Catherine's foreign policy 2 table. Foreign policy of Catherine II

05.03.2020

Synopsis on the history of Russia

Catherine II spent a very vigorous foreign policy, which eventually turned out to be successful for Russian Empire. Her government dealt with several major foreign policy tasks.

The first one was to go to the shores of the Black Sea and gain a foothold there, secure the southern borders of the state from Turkey and the Crimea. Growth of marketability of production Agriculture The country was dictated by the need to own the mouth of the Dnieper, through which it was possible to export agricultural products.

The second task required continuing reunification of Ukrainian and Belarusian lands.

In the 60s of the 18th century, a complex diplomatic game took place in Europe. The degree of rapprochement of certain countries depended on the strength of the contradictions between them.

Nowhere did the interests of Russia clash so sharply with the position of Britain and France as in the Turkish question. In September 1768, spurred on by France and Austria, Turkey declared war on Russia. Attempts by the Turkish army to break through deep into Russia were paralyzed by troops under the command of P.A. Rumyantsev. The campaign of 1768-1769 ended in failure for the Turks, but did not bring special success and the Russian army. The turning point came only in 1770, when hostilities unfolded on the lower Danube. P.A. Rumyantsev, with a difference of several days, won two brilliant victories over the numerically superior enemy forces at Larga and Cahul (in the summer of 1770). Success was also achieved in the Caucasus: the Turks were thrown back to the Black Sea coast.

In the summer of 1770, the Russian fleet under the command of Alexei Orlov inflicted a crushing defeat on the Turks in the Chesme Bay. In 1771, Russian troops occupied the Crimea.

An attempt by Catherine II to conclude peace in 1772 was unsuccessful (the conditions of Turkey did not suit).

In 1773, the Russian army resumed hostilities. A.V. Suvorov took the Turtukai fortress on the southern bank of the Danube and in 1774 won a victory at Kozludzha. Rumyantsev crossed the Danube and moved to the Balkans. Turkey capitulated. In 1774, a peace treaty was signed in Kyuchuk-Kainardzhi, according to which the lands between the Bug and the Dnieper, including the sea coast, fortresses in the Crimea, were ceded to Russia, and the Crimean Khanate was declared independent. On the Black Sea, freedom of navigation was established for Russian merchant ships with the right to enter the Mediterranean Sea. Kabarda was annexed to Russia.

The liberated army was transferred to suppress the Pugachev uprising.

The fact that the peace treaty was only a respite was understood both in Russia and in Turkey. The question of Crimea remained controversial. The diplomatic struggle around him did not stop. In response to the intrigues of the Turkish government, Russian troops occupied the peninsula in 1783. Turkey, in an ultimatum form, demanded to return Crimea to it, to recognize Georgia as a vassal possession and to grant the right to inspect Russian merchant ships.

Russian-Turkish war 1787-1791 years began with an attempt by Turkey to land troops on the Kinburn Spit, but the attack was repulsed by troops under the command A.V. Suvorova. Then, in 1788, he takes the powerful fortress of Ochakov, after which the Russian army launched an offensive in the Danube direction, which resulted in two victories, at Rymnik and Focsani. The capture of the impregnable fortress of Izmail by Suvorov in 1790 significantly brought the conclusion of peace closer.

At the same time, the Russian fleet, under the command of one of the most prominent Russian naval commanders, Rear Admiral F.F. Ushakov, inflicted several defeats on the Turks in the Kerch Strait and near the islands of Tendra and Kaliakria. The Turkish fleet was forced to capitulate.

In December 1791, a peace treaty was signed in Iasi, which established the border between Russia and Turkey along the Dniester. Russia received Ochakov and Crimea, but withdrew its troops from Georgia.

The second foreign policy task is annexation of Ukrainian and Belarusian lands to Russia- was decided by the government of Catherine II through the so-called partitions of Poland, which were carried out jointly with Prussia and Austria.

In October 1763, the Polish King August III died. Russia accepted Active participation in the election of a new king to prevent Poland from joining the coalition with France, Turkey and Sweden. The situation was in favor of Russia, since England expected the conclusion of a Russian-English trade agreement that would be beneficial for itself, Prussia was not inclined to quarrel with Russia after the completion Seven Years' War France was in a difficult economic situation. In Poland itself, the struggle of different groups for the throne unfolded. After a long struggle, on August 26, 1764, at the coronation Sejm, S. Poniatowski was elected the Polish king, with the support of Russia. The activity of Russia caused the displeasure of Prussia and Austria, who sought to increase their territories at the expense of Poland. This led to the partition of Poland, which began with the occupation of part of Polish territory by the Austrians.

The Prussian king Frederick II, who dreamed of increasing his lands at the expense of his neighbors, turned to Catherine II with a proposal for a joint division of Poland between Prussia, Austria and Russia. Since the forces of Russia were busy in the south in the war against Turkey, to refuse the proposal of Frederick II meant to transfer the initiative into the hands of Prussia. Therefore, in August 1772, the first agreement on the division of Poland between the three states was signed in St. Petersburg. Part of the Belarusian and Ukrainian lands went to Russia, to Austria - Galicia with a large trading city of Lvov, to Prussia - Pomerania and part of Greater Poland.

