students in the 19th century. Students in the social and political life of Russia in the late XIX - early XX centuries

The first conflict arose because of police brutality against students of St. Petersburg University. The students demanded inviolability of the person, the publication of all measures concerning them, the repeal of the old law on conscription of expelled students into the army. The rector of the university answered them that "birds of paradise, which are given everything they ask, do not live in our climate" Solomonov V.A. On the participation of Moscow students in the first All-Russian student strike in 1899 //Bulletin of Moscow State University. Series 8: History. 1994. No. 2. Students staged a demonstration near the Kazan Cathedral. They were supported by their strike of 25,000 workers. The university was closed, all students were expelled. After the opening of the university, 2181 students out of 2425 were accepted back.

Nicholas II denounced the students, saying that they should study, not demonstrate. The fermentation did not subside and on January 14, 1901, former student Karpovich P.V. assassinated the Minister of Education Prof. Bogolepova N.P. This senseless crime, enthusiastically received by the students, opened a series of terrorist attacks by the revolutionary forces and the government's response. After these events, a significant part of the students became in opposition to the tsarist regime. In 1902, an underground student congress took place with fierce discussions between the Social Revolutionaries and liberals Engel G., Gorokhov V. From the history of the student movement. 1899-1906. M., 1908. A small part of extremist students went into terror, into the militant organization of the Socialist-Revolutionaries. After 5 years, in the university cities of the Jewish Pale of Settlement - Kiev, Odessa, Nizhyn, Jewish students became the main explosive force. In the revolutionary turmoil of these cities, especially after the Manifesto of October 17, 1905, they took an active part, being, as the rightists claimed, its "backbone". Great ideas, including socialist ones, spread in a transnational way, like religious, pacifist, feminist and other movements.

At the beginning of the 20th century, students became the main class, which was dissatisfied with the situation in the country. Of course, the marginal strata of society experienced the greatest oppression, but it was the students who were the accumulator of social unrest, it was among its most intellectual part that Marxist sentiments, thoughts about the coming revolution, a total change in society, went. I think that anyone will agree that the workers were hardly familiar with the philosophical and political views of both domestic and Western thinkers. And only among students and intellectuals they had huge popularity.

Material and living conditions of student life in Russia at the end of the 19th century.

Student life of that time deserves special attention.

Student and work is not a new topic for Russia. She occupied a prominent place in the fiction of the past: half-poor, half-starved, always looking for a place as a tutor or tutor, living from water to bread - this is how a typical second student appears before us. half of XIX century Ivanov P. Students in Moscow. Gen. Morals. Types (Essays). M., 1903. Raskolnikov, a student of St. R-th town province, "was so poorly dressed that another, even a familiar person, would be ashamed to go out into the street in such rags during the day" then irregularly) and lessons. Such is his friend, student Razumikhin, who earns money for teaching by lessons or translations from foreign languages. As long as there were lessons, Raskolnikov "somehow, but made his way", avoiding turning to moneylenders, although pawnshops and usury offices, where you could pawn and re-pawn some personal items, up to your own clothes, served as a help to students in difficult minutes. However, by the time the crime was committed, Raskolnikov had already left the university for several months, "for lack of something to support himself, and his lessons and other means ceased," despite the fact that he studied diligently and surpassed many of his classmates in knowledge (for a while, Razumikhin also left teaching the same reason). The murder of the usurer Alena Ivanovna Raskolnikov is largely driven by the lack of means of subsistence. It could be assumed that such a deplorable financial situation of a student, described by Dostoevsky, is a marginal and extreme phenomenon. However, turning to the tetralogy of N.G. Garin-Mikhailovsky, which Gorky called "the whole epic of Russian life", we find in the third and fourth parts ("Students" and "Engineers") almost the same picture. For most students, in addition to parental money, the main sources of livelihood were tutoring, tutoring, private lessons, translations, work as a copyist. Most of these activities had nothing to do with the professions that students studied at the institutes.

It means that this work helped young people to master future profession, no need to say. Rather, students used for survival the cultural resources they inherited from their families or acquired while studying at the gymnasiums. The limited nature of the student labor market was partly determined by the negative attitude towards physical labor. Students of that era - most often come from a noble environment, which, despite the often encountered financial insolvency, retained class prejudices: these young people could hardly imagine themselves doing hard physical work like loading and unloading.

In the fundamental work of A.E. Ivanov, the "art of survival" of pre-revolutionary Russian students is considered in detail and comprehensively. After analyzing a huge number of statistical and historical documents, the author comes to the conclusion that in addition to parental assistance and state loans and subsidies, aid societies and cooperative student organizations, students' own earnings constituted a significant part of their budget revenues.

"A significant proportion of students worked (permanently, temporarily, occasionally), and not only at the right time educational process At the same time, already at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries, Frommet B. R. The main points in the history of Russian students // Student Bulletin. 1917. No. 7. February 17 ..

