The diplomatic struggle around him did not stop. In response to the intrigues of the Turkish government, Russian troops occupied the peninsula in 1783. Turkey, in an ultimatum form, demanded to return Crimea to it, to recognize Georgia as a vassal possession and to grant the right to inspect Russian merchant ships.

Russian-Turkish war 1787-1791 years began with an attempt by Turkey to land troops on the Kinburn Spit, but the attack was repulsed by troops under the command A.V. Suvorova. Then, in 1788, he takes the powerful fortress of Ochakov, after which the Russian army launched an offensive in the Danube direction, which resulted in two victories, at Rymnik and Focsani. The capture of the impregnable fortress of Izmail by Suvorov in 1790 significantly brought the conclusion of peace closer.

At the same time, the Russian fleet, under the command of one of the most prominent Russian naval commanders, Rear Admiral F.F. Ushakov, inflicted several defeats on the Turks in the Kerch Strait and near the islands of Tendra and Kaliakria. The Turkish fleet was forced to capitulate.

In December 1791, a peace treaty was signed in Iasi, which established the border between Russia and Turkey along the Dniester. Russia received Ochakov and Crimea, but withdrew its troops from Georgia.

The second foreign policy task is annexation of Ukrainian and Belarusian lands to Russia- was decided by the government of Catherine II through the so-called partitions of Poland, which were carried out jointly with Prussia and Austria.

In October 1763, the Polish King August III died. Russia accepted Active participation in the election of a new king to prevent Poland from joining the coalition with France, Turkey and Sweden. The situation was in favor of Russia, since England expected the conclusion of a Russian-English trade agreement that would be beneficial for itself, Prussia was not inclined to quarrel with Russia after completion Seven Years' War France was in a difficult economic situation. In Poland itself, the struggle of different groups for the throne unfolded. After a long struggle, on August 26, 1764, at the coronation Sejm, S. Poniatowski was elected the Polish king, with the support of Russia. The activity of Russia caused the displeasure of Prussia and Austria, who sought to increase their territories at the expense of Poland. This led to the partition of Poland, which began with the occupation of part of Polish territory by the Austrians.

The Prussian king Frederick II, who dreamed of increasing his lands at the expense of his neighbors, turned to Catherine II with a proposal for a joint division of Poland between Prussia, Austria and Russia. Since the forces of Russia were busy in the south in the war against Turkey, to refuse the proposal of Frederick II meant to transfer the initiative into the hands of Prussia. Therefore, in August 1772, the first agreement on the division of Poland between the three states was signed in St. Petersburg. Part of the Belarusian and Ukrainian lands went to Russia, to Austria - Galicia with a large trading city of Lvov, to Prussia - Pomerania and part of Greater Poland.

Second Partition of Poland preceded by an increase in connection with the revolution in France, revolutionary sentiment in Europe and, in particular, in Poland. In 1791, a constitution was introduced there, which, despite a number of shortcomings, was progressive, strengthened the Polish statehood, which was contrary to the interests of Russia, Prussia and Austria. In 1793, Russia and Prussia made a second partition: Russia received the central part of Belarus and the Right-Bank Ukraine; Prussia - the indigenous Polish lands of Gdansk, Torun, Poznan. Austria did not receive its share under the second title. The constitution of 1791 was repealed. The second partition practically made the country completely dependent on Prussia and Russia. The patriotic forces of society in March 1794 revolted.

The movement was led by one of the heroes of the war for the independence of North America T. Kosciuszko. After several victories won by the rebels, a significant part of the Russian troops left Poland. T. Kosciuszko promised to abolish serfdom and reduce duties. This attracted a significant part of the peasantry to his army. However, there was no clear program of action, the enthusiasm of the rebels was not enough for a long time.

The most important task of foreign policy facing Russia in the second half of the 18th century was the struggle for access to south seas- Black and Azov. From the third quarter of the 18th century. in the foreign policy of Russia, a significant place was occupied by the issue of liberation from foreign domination of the lands of Ukraine and Belarus and the unification in one state of all Eastern Slavs. The Great French Revolution, which began in 1789, largely determined the direction of the foreign policy actions of the Russian autocracy at the end of the 18th century, including the struggle against revolutionary France. On the southeastern borders of Russia, the situation was relatively stable.