Second Partition of Poland preceded by an increase in connection with the revolution in France, revolutionary sentiment in Europe and, in particular, in Poland. In 1791, a constitution was introduced there, which, despite a number of shortcomings, was progressive, strengthened the Polish statehood, which was contrary to the interests of Russia, Prussia and Austria. In 1793, Russia and Prussia made a second partition: Russia received the central part of Belarus and the Right-Bank Ukraine; Prussia - the indigenous Polish lands of Gdansk, Torun, Poznan. Austria did not receive its share under the second title. The constitution of 1791 was repealed. The second partition practically made the country completely dependent on Prussia and Russia. The patriotic forces of society in March 1794 revolted.

The movement was led by one of the heroes of the war for the independence of North America T. Kosciuszko. After several victories won by the rebels, a significant part of the Russian troops left Poland. T. Kosciuszko promised to abolish serfdom and reduce duties. This attracted a significant part of the peasantry to his army. However, there was no clear program of action, the enthusiasm of the rebels was not enough for a long time.

In the second half of the XVIII century. Russia began to play an active role in international relations. It entered the European military-political alliances and, thanks to strong army had a significant impact on them. Russian diplomacy, which used to have to deal with permanent allies and enemies, by this time had learned to maneuver in the complex relations of the European powers. The ideal of Russia's state interests was now associated with the spread of the ideas of rationalism to the field of foreign policy.

The Russian army is increasingly acquiring a national character: Russian officers and generals are coming to replace the foreign ones. The tasks of Russia's foreign policy during the reign of Catherine II were, firstly, the struggle for access to south seas- Black and Azov, secondly, the liberation from foreign domination of the lands of Ukraine and Belarus and the unification in one state of all Eastern Slavs and thirdly, the struggle against revolutionary France in connection with the Great French Revolution that began in 1789. In the 60s. 18th century There is a complex political game going on in Europe.

The degree of convergence of certain countries was determined by the strength of the contradictions between them. At that time, Russia had the strongest contradictions with France and Austria. To action in the south Russian government the interests of the country's security and the needs of the nobility, who sought to obtain fertile southern lands, were also pushed. At the same time, the development of Russian industry and trade dictated the need to gain access to the Black Sea coast. Turkey, instigated by France and England, in the fall of 1768 declared war on Russia, which lasted until 1774. After the capture of Azov and Taganrog, Russia began building a fleet.

In the famous Battle of Chesme on June 25-26, 1770, under the command of Admirals G. A. Spiridonov, A. G. Orlov and S. K. Greig, a brilliant victory was won: the Turkish ships locked in the Chesme Bay, with the exception of one, were burned. A little later in July in 1770, under the command of the talented commander P. A. Rumyantsev, the Russian army won on land in the battle of Cahul over the 150,000-strong army of the Turks. In 1771, the Russian army under the command of Prince V. M. Dolgoruky captured the Perekop fortifications, defeated the combined Turkish-Tatar army in the battle of Cafe (Feodosia) and occupied the Crimean peninsula. These successes contributed to the fact that a protege of Russia was erected on the Crimean Khan's throne, with whom Dolgoruky concluded an agreement.

In June 1774, Russian troops under command succeeded in defeating the Ottomans (Turks) at Kozludzha. Russian-Turkish war 1768 - 1774 ended with the signing of the Kyuchuk-Kainarji peace treaty in 1774, under the terms of which Russia received access to the Black Sea; the steppes of the Black Sea region - Novorossia; the right to have a fleet on the Black Sea; the right of passage through the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles; Azov, Kerch, as well as Kuban and Kabarda. The Crimean Khanate became independent from Turkey. Turkey paid an indemnity of 4 million rubles. And the Russian government won the right to act as a defender of the legitimate rights of Christian peoples in the Ottoman Empire. For brilliant victories in the Russian-Turkish war, Catherine II generously awarded her commanders with orders and nominal weapons. A. G. Orlov became known as Chesmensky, V. M. Dolgorukov - Krymsky, P. A. Rumyantsev - Zadunaisky. Since 1780, Russia began to draw closer to Austria on the basis of common interests in relation to Turkey and Poland.

Turkey did not want to come to terms with the assertion of Russia in the Black Sea. In response to Turkey's desire to return the Crimea under its rule, by the decree of Catherine II of April 8, 1783, the Crimea was included in the Russian Empire. As a support base Cherno navy in 1783 Sevastopol was founded. G. A. Potemkin for success in annexing the Crimea (the old name of Taurida) received a prefix to his title "Prince of Tauride". In 1787, Turkey presented an ultimatum to Russia with a number of unacceptable demands, and the second Russian-Turkish war (1787-1791) began, which was fought in a difficult international situation for Russia. The fact is that at that time an alliance of England, Prussia and Holland took shape, aimed at undermining Russia's positions in the Baltic. These countries provoked Sweden into a war with Russia in 1788-1790. This war weakened the strength of Russia, although the peace treaty of 1790 did not introduce any territorial changes between Russia and Sweden. Russia was supported at that time only by England, and even then by insignificant forces. However, the Russian-Swedish war showed the superiority of the Russian army. During the years of the second Russian-Turkish war, the military talent of A. V. Suvorov was especially clearly manifested.