Most often, poor students could not get a profitable place. An almost insoluble task for them was to find such an income that would not take a lot of time and provide a living wage. "Our comrades are strenuously knocking on the thresholds of the editorial offices of newspapers, all kinds of bureaus and offices in pursuit of earnings, but usually they do not find work here," a student of the University of St. Vladimir in Kiev wrote in 1903 to the editorial office of the Kiev News newspaper. It was difficult for needy students to get around their "more affluent colleagues with good acquaintances" and, therefore, appropriate recommendations, who lived in the best urban areas of the city, decently dressed. In Moscow, according to P. Ivanov, employers avoided dealing with those who lived in the "student camp" (Bronny or "Zhivoderka", Georgians). The inhabitants of the dormitory for poor students - the notorious "Lyapinka" and the cereal "Girsha", as well as tenement houses on Bronnaya, which were the realm of hostesses-renters who lived at the expense of tenants - mostly students, were especially hostile. As a rule, the latter hid the place of residence that compromised them. The topic of secondary employment of students practically disappears in the post-revolutionary, Soviet period. Numerous works are devoted to the problems of youth health and communist education, the value orientations of Soviet students and the problems of their socialization are studied. The complete absence of research into the material and everyday existence of students leads to the idea that politics Soviet power in the field of higher education has solved all these problems. This theme is not reflected in the literature of that period. In this regard, the story of Yuri Trifonov is symptomatic, which describes the life and study of students Literary Institute in the very first post-war years. Most of the characters in the novel are former veterans. They are passionate about studies, social, Komsomol activities, work in a student scientific society, establish ties with the working class, expose hostile, ideologically alien elements among students and teachers, experience love affairs. money. Material differentiation among students and, accordingly, the problems associated with it are indicated only by hints. At the same time, as a rule, "negative" heroes are clearly better off than "positive" ones. So, the negative hero Sergei - a talented egoist - walks, "putting his hands into the deep pockets of his spacious furry coat", and Lagutenko, a front-line soldier, wears a "shabby overcoat" ... It is clear that enjoying the first years of peacetime, post-war asceticism brought the problems of material prosperity far beyond framework of truly important and interesting aspects of peaceful life. However, the memories of former students of different Soviet generations reveal a more diverse reality to us. To earn a living in addition to the scholarship had to almost everyone who did not belong to the wealthy strata, who came to the university centers from the provinces. Material deprivation, self-restraint, often the same as those of their predecessors from pre-revolutionary times, life from hand to mouth was their everyday life. The problems of housing and clothing were no less acute than before. Of course, the market for applying student labor has gradually expanded. This happened not only in connection with the growth of production and the development of scientific and technological progress. It should also be taken into account that the new social strata, drawn into the sphere of higher education, no longer shunned unskilled, physical labor. Thus, the loading and unloading of wagons becomes one of the most common types of earnings among young students of the post-war years. Usually they worked at night, unloading wagons with coal and building materials, and in the summer also with vegetables and fruits. Former students recall how, with the money they earned, they "took girls to cocktail bars to make up for lost time due to the war." Girls - this historically relatively new category for higher education - worked much less frequently. Their budget consisted of scholarships and parental money.

With the beginning of the campaign for the development of virgin lands, new forms of earnings appeared in the famous student construction teams. During the summer holidays, students also participated in the harvest in the south, in geological or archaeological expeditions. More exotic are the types of episodic earnings mentioned in the stories of former students, such as donating blood, playing preference for money with wealthy clients (this was especially common in universities of a mathematical profile), participating as test subjects in various medical and psychological experiments. Those who owned musical instruments, played in jazz ensembles; many worked as night watchmen, orderlies, stokers Elfimova N.V. Social help students in pre-revolutionary Russia // Russian Journal of Social Work. 1995. No. 2. P. 36-38. In an era of total shortages, students, especially language universities, did not disdain speculation ... Qualified work, coinciding with the specialty being studied, was more accessible to students of prestigious, metropolitan, in particular, humanitarian, language universities, faculties of Moscow State University. They made money by translating, journalism, near-literary forms of activity (reporting for the press or radio, covering student life, etc.).

The prevalence of employment among students depended on the profile and status of the university. So, in MVTU them. Bauman students rarely worked.

Student holidays are a special tradition. The traditions of Russian student revelry had already developed at the beginning of the 19th century. Unlike other "feasts", they were distinguished by love of freedom, some kind of special patriotism and all-consuming brotherhood. There is no specific celebration ritual. Every year something new. Generations are changing, and with them comes a new understanding of student holidays.

Perhaps the most famous and oldest holiday is Tatyana's Day (celebrated on January 25, the day when the winter session is finally "closed"). In the descriptions of the celebration of Tatyana's Day, it is usually most of all about how much was drunk, and how someone played tricks. All this is accompanied by mass festivities. Not a single frost will force a student to stay at home on this significant day.