Russia fought two successful wars with Turkey

The first Russian-Turkish war (1768-1774).

Incited by France and England (the great powers often used this method to divert Russia from European politics), Turkey declared war on Russia in the autumn of 1768 (See the historical map "Russian-Turkish War of 1768 - 1774") Hostilities began in 1769. The Russian command made a bold decision - to conduct military operations on the territory of the Danubian principalities - Moldavia and Wallachia, that is, on the territory of the enemy (the principalities were in vassal dependence on the Turkish Sultan). In 1769, Russian troops occupied a significant part of these principalities, including their capitals, the cities of Iasi and Bucharest. In the lower reaches of the Dniester, only the Bendery fortress remained in the hands of the Turks. The following year, in 1770, the 1st Russian Army under the command of the talented commander P.A. Rumyantseva launched an offensive to the Danube. In July of this year, brilliant victories were won over overwhelming enemy forces on the Larga and Cahul rivers (tributaries of the Prut River). In September, the 2nd Russian Army under the command of N.I. Panina occupied Bendery. A brilliant victory was also won at sea. The Baltic fleet, having rounded Europe, entered the Mediterranean Sea and Chesma Bay, burned the Turkish squadron off the coast of Asia Minor (June 24-26, 1770), blocked the Dardanelles and landed troops in Greece. In 1771, the Russian army occupied the Crimea. Turkey was offered a truce, but she, using the internal difficulties of Russia, where the Peasant War was going on under the leadership of E.I. Pugachev, disrupted the negotiations. Hostilities resumed. In 1773, units under the command of A.V. Suvorov took the strong fortress of Tartukai on the southern bank of the Danube and defeated the army of the grand vizier near the village of Kozludzha. The Turks actually did not have large military forces in the Balkans. The way for Russian troops to Istanbul was opened. Turkey was forced to ask for peace, which was concluded in the Bulgarian village of Kyuchuk-Kaynardzhi in 1774.

Under the terms of the Kyuchuk-Kainarji peace, Russia received a strip of the Black Sea coast between the mouths of the Dnieper and the Southern Bug with the fortress of Kinburn, as well as the fortresses of Kerch and Yenikale in the Crimea. Kuban and Kabarda also retreated to Russia. Crimea was recognized as independent from Turkey, which deprived the Ottoman Empire of legal law interfere in his internal affairs and influence the foreign policy of the Crimean Khan. Turkey paid an indemnity of 4 million rubles. The Russian Empire received the right to have its own fleet on the Black Sea, and Russian ships - the right to pass through the Bosporus and Dardanelles. The Russian government won the right to act as a defender of the rights of the Christian peoples of the Ottoman Empire. Moldavia and Wallachia, whose autonomy was restored, actually came under Russian patronage.

The Ottoman Empire did not want to come to terms with the assertion of Russia in the Black Sea. Turkey and Russia continued to fight for influence in Crimea. In 1775, the khan’s throne in Bakhchisaray was occupied by Devlet-Girey, who was oriented towards Turkey, but in 1777 Russian troops invaded the Crimea and ensured the election of a Russian protege, Shahin-Girey, to this throne, who five years later, in 1783, after difficult negotiations with G.A. Potemkin (for this diplomatic success, G.A. Potemkin received the title of "Prince of Tauride") transferred the Khanate to Russia and abdicated. In the same 1783, the Georgievsky treatise was signed by the Georgian king Heraclius II, according to which Russia accepted Eastern Georgia under its protectorate. Thus ended the annexation of Crimea and Georgia to Russia.