In 1787, he defeated the Turks during their siege of Kinburn, then in 1788 he took the powerful fortress of Ochakov, and in 1789 he won two convincing victories over the many times superior enemy forces at the city of Focsani and on the river. Rymnik, for which he receives the title of Count of Rymnik. Of particular importance was the capture of Ishmael in 1790, which was the citadel of Ottoman rule on the Danube. After careful preparation, A. V. Suvorov appointed the time of the assault. Wanting to avoid bloodshed, he sent a letter to the commandant of the fortress demanding surrender: "24 hours - freedom, the first shot - already captivity, assault - death." The Turkish pasha refused: “Rather, the Danube will stop in its course, the sky will fall to the ground, than Ishmael will surrender.” After a 10-hour assault, Ishmael was taken.

In battle, the student of A.V. Suvorov, the future commander M.I. Kutuzov, glorified himself. As well as ground forces the fleet, commanded by Admiral F.F. Ushakov, also operated successfully during the war. In the battle at Cape Kaliakria (near Varna) in 1791, the Turkish fleet was destroyed. According to the Iasi peace treaty of 1791 (signed in the city of Iasi), Turkey recognized the Crimea as a possession of Russia. The Dniester River became the border between the two countries. The territory between the rivers Bug and Dniester became part of Russia. Turkey recognized Russia's patronage over Georgia, established by the Treaty of St. George in 1783. The economic development of the steppe south of Russia accelerated, and Russia's ties with the Mediterranean countries expanded.

The Crimean Khanate, a constant hotbed of aggression against Ukrainian and Russian lands, was liquidated. The cities of Nikolaev in 1789, Odessa in 1795, Yekaterinodar in 1793 (now Krasnodar) and others were founded in the south of Russia. Russia gained access to the Black Sea. Austria and Prussia, which at that time were in allied relations with Russia, repeatedly suggested that Russia undertake the division of the territory weakened by Poland's internal contradictions. Catherine II did not agree to this proposal for a long time due to the fact that the Polish king during this period was her henchman Stanislav Poniatowski. However, in conditions when, after the victory in the first Russian-Turkish war, there was a very real threat of concluding an alliance between Turkey and Austria for a joint struggle against Russia, Catherine II agreed to the partition of Poland. In 1772, Russia, Austria and Prussia committed aggression against Poland and divided part of the Polish lands among themselves.

Prussia occupied Pomerania, Austria - Galicia, and Russia - Eastern Belarus and the Polish part of Livonia. The second partition, in which Prussia and Russia participated, took place in 1793. The entire Baltic coast of Poland with Gdansk and Greater Poland with Poznan went to Prussia, and Belarus with Minsk and Right-bank Ukraine went to Russia. This meant that all the old Russian lands became part of Russia. Meanwhile, an uprising led by Tadeusz Kosciuszko began in Poland, directed against the division of Polish lands by neighboring states. Taking advantage of the victories of the rebels as a pretext, Russia, Austria and Prussia again sent their troops into Poland and crushed the uprising. It was decided that the Polish state as a source of "revolutionary danger" should cease to exist.

This meant the third division of Poland, which took place in 1795. The lands of central Poland with Warsaw went to Prussia. Austria received Lesser Poland with Lublin. The main part of Lithuania, Western Belarus and Western Volhynia went to Russia, and the inclusion of Courland into Russia was also legally formalized. Russia's allied relations with Austria and Prussia created an opportunity for the return of Ukrainian and Belarusian lands to Russia, which had been located since the 16th century. within the Polish-Lithuanian state. However, the task of ensuring the security of Peter's conquests in the Baltic remained. The Great French Revolution caused not only the creation of the first anti-French coalition under the auspices of Catherine II, but also marked the beginning of the ideologization of Russia's foreign policy.

The transformation of Russia into a great European power required constant confirmation of this status. Not a single major issue of European politics was resolved without its participation. In 1775, the war of the English colonies began in North America for independence. England turned to Russia with a request to hire Russian troops to take part in the fight against the American rebels. In response, Catherine II not only refused this, but also recognized the independence of the United States of America. In 1780, Russia adopted a declaration of "armed neutrality", according to which the ship of any neutral state is under the protection of all neutral states. This greatly offended the interests of England and could not but worsen Russian-British relations. Foreign policy Catherine the Great led to a significant increase in the territory of Russia. It included the Right-bank Ukraine and Belarus, the Southern Baltic, the Northern Black Sea region, many new territories in Far East and in North America. The inhabitants of the Greek islands swore allegiance to the Russian Empress and North Caucasus. The population of Russia has increased from 22 to 36 million people.

Thus, during the reign of Catherine II, Russia managed to get closer to solving the foreign policy tasks that the country had been facing for many decades. The most important result of the foreign policy of Catherine II was the beginning of the transformation of Russia from a great European into a great world power. “I don’t know how it will be with you, but with us, not a single gun in Europe dared to fire without our permission,” said Catherine’s Chancellor Count A. Bezborodko. The Russian fleet now plied the expanses not only of the coastal seas, but also of the Mediterranean Sea, the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, supporting the foreign policy of Russia in Europe, Asia and America with the power of its guns. However, the greatness of Russia cost its people a colossal effort and huge material and human losses. A number of historians rightly assess the reign of Catherine II as a single process of reform, as a time of continuous transformation.