A.P. Chekhov, in one of his early feuilletons of 1885, wrote about the Moscow student holiday: “Everything was drunk this year, except for the Moskva River, and this was due to the fact that it froze ... It was so fun that one studious from an excess of feelings was bathed in a reservoir where the sterlets swim…"

In 1918, the university church was closed, and a reading room was set up in it. Holidays "in honor of the academic goddess" Tatiana have been stopped. In 1923, "Archaic and meaningless Tatyana" was noticed in the directive order by the Day of the proletarian students. However, it was not possible to completely eradicate the memory of the old student holiday. In the post-war years, Moscow students resumed, of course, in home companies, the celebration of Tatiana's Day. In the 1990s, along with the return of some customs canceled by the revolution, Tatyana's day returned. At Moscow University, they began to celebrate it officially, and the rector congratulated the students with a glass of champagne in his hand. In 1993, the building where the university church was located was handed over to the Patriarchate, and everything fell into place again. More recently, a new tradition has emerged: protests - as many newspapers note, in our time this event can be equated with a student holiday.

Although the first universities appeared in Russia in the 18th century, students as a special social group took shape only in the second half of the 19th century. As we know, raznochintsy students were almost entirely democratic. Dobrolyubov and Chernyshevsky became their idols, their ideology was populism. Then it was fashionable to read "What to do?" and be a materialist. Perhaps the first protest was organized by students of St. Petersburg, Moscow and Kiev in March 1861, a memorial service for the Poles demonstrators killed by the tsarist troops in Warsaw. "In the winter of 1899, the first all-Russian student strike took place, which then began to be held regularly."

Meanwhile, one of the factors influencing the formation of the spiritual and psychological image of Russian students was the theater. Theater in Russia, especially in Russia at the end of the 19th century, especially the capital's theater played a huge cultural, educational and socio-political role. The connection of Moscow University with the theatrical life of Moscow had a long and solid foundation. Suffice it to recall that the very emergence of the Moscow public theater was due precisely to the university, or rather, the university student theater, one of the founders of which was the famous Russian writer, an outstanding university figure M.M. Kheraskov. Over the years, this connection, consecrated by traditions, only became more multifaceted and stronger. Moscow University, on the one hand, and Moscow theaters, on the other, are firmly woven into the cultural fabric of the capital, turning over time into public, cultural and educational centers, by the very nature of their activities and traditionally closely related to each other.

The influence of the theatrical life of Moscow on the formation of the spiritual and psychological image of students of Moscow University. The problem itself breaks down into a number of sub-problems. Because in the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. theaters played both a cultural and educational and a socio-political role in the life of Russian society; accordingly, their influence on the public was both cultural and educational and socio-political in nature. If we talk about Moscow students, then, along with all of the above, a huge role was played by the charitable activities of theaters, as well as personal contacts between theatrical figures and students of Moscow University. The influence of the theater on the students of Moscow University, of course, was not one-sided. Students constituted one of the most numerous, and, most importantly, the most active part of the theater audience. Accordingly, the repertoire of theaters, and the manner of performance, and the very nature of relations with society were largely determined precisely by the needs of students. The question of the personal ties of a number of theatrical figures with Moscow University deserves special consideration. It is known that many outstanding actors, singers, composers, directors either received university education or took the most Active participation in the public life of Moscow University (in charity events, in scientific, educational and cultural societies at the university, etc.).

Thus, the following conclusions can be drawn:

1. Theatrical life in Moscow had a huge impact on the formation of the spiritual and psychological image of the students of Moscow University. At the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. this influence can be fully and above all called a revolutionary factor in the spiritual history of Russian students. Both the repertoire of Moscow theatres, and their socio-political, and even cultural and educational activities (attempts to appeal to the masses, met with a decisive rebuff from the autocracy) contributed to the growth of opposition sentiments among the students.

2. Students, being, firstly, the largest and most active part of the theatrical public, and, secondly, a force very influential in wide circles of the Russian intelligentsia, in turn most directly influenced the repertoire policy of Moscow theaters and the nature of public behavior of theatrical figures.

3. Relations of Moscow University with the capital's theaters were not limited

formal and informal relationships in the field of cultural, educational and socio-political activities. For many theatrical figures, Moscow University was in the full sense of the alma mater, and, at the same time, for many students of Moscow University, the theater became a place for further application of their talent, vitality and energy.

As for the relationship of students with professors, this can be learned from the example of the Kazan Telegraph, 1900 Ivanov P. Students in Moscow. Gen. Morals. Types (Essays). M., 1903..

“The number of students at Kazan University by January 1, 1900 was 823 students and 75 regular students. According to the faculties, they were distributed as follows: at the historical and philological - 37 people, at the physics and mathematics - 179 (in the category of mathematical sciences - 60 and in the category natural sciences- 19), in the legal - 164, and in the medical - 443 people.