Second Russo-Turkish War (1787-1791). (See the historical map "Russian-Turkish war of 1787-1791" and the diagram "Russian-Turkish war of 1787-1791")

In July 1787, Turkey demanded from Russia the return of the Crimea and the withdrawal of Russian troops from Georgia, as well as the right to inspect Russian ships passing through the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles. The ultimatum was rejected. A new Russian-Turkish war began. In September 1787, in a fierce battle, A.V. Suvorov defeated and destroyed the Turkish landing force in the Kinburn region, which was trying to capture this fortress with a sudden blow. The Russian army, led by G.A. Potemkin, laid siege to Ochakov. Since 1788, Russia was forced to fight on two fronts: Sweden acted as an ally of Turkey, trying to revise the results of the Northern War (the Russian-Swedish war, which lasted until 1790, ended with the Verel peace, which retained the old borders). However, even under these conditions, the Russian army continued to win victories in the Danube theater of operations. In the summer of 1788, the Turkish fleet was defeated near the island of Fidonisi, and in December, deprived of help from the sea, Ochakov fell. The next year 1789 brought two major victories to Russian weapons: A.V. Suvorov, with a 25,000-strong army, defeated a 30,000-strong Turkish group near Focsani in July, and in September, with a sudden blow, put to flight an 80,000-strong Turkish army on the Rymnik River (for this battle, the commander was awarded the title "Count of Rymnik"). In 1790 A.V. Suvorov was entrusted with the capture of the fortress of Izmail. In December 1790, after a ten-hour assault, this fortress - the citadel of Turkish rule on the Danube - fell. No less successful were the actions of the young Russian Black Sea Fleet, led by Admiral F.F. Ushakov. In 1790, he defeated the Turkish fleet in the Kerch Strait and at the Gadzhibey fort (near modern Odessa), and in the summer of 1791 at Cape Kaliakria (near the Bulgarian Varna), the Turkish fleet was destroyed. Turkey requested peace, which was concluded in December 1791 in the city of Iasi.

The Iasi Peace Treaty (See the historical map "Russian-Turkish War of 1787-1791") confirmed the transfer of Crimea to Russia and the Russian protectorate over Georgia. The Dniester River became the border between Russia and Turkey (the territory between the Southern Bug and the Dniester, adjacent to the Black Sea, became Russian). However, the great European powers, alarmed by the strengthening of Russia's positions on the Danube, had to be reassured by returning Bessarabia, Moldavia and Wallachia, occupied by Russian troops by the end of the war, to Turkey.

Partitions of Poland.

In the last third of the 18th century, one of the central issues facing Russian diplomacy was the Polish question. Feudal anarchy reigned in Poland. Groupings of magnates-landowners waged a constant struggle among themselves, often relying on outside help and ignoring the national interests of the country. Surrounded by strong centralized absolutist states, the Commonwealth - Poland - retained in its political structure all the remnants of the feudal republic (the very name "Rech Commonwealth" is translated as "republic"). The central government in the country was weak. The highest authority in Poland was the Sejm, the congress of the Polish gentry, which elected the king and approved common Polish legislation, and the existence of the right of “liberum veto” (the right of free prohibition) made it possible even with one vote “against” to disrupt the adoption of any law. Sessions of the Seimas, thus, turned into an endless bargaining between various political groupings. Such an environment of constant political crisis in the country allowed Poland's powerful neighbors to regularly interfere in its internal affairs. As a pretext for such intervention, Russia and Prussia also used the so-called "dissident question" - the question of the status and rights of the non-Catholic population of Poland (Russia "took care" of the Polish Orthodox, Prussia - of the Polish Lutherans). Under pressure from Russia and Prussia, the Polish king equalized the rights of the Catholic, Orthodox and Lutheran population of the country. However, outraged by the unceremonious interference of neighbors in the internal affairs of Poland, the gentry group in the city of Bar (“Bar Confederation”) in 1768 declared its goal to fight against this decision of its king, dissidents and Russia. The government of Catherine II sent troops to Poland to suppress this speech. At the same time, Austria and Prussia occupied part of the Polish lands. The Prussian King Frederick II initiated the partition of Poland. Fearing that, taking advantage of the protracted Russian-Turkish war, Austria and Prussia would carry out this division without her participation, Russia supported the initiative of the Prussian king (initially, Russia expected to maintain a united Poland, extending its influence over its entire territory).

In 1772, the first partition of the Commonwealth took place. Under an agreement signed this year, Austria received Western Ukraine (Galicia), and Prussia - the Polish Pomerania (without Gdansk and Torun). The eastern part of Belarus went to Russia along the Western Dvina and the Upper Dnieper. In total, Poland lost a territory with a population of 4 million people (See historical map "Partitions of Poland").