The historiography of the reforms of Catherine II is no less extensive compared to the historiography of the era of Peter I. The well-known Russian historian of the 19th century. N. V. Karamzin in “Note on the ancient and new Russia"I saw in Catherine II the true successor to the greatness of Petrov and the second reformer of the new Russia, and generally considered her time "the happiest for a Russian citizen." In the Russian pre-revolutionary historiography of the "Catherine era" there were two main directions. Representatives of one of them, mostly historians of the "state school" - S. M. Solovyov, A. D. Gradovsky, I. I. Dityatin and others - gave a fairly high assessment of the reforms of Catherine II, considering them an important stage in the development of Russian statehood, Europeanization of the country, the formation of elements of civil society. Historians of another direction - V. O. Klyuchevsky, A. A. Kizevetter, V. I. Semevsky and others - demonstrated a much greater criticality of judgments when describing the transformations of Catherine II.

These historians, first of all, were distinguished by the search for inconsistencies, the identification of inconsistencies between the declarations and specific actions of the empress, and a special emphasis on the peasant question. In Soviet historical science, the reign of Catherine II was considered as a manifestation of the so-called "enlightened absolutism". At the same time, the policy of “enlightened absolutism” of Catherine II was interpreted as liberal demagoguery and the maneuvering of the autocracy between different social strata in the era of the decomposition of the feudal-serfdom system in order to prevent popular uprisings. Thus, all the deeds of the empress were initially given a negative connotation of something insincere and even reactionary.

When evaluating the reign of Catherine II, one must obviously keep in mind that the empress had to act not according to a pre-thought-out and planned reform program, but to consistently take on the solution of the tasks that life put forward. Hence the impression of some chaotic nature of her reign. The main facts of the reign of Catherine II can be grouped according to their semantic orientation into several lines: firstly, imperial events in the external and domestic politics; secondly, strengthening absolutism by reforming government institutions and a new administrative structure of the state, protecting the monarchy from any encroachment; thirdly, socio-economic measures aimed at further "Europeanization" of the country and the final formation and strengthening of the nobility; fourthly, liberal educational initiatives, care for education, literature, and the arts.

According to the historian S.V. Bushuev, in the reign of Catherine II there was a “discrepancy between the external forms and internal conditions brought from above”, the “soul” and “body” of Russia, and hence all the contradictions of the 18th century: the split of the nation, the split of the people and power , power and the intelligentsia created by it, the split of culture into folk and "official", the coexistence of "enlightenment" and "slavery". All this can somehow explain the underlying causes of her impressive successes when she acted like a Petrine “from above”, and her amazing impotence, as soon as she tried to get support “from below” in a European way. The enlightened empress Catherine II acted both as the first landowner and as a correspondent for Voltaire, as an unlimited ruler, as a supporter of humanity and at the same time as a restorer death penalty. According to the definition of A.S., Pushkin, Catherine II is "Tartuffe in a skirt and crown."

Catherine II - All-Russian Empress, who ruled the state from 1762 to 1796. The era of her reign is the strengthening of serfdom tendencies, the comprehensive expansion of the privileges of the nobility, active transformational activities and an active foreign policy aimed at the implementation and completion of some plans.

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Foreign Policy Goals of Catherine II

The Empress pursued two main foreign policy goals:

strengthening the influence of the state in the international arena;
expansion of the territory.

These goals were quite achievable in the geopolitical conditions of the second half of XIX century. The main rivals of Russia at that time were: Great Britain, France, Prussia in the West and the Ottoman Empire in the East. The empress adhered to the policy of "armed neutrality and alliances", concluding profitable alliances and terminating them when necessary. The Empress never followed in the wake of someone else's foreign policy, always trying to follow an independent course.

The main directions of the foreign policy of Catherine II

Tasks of foreign policy of Catherine II (briefly)

The main foreign policy objectives that required a solution were:

conclusion of a final peace with Prussia (after the Seven Years' War)
maintaining the positions of the Russian Empire in the Baltic;
solution of the Polish question (preservation or partition of the Commonwealth);
expansion of the territories of the Russian Empire in the South (annexation of the Crimea, the territories of the Black Sea region and the North Caucasus);
exit and full consolidation of the Russian navy in the Black Sea;
creation of the Northern System, an alliance against Austria and France.

The main directions of the foreign policy of Catherine 2

Thus, the main directions of foreign policy were:

western direction (Western Europe);
east direction (Ottoman Empire, Georgia, Persia)

Some historians also point out

the northwestern direction of foreign policy, that is, relations with Sweden and the situation in the Baltic;
Balkan direction, referring to the famous Greek project.

Implementation of foreign policy goals and objectives

The implementation of foreign policy goals and objectives can be presented in the form of the following tables.

Table. "Western direction of foreign policy of Catherine II"

foreign policy event	Chronology	Results
Prussian-Russian alliance	1764	The beginning of the formation of the Northern System (allied relations with England, Prussia, Sweden)
The first division of the Commonwealth	1772	Accession of the eastern part of Belarus and part of the Latvian lands (part of Livonia)
Austro-Prussian conflict	1778-1779	Russia took the position of an arbiter and actually insisted on the conclusion of the Teshen peace by the warring powers; Catherine set her own conditions, by accepting which the warring countries restored neutral relations in Europe
"Armed neutrality" with respect to the newly formed USA	1780	Russia did not support either side in the Anglo-American conflict
Anti-French coalition	1790	The beginning of the formation by Catherine of the second Anti-French coalition; rupture of diplomatic relations with revolutionary France
Second division of the Commonwealth	1793	Empire ceded part of Central Belarus with Minsk and Novorossiya (eastern part of modern Ukraine)
Third Section of the Commonwealth	1795	Accession of Lithuania, Courland, Volhynia and Western Belarus

Attention! Historians suggest that the formation of the Anti-French Coalition was undertaken by the Empress, as they say, "to divert eyes." She did not want Austria and Prussia to pay close attention to the Polish question.