During 1899, 169 students enjoyed the right to listen to lectures free of charge, which is 15.5% of the total number of students.

Holiday dinner

On November 5, 1900, on the day of the founding of the Imperial Kazan University, its former students gathered in St. Petersburg for a friendly dinner at Donon's restaurant. About 20 persons participated in the dinner. Among those present at the dinner were: Senator N.P. Smirnov, the oldest student (class of 1846) V.V. Pashutin, N.A. Kremlev - former rector of Kazan University, prof. V.A. Lebedev, S.K. Bulich, S.F. Glinka, A.F. Elachich and others. A telegram was sent to the rector of Kazan University: "Former students of Kazan University, having gathered at a friendly dinner at the turn of two centuries, drink for the further prosperity of their native university and express confidence that in the twentieth century, his pupils will continue to add their names to the ranks of the luminaries of science and honest figures in all fields of public life of the dear Fatherland.

Professors, closer to students!

In order to establish a possible rapprochement between the professorship and the students and a more correct formulation of university teaching, attention is paid to strengthening practical exercises at all faculties and the formation of student, scientific and literary circles is allowed; but the most expedient measure for establishing the desired communication between professors and students is the arrangement of properly arranged student dormitories, for which, by the Highest command, 3,262,000 rubles were allocated from the amount of the State Treasury.

Fashion (democratic and aristocratic) played its essential role in the public presentation of the students.

A special place in the everyday culture of the students belonged to the so-called "sexual question". With all its mysteries and dangers, it was vigorously discussed in Russian society, especially after the first Russian revolution. The sphere of the subculture of the young intelligentsia also included its attitude to marriage (church and civil), family life and childbearing.

Commentary by Academic Supervisor Marina Fadeeva, Doctor of Historical Sciences, Professor, Dean of the HSE Faculty of History Alexander Kamensky

In the mass consciousness, a Russian student of the late 19th and early 20th centuries usually appears as an eternally hungry consumptive youth with a feverish gleam in his eyes and with a soul filled with the most benevolent revolutionary impulses. However, one has only to seriously think about how, even without resorting to specialized literature, it becomes clear that, like many other stilted images that make up mass ideas about the past, this one also does not stand up to criticism. After all, if all Russian students of that era were dying of consumption and were preoccupied not with their studies, but only with plans to fight the autocracy, in Russia at the beginning of the last century there would not have been brilliant scientists, engineers, lawyers, doctors and people of all other professions who were trained Russian universities. And during the period of revolutionary upheavals and the Civil War, for some reason, Russian students turned out to be by no means on the side of the Bolsheviks.

The organization of higher education in tsarist Russia, the university as a scientific corporation and many other topics related to this issue, of course, it is no coincidence that they have recently become one of the most noticeable areas of historical research. What today is often called a crisis in national education and science has deep and by no means only economic roots. Researchers are concerned about the organization of the scientific community, its structure, the system of internal relations, and the norms of scientific ethics. In this context, Marina Fadeeva's appeal to the history of Russian students seems quite logical and natural. However, as her supervisor, I dare say that she came to her completely independently. Having become a history student at the Higher School of Economics herself, she, apparently, and perhaps even without realizing it herself, experienced curiosity about the phenomenon of students, which, ultimately, led her to this topic. Curiosity, as is well known, is the main driving force of science. Having once begun to study Russian students a hundred years ago, Marina, of course, discovered many far-from-resolved issues in this topic and was seriously carried away by it.

The history of Russian pre-revolutionary students is provided, though not too voluminous, but quite representative historiography. In particular, in recent decades, a significant contribution to it has been made by several monographs by A.E. Ivanov, who is rightly considered the best expert on this topic. The work of Marina Fadeeva, however, once again proves that in science there are no “closed” topics once and for all, and each new generation of historians asks the past new questions and receives new answers to them.

Marina Fadeeva as a researcher who is just starting her career in science and belongs to the youngest generation Russian historians, distinguishes at the same time respect for her predecessors, whose works she actively uses, and a healthy distrust of everything that she finds in them, the desire to double-check each " historical fact' to document it. Presented here course work bears little resemblance to an ordinary student term paper, significantly surpassing it not only in volume (more than 120 pages!), but also in the variety of subjects covered in it and the methods used. Not to mention the fact that in the coursework written in the second year you will not often find references to archival sources! Another distinguishing feature of the presented work is its consistency.

The author began with an attempt to understand what students are as a social group, what place they occupied in Russian society, what distinctive characteristics his contemporaries and subsequent historiography supplied him, then moving on to his formal characteristics (number, social origin), and from them to the reconstruction of the reality of everyday life, which she fairly and in full accordance with the ideas modern science considers it as the basis for the formation of a worldview. To the reader, who is not too versed in the peculiarities of modern historical knowledge and expects to find, first of all, information about the number of students inspired by the works of Lavrov, Bakunin, Mikhailovsky and Marx, this approach may seem strange, and the abundance of tables and other digital material and completely avert from careful reading. But as soon as you read it, you discover with pleasure how the next historical stereotypes begin to crumble. In addition, let's remember: we are only an intermediate stage on the way to big science, although not devoid of certain stylistic and compositional shortcomings, but representing a very serious and thorough application.