For the most progressive part of the Polish nobility and bourgeoisie, the need for a number of significant transformations in the name of preserving national statehood became more and more obvious. On May 3, 1791, the Sejm adopted a new constitution for Poland, which consolidated a number of important state reforms. The constitution abolished the right of liberum veto, strengthened the role of the central government and made the power of the king hereditary. The third estate was admitted to the Seimas, and freedom of religion was introduced in the country. Thus, conditions were created for the gradual exit of Poland from the state of crisis. However, a group of Polish magnates, dissatisfied with the infringement of their rights, ignoring the national interests of their country, turned to Russia with a request to preserve the old political structure of the Commonwealth intact. The government of Catherine II, who did not at all want the strengthening of Poland, gladly seized this opportunity to intervene again in Polish affairs. The Polish reforms were declared "a direct consequence of the French turmoil" (France had been engulfed in flames of revolution since 1789). In 1792, Russian troops, followed by the Prussians, entered Poland.

In 1793, Russia and Prussia carried out the second partition of Poland (See historical map "Partitions of Poland"). Prussia captured Gdansk, Torun and the western part of Poland with the city of Poznan. To Russia they departed: central Belarus with Minsk and Right-Bank Ukraine.

The new division of Poland, which made the country completely dependent on Prussia and Russia, caused in the spring of 1794 an uprising of Polish patriots, who sought to preserve the sovereignty of the country, headed by T. Kosciuszko. However, the troops sent by Catherine II under the command of General A.V. Suvorov (personalities) (it was for this punitive action that he received the rank of field marshal) defeated the rebels and captured their leader. These events predetermined the third partition of Poland in 1795.

According to the terms of the third section (see the historical map "Partitions of Poland"), Austria received southern part Poland (Little Poland) with the cities of Lublin and Krakow, Prussia - the central part of the country with Warsaw. To Russia departed: Lithuania, Courland, Western Belarus and Volhynia. Poland lost its statehood and sovereignty for more than a century. The Polish people faced a stubborn struggle for the revival of their national state.

Education USA and Russia.

It should be noted that the government of Catherine II in the field of foreign policy not only solved the problems associated with expanding the limits Russian Empire, but also actively responded to global events that took place far from its borders. So, in 1780, Russia adopted the "Declaration of Armed Neutrality", supported by most European countries and laid the foundation for the development international law in navigation. This declaration was a direct response of Russian diplomacy to Britain's attempt to establish complete blockade fighting for the independence of the North American colonies. Its essence was that neutral countries (countries not participating in the war) retained the right of free navigation and trade with all countries participating in the armed conflict, and the ships of neutral countries received the right of armed protection if they were attacked by the fleet of one from warring countries. The "Declaration of Armed Neutrality" frustrated England's plans to blockade its North American colonies and objectively contributed to the victory of the newly formed state - the United States of America in the struggle for independence.

Russia and Revolutionary France (1789).

In 1789 in France there was bourgeois revolution which had a huge impact on the entire course of world history. Since that time, the main content of the foreign policy of Catherine II has been the struggle against the French Revolution and the “French contagion” - the spread of the influence of this revolution to other countries. (See the diagram "Fight against revolutionary France") Russia became one of the main refuges for counter-revolutionary emigration from France. After the execution of Louis XVI (January 21, 1793), six weeks of mourning was declared in St. Petersburg; diplomatic and trade relations with France were severed. All the French who were in Russia were obliged to take an oath that they considered the execution of their king an atrocity and did not recognize the Jacobin government of France. An obstacle to the open participation of Russia in the counter-revolutionary intervention in France in 1794 was the Polish uprising, and in 1796 only the death of the empress prevented the 60,000-strong Russian army already prepared for this from entering the war with revolutionary France.

The foreign policy results of the last third of the 18th century were extremely positive for further development Russia. The result of the Russian-Turkish wars was the accelerated economic development of the steppe south of Russia. A constant source of danger that prevented this earlier - the Crimean Khanate - was eliminated. The government generously distributed the lands of "Novorossia" and the Crimea to the nobles, encouraging landlord colonization. New cities were founded on the developed territories: Nikolaev, Odessa, Sevastopol, Kherson, etc. Access to the Black Sea ensured the expansion of Russia's trade relations with the countries of the Mediterranean.