Second anti-French coalition

Table. "North-Western Direction of Foreign Policy"

Table. "Balkan Direction of Foreign Policy"

The Balkans are becoming the object of close attention of Russian rulers, starting precisely with Catherine II. Catherine, like her allies in Austria, sought to limit the influence of the Ottoman Empire in Europe. To do this, it was necessary to deprive her of strategic territories in the region of Wallachia, Moldavia and Bessarabia.

Attention! The Empress planned the Greek project even before the birth of her second grandson, Constantine (hence the choice of name).

He has not been implemented due to:

changes in Austria's plans;
independent conquest by the Russian Empire of a large part of the Turkish possessions in the Balkans.

Greek project of Catherine II

Table. "The Eastern Direction of the Foreign Policy of Catherine II"

The eastern direction of the foreign policy of Catherine 2 was a priority. She understood the need to consolidate Russia on the Black Sea, and also understood that it was necessary to weaken the position of the Ottoman Empire in this region.

foreign policy event	Chronology	Results
Russo-Turkish War (declared by Turkey to Russia)	1768-1774	A series of significant victories brought Russia into some of the strongest in the military plan of the European powers (Kozludzhi, Larga, Cahul, Ryabaya Grave, Chesmen). The Kuchuk-Kainarji peace treaty, signed in 1774, formalized the annexation of the Azov, Black Sea, Kuban and Kabarda regions to Russia. The Crimean Khanate became autonomous from Turkey. Russia received the right to keep the navy on the Black Sea.
Accession of the territory of modern Crimea	1783	The protege of the Empire, Shahin Giray, became the Crimean Khan, the territory of the modern Crimean peninsula became part of Russia.
"Patronage" over Georgia	1783	After the conclusion of the Treaty of Georgievsk, Georgia officially received the protection and patronage of the Russian Empire. She needed this to strengthen the defense (attacks from Turkey or Persia)
Russian-Turkish war (unleashed by Turkey)	1787-1791	After a number of significant victories (Fokshany, Rymnik, Kinburn, Ochakov, Izmail), Russia forced Turkey to sign the Treaty of Jassy, according to which the latter recognized the transition of the Crimea to Russia, recognized the Treaty of St. George. Russia also crossed territories between the Bug and Dniester rivers.
Russo-Persian War	1795-1796	Russia has significantly strengthened its positions in the Transcaucasus. Gained control over Derbent, Baku, Shemakha and Ganja.
Persian campaign (continuation of the Greek project)	1796	Plans for a large-scale campaign against Persia and the Balkans was not destined to come true. In 1796 the empress Catherine II died. But, it should be noted that the beginning of the campaign was quite successful. Commander Valerian Zubov managed to capture a number of Persian territories.

Attention! The successes of the state in the East were associated primarily with the activities outstanding generals and naval commanders, "Catherine's eagles": Rumyantsev, Orlov, Ushakov, Potemkin and Suvorov. These generals and admirals raised the prestige of the Russian army and Russian weapons to an unattainable height.

It should be noted that a number of Catherine's contemporaries, including the illustrious commander Friedrich of Prussia, believed that the successes of her generals in the East were merely a consequence of the weakening of the Ottoman Empire, the decomposition of its army and navy. But, even if this is true, no other power, except Russia, could boast of such achievements.

Russo-Persian War

The results of Catherine II's foreign policy in the second half of the 18th century

Everything foreign policy goals and objectives Catherine were brilliantly executed:

The Russian Empire entrenched itself in the Black and Azov Seas;
confirmed and secured the northwestern border, fortified in the Baltic;
expanded territorial possessions in the West after the three partitions of Poland, returning all the lands of Black Russia;
expanded possessions in the south, annexing the Crimean peninsula;
weakened the Ottoman Empire;
gained a foothold in the North Caucasus, expanding its influence in this region (traditionally British);
having created the Northern System, strengthened its position in the international diplomatic field.

Attention! When Ekaterina Alekseevna was on the throne, the gradual colonization of the northern territories began: the Aleutian Islands and Alaska (the geopolitical map of that period of time changed very quickly).

Results of foreign policy

Evaluation of the reign of the empress

Contemporaries and historians assessed the results of Catherine II's foreign policy in different ways. Thus, the division of Poland was perceived by some historians as a "barbaric action" that ran counter to the principles of humanism and enlightenment that the Empress preached. The historian V. O. Klyuchevsky said that Catherine created the prerequisites for the strengthening of Prussia and Austria. In the future, the country had to fight with these large countries that directly bordered the Russian Empire.

Receivers of the Empress, and, criticized the policy his mother and grandmother. The only constant direction over the next few decades remained anti-French. Although the same Paul, having conducted several successful military campaigns in Europe against Napoleon, sought an alliance with France against England.