Formation of the worldview of the Moscow students of the end XIX - start XX century

1. The concepts of "raznochintsy", "intelligentsia»

The concept of "students", like any definition, cannot be unambiguous. The related concepts are just as diverse. The raznochintsy component of students in the understanding of contemporaries and the minds of researchers often overshadows other parts of the student body, many students are defined as young intelligentsia, and therefore, in our opinion, in anticipation of discussions about students, we should define what “raznochintsy” and “intelligentsia” are.

Pre-revolutionary historiography already understood the raznochinets in different ways: if B. Frommet defines the raznochintsy as “people without a family, without a tribe, sometimes associated with the lower ranks of the people, always cut off from all classes of society, with high hopes and without a penny in their pocket, with dreams of a marshal rod and without any social status ", then S. Svatikov, on the contrary, calls the main qualities of a raznochinets" a high understanding of the individual and a sharply expressed sense of self-worth ".

The definition of B. Frommett is similar to the ideas about raznochintsy that prevail in culture. As E. Wirtshafter writes, non-nobles and educated commoners were called raznochintsy - initially to belittle or condemn demeanor. For example, raznochintsy at A.N. Ostrovsky - these are half-educated students, non-nobles.

V Soviet historiography the concept of "raznochintsy" is closely intertwined with the criterion of education. According to V.R. Leykina-Svirskaya, to XIX century"raznochintsy began to be called those who received a rank or title by the right of education."

Modern researchers emphasize the fact that categories of the population that often fall under the criteria of raznochintsy did not use this term for self-determination. E. Wirtshafter also writes about the 19th century as a turning point in the definition of raznochintsy: originally a transitional category of ignoble strangers, they become part of the educated elite.

If by the period of interest to us, raznochintsy are often defined through the presence of higher education, then it will be interesting to look at how they correlate with the intelligentsia in the research literature.

Modern historiography pays attention to this issue. Researchers such as S.G. Stafeev, V.V. Bocharov, E.I. Shcherbakova and L.G. Sukhotin either distinguish "raznochintsy" as part of the intelligentsia, or identify these concepts. For example, L.G. Sukhotina writes about the intelligentsia as "raznochinny in terms of social composition."

There are many definitions of the intelligentsia in historiography, each of the authors strives to give his own, the most complete and accurate, but no one has succeeded in this endeavor. K.B. Sokolov, considering the established definitions of the intelligentsia, identifies three main criteria by which one or another part of society is singled out into a single group called "intelligentsia": an intellectual as a person with an appropriate level of education, or as a "good person", a valiant knight, "conscience people", educator, defender, or as a dissident.

Most of the definitions of the intelligentsia in the historiography we have examined can be divided into these three groups: V.V. Bocharov, B.I. Kolonitsky and V. Zhivov. Image " good man” basically fell in love with Soviet researchers (in their works, N.G. Chernyshevsky and N.A. Dobrolyubov formed intellectuals as people of the highest spiritual qualities), V.R. Leikina-Svirskaya, M.N. Tikhomirov and A.N. Maslinny. Both pre-revolutionary and modern authors believe in the "dissidence" of the intelligentsia. This is P.B. Struve, I.A. Ilyin , P.I Novgorodtsev , E.I. Shcherbakova , E. Wirtschafter , S.M. Usmanov and L.G. Sukhotin.

K.B. himself Sokolov criticizes all three common approaches. In his opinion, “there is no doubt that the intelligentsia is not just a category or not only a professional one. These are not just people of “intellectual labor”, but also, for example, representatives of the village intelligentsia, and therefore the first criterion is not suitable. The author proposes to represent the concepts of "intelligentsia" and "educated class" in the form of two concentric circles, then the intelligentsia is an internal initiative, creative circle.

Also, the intelligentsia is only in a fit of narcissism, according to K.B. Sokolova, could position herself as the "conscience of the people." In addition, the defined group itself never identified itself with the revolutionaries, and the revolution did not position its intelligence.

Thus, the selected criteria, according to K.B. Sokolov, are not true. However, he himself despairs of the possibility of ever once and for all ending the dispute about the intelligentsia and, it seems, comes to a certain agreement with the philologist V.S. Elistratov, who claims that anything can be found in the meaning of this word, but any definition will imply the best part of Russia.