The divisions of Poland significantly pushed the borders of the Russian Empire to the west, including in its composition the economically developed, densely populated regions of Belarus and Ukraine. These lands were historically connected with Russia by common economic, political and cultural life. Their inclusion in Russia had a favorable effect on the position of the Ukrainian and Belarusian peoples: religious oppression was eliminated and national oppression was significantly weakened, although the feudal relations that prevailed in these areas did not undergo any changes. The successes of the Russian commanders in the wars with Turkey significantly increased the authority of Russia as a great power, provided her with the opportunity to continue to actively participate in big European politics.

Great Definition

Incomplete definition ↓

The main directions of foreign policy. During the reign of Catherine II, Russia managed to get closer to solving the foreign policy tasks that the country had been facing for many decades.

Weakening military power Turkey and the Crimea were made more and more feasible to ensure Russia's access to the Black Sea.

Russia's allied relations with Austria and Prussia created an opportunity for the return of Ukrainian and Belarusian lands to Russia, which had been located since the 14th century. v part of the Polish-Lithuanian state.

The task of ensuring the security of Peter's conquests in the Baltic remained.

The Great French Revolution caused the creation of the first anti-French coalition under the auspices of Catherine II.

All these factors determined the main directions of Catherine's foreign policy II.

Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774. The Russian-Turkish wars of the second half of the 18th century were explained not only by Russia's desire to reach the Black Sea, but also by the no less desire of Turkey itself to expand its possessions in the Northern Black Sea region at the expense of Russia.

In 1768, the Russian-Turkish war broke out. Turkey started it. The cavalry of the Crimean Khan began to advance from the south to the steppe regions of Ukraine. A huge Turkish army was concentrated on the Dniester River to attack Kiev. In addition to heavily fortified fortresses in the Balkans, Turkey relied on its large and well-armed fleet operating in the Black and Azov Seas.

On the initial stage war battles went on with varying success - the surprise of the attack and the superiority of Turkey in force affected. The chances of victory increased after the appointment of the illustrious commander, who distinguished himself during the Seven Years' War, P. A. Rumyantsev, as the commander-in-chief of the Russian army. In September 1769, the troops led by him entered Iasi, and then Bucharest. Another part of the Russian army, operating in the lower reaches of the Don and in the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bAzov, occupied Azov and Taganrog. At the same time, a military detachment was sent to help the Georgian population, who had raised an uprising against the Turks in Imeretin.

In July 1770 The Turkish army was defeated by Rumyantsev's troops near the Larga River. A few days later, near the Kagul River, a 17,000-strong Russian detachment defeated the main forces of the Turkish army, numbering 150,000 people.

Meanwhile, a squadron of the Baltic Fleet under the command of A. G. Orlov and G. A. Spiridova rounded Europe and on July 5, 1770, in the Chesme Bay, completely destroyed the Turkish squadron. Landing forces were landed from Russian ships, which, together with the Greek partisans, fought successfully against the Turks.

In 1772, he was transferred from the Commonwealth to the Danube army. Alexander Vasilievich Suvorov. The troops led by him in 1773 occupied Turtukai with a swift blow and crossed the Danube.

Having suffered a complete defeat, Turkey was forced to sue for peace. The Russian army was ready to continue the war. But the peasant war that flared up in the country forced the government to make peace. Under an agreement concluded by P. A. Rumyantsev in the town of Kyuchuk-Kainardzhi in 1774, the territory between the Southern Bug and the Dnieper with the fortress of Kinburn, the fortress of Kerch and Yenikale on the Sea of ​​Azov, Kabarda in the North Caucasus was annexed to Russia. Turkey was also forced to recognize the independence of the Crimean Khanate and the right of the Russian fleet to unhindered passage through the Black Sea straits to the Mediterranean.

However, both parties viewed this treaty as temporary. They were preparing for a new war for the Northern Black Sea region.