Foreign policy of Catherine II

Conclusion

The foreign policy of Catherine II corresponded to the spirit of the Epoch. Almost all of her contemporaries, including Maria Theresa, Frederick of Prussia, Louis XVI, tried to strengthen the influence of their states and expand their territories through diplomatic intrigues and conspiracies.

Weakening military power The Ottoman Empire made the consolidation of Russia on the Black Sea and the annexation of the Black Sea coast more and more real. The war of 1768 was started by Turkey. On the initial stage The wars fought with varying success - the suddenness of the attacks of the Turks and their superiority affected. However, as the Russian troops were replenished, the situation began to change in their favor. The chances of winning increased even more after the appointment of the illustrious commander, who distinguished himself during the Seven Years' War, P. A. Rumyantsev, as commander-in-chief of the Russian army. In July 1770, the Turks were defeated by Rumyantsev's troops near the Larga River, and a few days later, near the Kagul River, a 17,000-strong Russian detachment defeated the main forces of the Turkish army, numbering 150,000 people. Meanwhile, the es-cadra of the Baltic Fleet under the command of A. G. Orlov and G. A. Spiridov circled Europe and on July 5, 1770, destroyed the Turkish squadron in the Chesme Bay. In 1772, A. V. Suvorov was sent to the Danube army. In 1773, the troops led by him occupied Turtukai with a swift blow and forced the Danube. Having suffered a complete defeat, Turkey was forced to ask for peace. According to the agreement concluded by P. A. Rumyantsev in the town of Kyuchuk-Kainardzhi in 1774, the territory between the Southern Bug and the Dnieper with the fortress of Kinburn, the fortress of Kerch and Yenikale on the Sea of Azov, Kabarda in the North Caucasus was annexed to Russia. Turkey was forced to recognize the independence of the Crimean Khanate and the right of the Russian fleet to unimpeded passage through the Black Sea straits to the Mediterranean. However, both parties viewed this treaty as temporary. They were preparing for a new war for the Northern Black Sea region.

The next Russian-Turkish war broke out in 1787-1791. The reason for it was the events in the Crimea, where a coup d'état took place, which brought a protege of Turkey to power. In response to this, in 1783, Catherine II issued a manifesto on the termination of the existence of the Crimean Khanate and the annexation of its lands to Russia. As a result, the entire Crimea and part of the North Caucasus became part of Russian state. In the summer of 1787, Catherine undertook a demonstrative journey to the Crimea (Tavrida), accompanied by the Austrian Emperor Joseph II. All this caused a storm of indignation in Turkey. In July 1787, the Sultan presented an ultimatum to Russia, in which he demanded the return of the Crimea, the restoration of Turkish power in Georgia and the inspection of Russian ships passing through the Bosporus and the Dardanelles. Russia refused. In August, the Sultan declared war. Russia's military superiority immediately became apparent. In 1788, the Russian army under the command of G. A. Potemkin captured the fortress of Ochakov. In the summer of 1789, decisive battles took place at Focsani and Rymnik, during which Suvorov's troops defeated the Turks, who were numerically superior to them. The main event of the final stage of the war was the siege and capture of the Izmail fortress in December 1790. In the summer of 1791, Russian troops finally defeated the Turkish army in the Balkans. Then the young Russian Black Sea Fleet led by F. F. Ushakov defeated Turkish squadrons in the Kerch Strait. Deprived of strength, Turkey asked for peace. According to the Iasi Treaty of 1791, the Dniester River became the border between the two countries. Turkey recognized all the conquests of Russia in the Northern Black Sea region.

Thus, Russia not only got access to the Black Sea, but also became a great maritime power. The development of the fertile Black Sea lands began, the creation of ports and cities on them.

Rice. 2. Accession of the Northern Black Sea and Crimea to Russia ()

Russia's allies—Austria and Prussia—repeatedly proposed that Poland should be partitioned. Catherine II did not agree to this, since the Polish king at that time was her protege Stanislav Poniatowski. However, when, after the victory in the Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774. there was a real threat of concluding an alliance between Turkey and Austria for a joint struggle against Russia. Catherine agreed to the partition of Poland. In 1772, Russia, Austria and Prussia attacked Poland and divided part of its territories among themselves. Prussia occupied Pomorye, Austria Galicia, Russia - eastern Belarus and the Polish part of Livonia. The second division, in which Prussia and Russia participated, took place in 1793. The reason for it was the revolutionary events in France. The entire Baltic coast of Poland with Gdansk and Greater Poland with Poznan went to Prussia, and Belarus with Minsk and Right-bank Ukraine went to Russia. Thus, many ancient Russian lands became part of the Russian Empire. Meanwhile, an uprising led by Tadeusz Kosciuszko began in Poland, directed against the division of Polish lands by neighboring states. Taking advantage of the victories of the rebels, Russia, Austria and Prussia again brought their troops into Poland and crushed the uprising. It was decided that the Commonwealth should cease to exist as a source of "revolutionary danger". This meant the third partition of Poland, which took place in 1795. The lands of central Poland with Warsaw went to Prussia. Austria received Lesser Poland with Lublin. The main part of Lithuania, Western Belarus and Western Volhynia were annexed to Russia.