What are the distinguishing features of the intelligentsia? Researchers of different generations and views single out in it detachment (V.M. Zhivov, P.B. Struve, E.I. Shcherbakova, P.I. Novgorodtsev), isolation, alienation (P.B. Struve, I.A. Ilyin , E. Wirtshafter, L.G. Sukhotina), radicalism (E.I. Shcherbakova, S.M. Usmanov), skepticism, criticality, nihilism (I.A. Ilyin, L.G. Sukhotina, E.I. Shcherbakova ).

“Beggars, unarmed people throw kings off the throne out of love for their neighbor. Out of love for the motherland, the soldiers trample on death with their feet, and she runs without looking back. Wise men ascend to heaven and dive into hell itself - out of love for the truth. The earth is being rebuilt out of love for beauty." The intelligentsia appeared to researchers to be just as versatile, and, perhaps, it was just as diverse in reality, not representing a homogeneous mass. We agree with K.B. Sokolov and, recognizing that “in general, it is already obvious that none of the known definitions of the intelligentsia is able to cover and explain the entire phenomenon as a whole” and we are talking about the concept that “does not have a clear detonation and includes an element of interpretation already when it is used”, let us turn to the definition of students and highlighting the characteristic features of its Russian part.

2. Definition of students, its characteristics in Russian realities

Student - a student of a higher educational institution, university or academy.
V. Dahl. Dictionary living Great Russian language

Students are considered as a special society that was formed around this educational institution and makes an independent contribution to public life.
Feofanov A.M. Students of Moscow University in the second half XVIII - first quarter XIX v.

As epigraphs for this part, we took two definitions of students: given in the Explanatory Dictionary of a contemporary of the period we are considering - V.I. Dahl and formulated in the work of a contemporary researcher. According to these statements, it is clear that over two centuries, ideas about the subject of interest to us have not undergone significant changes.

The research literature tends to oppose the student body and its characteristic features depending on the geography of study: they do not see much similarity in Russian and foreign students, except for the fact of receiving higher education. An exception is the position of B. Frommet, who at the beginning of the 20th century disputed the widespread contemporary statements to him, “as if only in Russia alone, young students dare to claim active participation in political life countries, [which] is without any doubt false, or at least greatly exaggerated.

Most researchers who have addressed this issue tend to oppose Russian students to foreign students. This tradition begins with pre-revolutionary authors. For example, G.B. Sliozberg sees the answer to the question of whether revolutionism is a specific feature of Russian students in the “difference in the composition of students”: in Europe, higher education was the lot of the elite, and therefore the material issue that played such a big role in the life of students in Russia did not stand there at all.

Our contemporaries V.V. Ponomarev and L.B. Khoroshilov, the explanation for such a significant difference is found in the very culture of universities. The Russian path “was a path opposite to the Western European one, where the experience, traditions, culture accumulated in society completely determined the lifestyle of educational institutions, but in our country it is in many respects the opposite - educational institutions created according to someone else's model themselves, sometimes by touch, created traditions, and culture, shaped the experience that decades later will form the basis of the traditions of the next generations of educational institutions.

Let us turn to questions closer to our topic and, on the basis of the censuses of Moscow (1882 and 1902), we will look at the share of students in the total mass of the Moscow population and at the quantitative changes taking place with this group. First, we present data that allow us to judge the percentage of the male population of the age we need (from 18 to 30 years old - the most common student age) to the entire mass of the population of Moscow, and then we correlate these men with the number of students.

Let's make a reservation in advance that we are interested in the age from 18 to 30 years and only students from the variety of all students, so in the tables we will provide only data on these ages and categories.

Table 1. Age distribution of the male population (1882) .

Age Husband. Total
15–20 7,00% 12,00%
20–25 8,00% 12,00%
25–30 7,00% 11,00%
Total 57,00% 100,00%

The table shows that out of the entire population of Moscow in 1882, we will be interested in 22% of men. We correlate them with the number of students.

Table 2. Distribution according to the degree of education of the male population (1882)

windows. Not OK. Total
Universities 2785 703 3488

So, in total, in 1882, 432,447 males lived in Moscow, of which 22% were men aged 18 to 30 years, i.e. 95,138 people. Of these, 3488 people were listed as students at the university. This means that 0.8% of men in Moscow were students in 1882.

Let us now look at the changes that had taken place by 1902.

Table 3. Age distribution of the male population (1902)

Age (years of age) born
In Moscow Outside Moscow Total
18 3148 15 374 18 522
19 2722 14 637 17 359
20 2524 16 025 18 549
21 2288 15 829 18 117
22 2180 17 723 19 903
23 2045 16 506 18 551
24 1937 15 037 16 974
25 2038 16 730 18 768
26 1992 14 754 16 746
27 2022 16 275 18 297
28 2079 16 332 18 411
29 1765 12 346 14 111
30 2080 16 725 18 805

According to these data, out of the entire population of Moscow in 1882, we will be interested in 38% of men. We correlate them with the number of students.