Russian-Turkish war of 1787-1791. Another Russo-Turkish war broke out in 1787. The reason for it was the events in the Crimea, where there was a coup in favor of an open protege of Turkey and an enemy of Russia. In response to this, in 1783, Catherine II issued a manifesto on the cessation of the existence of the Crimean Khanate and the annexation of its lands to Russia. As a result, the whole of Crimea and part North Caucasus became part of Russia. Summer 1787 In the 18th century, Catherine undertook a demonstrative journey to the Crimea (Tavrida), accompanied by the Austrian emperor.

All this caused a storm of indignation in Turkey. In July 1787, the Sultan presented an ultimatum to Russia, in which he demanded the return of the Crimea, the restoration of Turkish power in Georgia and the inspection of Russian ships passing through the Bosporus and the Dardanelles. Russia refused. In August, the Sultan declared war on Russia, which lasted four years.

Russia's military superiority became immediately apparent. In the autumn of 1787, the Turks landed a large landing on the Kinburn Spit at the mouth of the Dnieper. The troops defending Kinburn under the command of Suvorov defeated and destroyed the landing force. In 1788, troops under the command G. A. Potemkina captured the fortress of Ochakov.

In the summer of 1789, decisive battles took place at Focsany and Rymnik, during which Suvorov's troops defeated the Turks, who were numerically superior to them.

The main event of the final stage of the war was the siege and capture of the seemingly impregnable fortress of Ishmael, which was defended by 35 thousand people. The commandant of Ishmael self-confidently declared that "the sky would soon fall to earth" than the enemy could take this fortress.

The first assault attempts did not really bring success to the Russian troops. Only after the appointment of Suvorov as commander did things move forward.

The famous commander began to prepare troops for the assault. Life-size models of the fortress were created, stairs for the assault were prepared, soldiers were taught to overcome obstacles. The troops literally trained day and night. "It's hard in teaching - it's easy in battle," said Suvorov.

After artillery preparation on December 11, 1790, the assault on the fortress began. The battle went on for ten hours, after which the impregnable Ishmael fell. The Turks lost 26 thousand of their soldiers. The losses on the part of the storming Russians amounted to 2 thousand people. One of the advancing columns was commanded by Major General M. I. Kutuzov.

In the summer of 1791, Russian troops finally defeated the Turkish army.

in the Balkans. Then the young Russian Black Sea Fleet headed by Fedor Fedorovich Ushakov defeated the Turkish squadron in the Kerch Strait.

Turkey was finally defeated and asked for peace. According to the Iasi Peace Treaty of 1791, the Dniester River became the border between the two countries. Turkey recognized all the conquests of Russia in the Northern Black Sea region.

Russia not only got access to the Black Sea, but also became a great Black Sea power. The development of the fertile Black Sea lands began, the construction of many ports and cities on them.

Greek project of Catherine II. Immediately after the end of the first war with Turkey, Catherine II, inspired by the successes, and her favorite, G. A. Potemkin, drew up a plan for further actions against the enemy, weakened by failures. It was assumed that Turkey would be driven back from Europe, and the Greek Empire with its capital in Constantinople would arise on the liberated Balkan lands. Catherine named her second grandson, born in 1779, Constantine in honor of the great Byzantine emperor. In the future, she wanted to see him as the head

Greek Empire. From the eastern Danubian principalities, the empress planned to create a buffer state of Dacia, and transfer the western principalities to Austria (with which she was going to oust Turkey from Europe). This plan caused a great stir in the European capitals, since its implementation (which was quite possible) would cause an unusual strengthening of Russia's already strong position in Europe. Ekaterina did not have time to implement these plans.

Russia's participation in the sections of the Commonwealth. Austria and Prussia, allied with Russia, repeatedly suggested that Russia should divide the weakening Commonwealth. Catherine II did not go to him due to the fact that the Polish king at that time was her protege Stanislav Ponyatovsky. However, after Russia's victories during the Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774, there was a very real threat of concluding an alliance between Turkey and Austria for a joint struggle against it. And then Catherine agreed to the division of the Commonwealth. V 1772 Russia, Austria and Prussia divided among themselves part of the territories of this state. Prussia occupied Pomerania, Austria - Galicia, and Russia - eastern Belarus and part of Livonia.