Rice. 3. Participation of Russia in the sections of the Commonwealth ()

The revolutionary events in France from the very beginning alarmed Catherine. She was hostile to the convocation of the Estates-General on May 5, 1789, and especially the taking of the Bastille on July 14. She immediately remembered the events of the Pugachev uprising. Relations with France became even more complicated when Catherine learned of the king's approval of the constitution. Having learned that some of the representatives of the Russian aristocracy trained in Paris took part in the revolutionary events, the empress demanded that all her subjects leave France. On behalf of Catherine, the Russian ambassador in Paris was preparing the escape of Louis XVI and his family. However, this escape failed, and in early 1793 the king and queen of France were executed. Since then, Russia began to form an anti-French coalition of European states and prepare an invasion of revolutionary France. Official diplomatic and trade relations between Russia and France were severed as early as 1792. In 1793, representatives of the French aristocracy, who were in exile, began to gather in St. Petersburg, headed by the brother of the executed king, Count d "Artois. Then the first agreement between England and Russia on intervention in France was concluded.Russia was to field a 60,000-strong army led by Suvorov, and England provided the financial means for waging war.The performance was to begin in 1796. However, on November 7, Empress Catherine passed away.

In 1775, the war for the independence of the English colonies in North America began. England turned to Russia with a request to hire Russian troops to fight the American rebels. However, Catherine II not only refused this, but also recognized the independence of the United States of America. In 1780, Russia adopted a declaration of "armed neutrality", which affected the interests of England and could not but worsen Russian-English relations.

The foreign policy of Catherine the Great led to a significant increase in the territory of the Russian Empire. It included the Right-Bank Ukraine and Belarus, the southern Baltic, the Northern Black Sea region, many new territories in the Far East and North America. The population of Russia has increased from 22 million to 36 million people. Another important result of the foreign policy of Catherine II was the beginning of the transformation of Russia into a great world power. Now the Russian fleet plied the expanses not only of the coastal seas, but also mediterranean sea, Pacific and Atlantic oceans. However, the greatness of Russia cost its people a colossal effort and huge material and human losses.

References on the topic "Catherine's foreign policy II":

1. History of the state and peoples of Russia. XVI-XVIII centuries - M .: Bustard, 2003

2. Valishevsky K. Successors of Peter. - M., 1992

3. In the struggle for power: Pages of political history Russia XVIII v. - M., 1998

Homework

1. What were the main directions and objectives of Russia's foreign policy under Catherine II?

2. What was the significance for Russia of the accession of the Northern Black Sea region and Crimea?

3. Why did Russia take part in the divisions of the Commonwealth?

4. How did the Russian government react to the revolutionary events in France?

5. What are the main results of the foreign policy activities of Catherine II?

Catherine II spent a very energetic foreign policy. Her government dealt with several major foreign policy tasks.

The first one was to go to the shores of the Black Sea and gain a foothold there, secure the southern borders of the state from Turkey and the Crimea.

The second task required continuing reunification of Ukrainian and Belarusian lands.

Nowhere did the interests of Russia clash so sharply with the position of Britain and France as in the Turkish question. In September 1768, spurred on by France and Austria, Turkey declared war on Russia. Attempts by the Turkish army to break through deep into Russia were paralyzed by troops under the command of P.A. Rumyantsev. The campaign of 1768-1769 ended in failure for the Turks, but did not bring much success to the Russian army either. The turning point came only in 1770, when hostilities unfolded on the lower Danube. P.A. Rumyantsev, with a difference of several days, won two brilliant victories over the numerically superior enemy forces at Larga and Cahul (in the summer of 1770). Success was also achieved in the Caucasus: the Turks were thrown back to the Black Sea coast.

In the summer of 1770, the Russian fleet under the command of Alexei Orlov inflicted a crushing defeat on the Turks in the Chesme Bay. In 1771, Russian troops occupied the Crimea.

An attempt by Catherine II to conclude peace in 1772 was unsuccessful (the conditions of Turkey did not suit).

In 1773, during the hostilities, Turkey capitulated. In 1774, a peace treaty was signed in Kyuchuk-Kainardzhi, according to which the lands between the Bug and the Dnieper, including the sea coast, fortresses in the Crimea, were ceded to Russia, and the Crimean Khanate was declared independent. On the Black Sea, freedom of navigation was established for Russian merchant ships with the right to enter the Mediterranean Sea. Kabarda was annexed to Russia.

The liberated army was transferred to suppress the Pugachev uprising.

The question of Crimea remained controversial. The diplomatic struggle around him did not stop. Turkey, in an ultimatum form, demanded to return Crimea to it, to recognize Georgia as a vassal possession and to grant the right to inspect Russian merchant ships.

The Swedes intervened in the Russian-Turkish conflict. The Russo-Swedish War of 1788-1790 began. As a result of this war, Sweden was forced to conclude the Varlevsky peace.

At the same time, the Russian fleet under the command of F.F. Ushakov inflicted several defeats on the Turks at Cape Kaliakria. The Turkish fleet was forced to capitulate.

The movement spearheaded T. Kosciuszko. After several victories won by the rebels, a significant part of the Russian troops left Poland.

In the autumn of 1794, Russian troops led by A.V. Suvorov stormed Prague (a suburb of Warsaw). In November 1794, the uprising was crushed. The consequence of these events was third partition of Poland in October 1795. Western Belarus, Lithuania, Volhynia and Courland went to Russia. To Prussia - the central part with Warsaw, Austria captured southern part Poland. The Commonwealth ceased to exist as an independent state.