Table 4. Distribution according to the degree of education of the male population (1902)

Age (years of age) Total number [students in higher education] Universities
18 1742 173
19 1488 474
20 1430 800
21 1389 962
22 1146 902
23 969 776
24 719 602
25 536 418
26 324 250
27 197 145
28 101 59
29 58 35
30 or more 158 76
Total 43981 5690

In 1882, 613,303 males lived in Moscow, of which 38% were men aged 18 to 30, i.e. 233,113 people. Of these, 5690 people are listed as students at the university, which means that in 1902, 0.92% of men in Moscow were students.

Thus, over the 20 years from 1882 to 1902, the number of university students increased: from 3488 to 5690 people and grew from only 0.8% to 0.92%.

“What is the appearance of a Russian student? There is no doubt that the Russian students were a group of young people, imbued in the vast majority with the desire to develop principles for future activities - a group that had its own common features and was imbued with a special mood, ”wrote G.B. Sliozberg.

Based on the studied historiography, memoirs of students and professors, as well as information from official reports, we will try to determine these common features and highlight distinctive features Russian students.

There are no less disputes regarding the definition of students than in the case of the intelligentsia. So, according to S. Kassov, the students were distinguished by a "clear sense of corporate identity", as well as a "sense of a student family". According to A.M. Annenkov, “as a distinctive feature in the student environment of the first third of the 19th century. freedom of opinion and speech can be singled out, and G.B. Sliozberg - "the presence among students of heterogeneous, alien in upbringing and habits to elements" . V.R. Leikina-Svirskaya insists that "Russian students had a democratic character." “The expectations of beneficial changes in Russian society, typical for the students of that time [the end of the 19th - the beginning of the 20th century,” notes A.E. Ivanov. V.E. Baghdasaryan is sure that "the departure of students to the revolution was a manifestation of the crisis of youthful socialization." “Professors, as well as a significant part of the so-called educated society [in fact, the intelligentsia], educate the younger generation, in short, a revolutionary spirit,” Professor N.P. states with indignation. Bogolepov. “The growth of the student movement gave rise to a powerful impulse for self-knowledge among the students of universities,” writes Yu.D. Margolis, “as far as society is concerned, in this era the student’s blue band was a patent for trust,” emphasizes S. Svatikov.

From this variety of striking characteristics, it becomes clear only that the main features of the student body were its diversity and heterogeneity. What are the inalienable qualities of a Russian student of the late 19th - early 20th century?

We have formulated the following ten distinctive features: community and solidarity; the desire to develop ideals and norms of behavior; transition and heterogeneity; democracy; search for yourself; corporatism; own ideas about the future; state of political views; commitment to certain ideas and, finally, interaction with society.

The selected features of the students are understood differently by historiography and the authors of the sources: some are noted only by the authors of a certain era, others are accepted by the majority, many turn out to be controversial. Let's consider them sequentially.

Let us first turn to the features of the student body, understood in a similar way. All authors note, firstly, the desire of students for community and solidarity (information from the “Report of the Moscow University Commission of 1901 on the causes of student unrest”, works by S. Melgunov, S. Svatikov, S. Kassov, P.V. Grishunin, A .M. Feofanov and E. Vishlenkova, R. Galiullina, K. Ilyina). Secondly, their desire to develop ideals and norms of behavior that proclaimed freedom, morality, and ideological life as ideals is noted (information provided by S. Melgunov, “Report of the Judicial Commission for 1893/1894”, S. Svatikov, A.E. Ivanov, G.I. Shchetinina, S. Kassov and A.M. Annenkov). Thirdly, the transition and heterogeneity of the students, who came out of different social strata and at the university transformed into something, on the one hand, completely new, and on the other hand, retaining traces of the original estate and class affiliation (data from G.B. Sliozberg, V R. Leikina-Svirskaya, A. E. Ivanov, N. G. Georgieva, S. Kassova, V. N. Simonov and A. M. Feofanov). Fourthly, it is the democratic nature of the students in various fields life (representations by S. Svatikov, V.R. Leikina-Svirskaya, A.E. Ivanov and N.G. Georgieva). And, fifthly, students' search for themselves (beliefs of S. Melgunov, B. Frommet, S. Kassov, Yu.D. Margolis and N.G. Zavadsky).