The second partition, in which Prussia and Russia participated, took place in 1793. The reason for it was the revolutionary events in France. The entire Baltic coast of Poland with Gdansk and Greater Poland with Poznan went to Prussia, and Belarus with Minsk and Right-bank Ukraine went to Russia. This meant that many ancient Russian lands became part of Russia.

Meanwhile, an uprising began in Poland under the leadership of Tadeusz Kosciuszko, directed against the division of Polish lands by neighboring states. Taking advantage of the victories of the rebels, Russia, Austria and Prussia again brought their troops into the Commonwealth and suppressed the uprising. It was decided that the Polish state, as a source of "revolutionary danger", should cease to exist. This meant the third partition of Poland, which took place in 1795. The lands of central Poland with Warsaw went to Prussia. Austria received Lesser Poland with Lublin. The main part of Lithuania, Western Belarus and Western Volhynia went to Russia, and the inclusion of Courland in Russia was also confirmed.

War with Sweden. In the midst of the Russian-Turkish war of 1787-1791, the Swedish king, taking advantage of the difficult situation in Russia, made a last attempt to return part of Peter's conquests. In addition to demanding the return of the entire Baltic coast conquered by Russia, he demanded that Catherine return to Turkey (with whom he acted in alliance) all of her Black Sea acquisitions. Military operations began in 1788 and went on with varying success in Finland and the Baltic Sea. The fate of the war was decided by the Vyborg naval battle in June 1790, which ended with the victory of the Russian fleet. In July, a peace treaty was signed. The war ended without changing the borders between the two countries. Its main result was the conclusion of allied relations between Russia and Sweden, which meant the final recognition by the Swedes of the results of the Northern War.

The policy of "armed neutrality". In 1775, the British Colonial War began. North America for independence. England turned to Russia with a request to hire Russian troops to take part in the fight against the American rebels. In response, Catherine II not only refused this, but later recognized the independence of the United States of America. In 1780, Russia adopted a declaration of "armed neutrality", according to which the ship of any neutral state is under the protection of all neutral states. This position was in the hands of the inhabitants of the American colonies. This greatly offended the interests of England and could not but worsen Russian-British relations. But at the same time, the foundation was laid for the development of ties between Russia and America.

The struggle of Catherine II with revolutionary France. The revolutionary events in France alarmed Catherine from the very beginning. She was hostile to the convocation of the Estates General on May 5, 1789, and especially to the taking of the Bastille on July 14. The Empress declared that she could not allow shoemakers to rule the state in any corner of Europe. She was even more disturbed by reports that some of the representatives of the Russian aristocracy who studied in Paris took part in the revolutionary events of those days. She soon demanded that all her subjects leave France.

On behalf of Catherine, the Russian ambassador in Paris was preparing an escape Louis XVI and his family. However, this escape failed, and soon the king and queen of France were executed. The Empress fell ill, and the court was dressed in mourning. Since then, Russia began to form an anti-French coalition of European states and prepare an invasion of revolutionary France. Diplomatic and trade ties between Russia and France were severed. The French nobility, who was in exile, began to gather in St. Petersburg, headed by the brother of the executed king. In 1795, the first agreement was concluded between England and Russia to send troops to France. Russia was supposed to put up a 60,000-strong army led by Suvorov, and England provided large financial resources for waging war. However, on November 6, 1796, Empress Catherine died, and the campaign did not take place.

The results of Catherine's foreign policy. The foreign policy of Catherine the Great led to a significant increase in the territory of Russia. It included the Right-Bank Ukraine and Belarus, the southern Baltic, the Northern Black Sea region, many new territories in Far East and in North America. The inhabitants of the Greek islands and the North Caucasus swore allegiance to the Russian Empress. The population of Russia has increased from 22 million to 36 million people.

Another important result of the foreign policy of Catherine II was the beginning of the transformation of Russia from a great European into a great world power. “I don’t know how it will be with you, but with us not a single gun in Europe dared to fire without our permission,” said Catherine’s chancellor, Count A. Bezborodko. The Russian fleet now plied the expanses not only of the coastal seas, but also mediterranean sea, Quiet and Atlantic Oceans, supporting the foreign policy of Russia in Europe, Asia and America with the power of its guns.

However, the greatness of Russia cost its people a colossal effort and huge material and human losses.

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