Socio-economic situation in Russia in the first half of the 19th century

At the beginning of the 19th century, the population was 68 million people. More than 90% - peasants, 0.9 million - the nobility, 0.5 million people - the clergy.

In Russia, the industrial revolution was slowly proceeding. The main reason for the backwardness was that Western countries demonstrated the success of economic development based on free enterprise and private initiative, while the Russian autocracy retained serfdom, whose dominance created an insurmountable barrier to the development of new trends in the economy.

In autocratic-feudal Russia, the main regulator of economic life was the interests of the state, and not the demands of the market. The industry, which worked under state control, practically did not know free competition.

But the all-Russian agrarian market gradually strengthened, and domestic trade increased. There were industrial enterprises whose products were intended for mass consumption - cotton and metalworking manufactories.

Serf relations closed the channels for the formation in Russia of a layer of small and medium-sized owners.

Domestic policy of the Russian autocracy

The policy of Paul I was controversial. On April 5, 1797, he issued a new decree on succession to the throne, according to which the throne was to pass only through the male line from father to son, and in the absence of sons to the eldest of the brothers.

After becoming emperor, Paul tried to strengthen the regime by strengthening discipline and power in order to exclude all manifestations of liberalism and free thinking. Characteristic features of the reign of Paul I were harshness, imbalance and irascibility. He believed that everything in the country should be subject to the orders established by the monarch; I prioritized efficiency and accuracy.

Paul I tightened the order of service of the nobles, limited the effect of the letter of commendation to the nobility. Prussian orders were planted in the army.

Laws concerning the position of the peasants were passed. In 1767 a decree was issued. Prohibiting the sale of peasants and courtyards at the auction. The prohibition to split up peasant families. It was forbidden to sell serfs without land. State peasants received a 15-tithe mental allotment and a special class administration. The decree of 1796 finally prohibited the independent transition of peasants (from place to place). The distribution of the state peasants to the nobles continued.

In 1797, the Manifesto on the three-day corvee was published. He forbade landlords to use peasants for field work on Sundays, recommending that corvée be limited to three days a week.

The attack on noble privileges turned the nobility against Paul I. On the night of March 11-12, 1801, the emperor was killed by conspirators. The preparation of the conspiracy was led by the military governor of St. Petersburg P.A. Palen. The eldest son of Pavel, Alexander, was also aware of the plans of the conspirators.

Alexander 1 tried to implement a series of broad reforms worked out in a circle of close friends ( The secret committee).

V In 1802, he carried out a ministerial reform: instead of Peter's collegiums, on the principle of autocracy, ministries are created, headed by a minister, responsible to the tsar. All ministers united in Cabinet of Ministers.

Carried out education reform. The country was divided into educational districts. The university was at the head of the district.

Alexander tried to implement the program serfdom restrictions. He stopped the distribution of state-owned peasants into private ownership. Decree of 1803 "On free cultivators" peasants were allowed to buy land from the landowner. However, the decree was overgrown with many subordinate bureaucratic conditions that it became impossible to apply it in life. In total, according to this decree, about 50 thousand families came out of serfdom (0.5% of the total number of serfs). Another decree from 1801, non-nobles were allowed to buy uninhabited land. Thus, the noble monopoly on land ownership was violated.

In 1808, Alexander draws closer to himself MM. Speransky. Speransky advocated the separation of powers into legislative, executive and judicial. According to the project of Speransky, under the chairmanship of the emperor, a State Council from ministers and Thought elected from the people. The Duma and the State Council had legislative power. The executive power belonged to the ministries, and the judiciary - to the Senate and the courts. From the project, Alexander limited himself only to the creation of the State Council with a legislative right.

Under Nicholas I (1825-1855), the era of "enlightened absolutism" ends. An attack begins on the political, and partly on the economic rights of the nobility in order to strengthen the autocracy. Strengthened discipline among officials. The Third Department of the Imperial Chancellery, created under Nicholas I, headed by A. Kh. Benckendorff, and later A. F. Orlov, was engaged in the fight against dissent (as well as supervision of prisons, foreigners, the press, considered peasant complaints against landowners, etc.). Increased censorship. The correspondence was opened. Dissatisfied went into exile, into the army in the Caucasus. After the liberal reign of Alexander I, government oppression caused sharp discontent among the upper strata. Nicholas I, who came to power after the Decembrist uprising, was terribly afraid of the slightest activity in society and therefore crushed it in every possible way. Executive positions were more often appointed to executive positions, rather than capable and enterprising ones.

At the same time, limited reforms were carried out. Legislation was streamlined (codified). In 1830, under the leadership of Speransky, the publication of the Complete Collection of Laws of the Russian Empire began, in 1832 - the Code of Acting Laws of the State. This facilitated administrative practice. In 1837, under the leadership of P. D. Kiselev, a reform of the management of state peasants began to be carried out. Many of them received more land (often due to resettlement in uninhabited areas), first-aid posts were built in their villages, and agrotechnical innovations were introduced. However, this was usually done by force, which caused discontent. Surpluses produced by state peasants were often exported to other regions. This caused unrest. The rights of landowners were limited - peasants could no longer be sent to mining, it was forbidden to sell them at auction for debts.

However, the main question - about serfdom - remained unresolved. Nikolai did not solve it, fearing unrest in society.