Other five features are controversial in the interpretation of researchers. This is, firstly, the corporatism of students, which most people call one of the main features of the student body (R. Vydrin, A.E. Ivanov, S. Kassov, O.A. Vakhterova, P.V. Grishunin, I.V. Zimin and E. Vishlenkova, R. Galiullina, K. Ilyin), while others, on the contrary, write about the destruction of corporatism by the charter of 1884 (information from the “Report of the Moscow University Commission of 1901 on the causes of student unrest” and S.I. Mitskevich). Secondly, their ideas about the future: uncertain (in the interpretation of G.B. Sliozberg and S. Kassov) and confidence in change (A.E. Ivanov). Thirdly, the state of political views is assessed by researchers in different ways. They were almost equally divided in their opinions: some speak of the uncertainty and heterogeneity of student ideas (R. Vydrin, A. Saltykov, V.B. Elyashevich, M.V. Sabashnikov, S. Kassov, V.N. Simonov and A.M. Annenkov), others write about political differentiation and activity (G.B. Sliozberg, V. Lind, G.A. Veselaya, A.E. Ivanov, S.I. Radtsig, N.G. Zavadsky, V.E. Baghdasaryan). Fourthly, the commitment of Russian students to certain ideas: we learn either about the inclination of students to liberal ideas (A. Saltykov and Yu.K. Rachkovskaya), or about their revolutionary worldview (N.I. Khudyakov, G.I. Shchetinina, S D. Speshkov and N. G. Zavadsky). And finally, fifthly, the interaction of students and society is also regarded ambiguously: if the majority tends to their mutual trust (Commission of the Moscow University of 1901 on the causes of student unrest, S.D. Speshkov, B. Frommet, V. Kurbsky, S. Svatikov, G.B. Sliozberg and A.S. Izgoev), then the rest write about students outside of society (S. Melgunov) or about society's distrust of students (in the submissions of the Judicial Commission [student]).

This is how the image of Russian students of the late 19th - early 20th century appears in the sources and works of researchers.

3. Correlation of the concepts of students, intelligentsia and raznochintsy

We have spoken above about the intelligentsia, its definitions and characteristic features, as well as the definition of Russian students and its inherent features. Now consider how these concepts are combined from the point of view of researchers from different eras.

Regardless of the time of creation of their works, various authors are unanimous in their assessments. S. Svatikov, G.B. Sliozberg , A. Saltykov , N.G. Georgiev, G.I. Shchetinina, N.G. Zavadsky and B.I. Kolonitsky.

Some researchers separately emphasize that the students were "the quintessence of the Russian intelligentsia." We find such statements, in particular, in the works of R. Vydrin, A.E. Ivanov and K.B. Sokolova.

Thus, we have shown how historiography assesses raznochintsy, the intelligentsia, and students, what characteristic features stand out in each case, and how these concepts are combined with each other. To understand the relationship between these three concepts and to understand the essence of the student body, we expressed this relationship with a diagram.

Scheme 1

Let us briefly explain the structure of the circuit. Let us first explain the inclusion of the intelligentsia in the educated population only as a part. This is explained by our agreement with the ideas of S.G. Stafeev, who defines the intelligentsia in such a way in Russian realities. He is convinced that “unlike Western intellectuals, for whom the main criterion for attributing them to this stratum was professional mental work, in Russia people began to be called intelligentsia, differing primarily in two characteristic features: the desire to selflessly serve the people, to express and protect its interests and irreconcilable opposition to political power» . Thus, in Russian realities, along with the level of education, one of the main criteria for the intelligentsia is its opposition. Further, according to E.K. Wirtshafter, raznochintsy are fully included in the intelligentsia, tk. were its most radical part. As for the students, it seemed important to us to emphasize their heterogeneity not only in social terms, but also in terms of beliefs. After all, even the pre-revolutionary researcher S. Svatikov emphasized that "the hegemony of the intelligent commoner was so strong in the students that his appearance overshadowed other types of youth." Therefore, on the diagram, students are represented, on the one hand, as part of the intelligentsia and, accordingly, part of the raznochintsy, and on the other hand, as part of the educated population, i.e. holders of higher education loyal to the government.

4. The origins of the student body (XVIII- StartXIXcentury)

The chosen chronological framework of this work is the middle of the 19th - the beginning of the 20th century (1860–1904), therefore, the time preceding this period can be spoken of as the origins of students. On the basis of historiography, we will show how students were understood in the era of its inception, and look at the evolution within this process, so that later, when analyzing students of the period we have chosen, it would be possible to trace the causes and evolution of certain ideas of students and its perception by society, the authorities and the students themselves of the Moscow university.

Let us first follow the quantitative changes in the number of students.

Table 5. Changes in the number of students in Russia (1808–1894)

Year Number of students, pers.
1808 150
1830 1996
1850 3368
1860 5453
1865 5453
1872 7251
1894 8193

Table 6. Changes in the number of students at Moscow and St. Petersburg Universities (1850–1894)

Year/University 1850 1880 1885 1890 1894
Moscow 821 1881 3179 3492 3761
Petersburg 387 1675 2340 1815 2676

What are the changes in the number of students in Russia? From 1808 to 1894, the number of students increased from 150 to 8193 people, i.e. 55 times. The number of students also increased at Moscow University: from 1850 to 1894, the number of students increased 4.5 times (from 821 to 3761 people).

Let us divide the time of the origins into two periods - the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th century - and consider them sequentially.

The 18th century is presented in historiography as follows. One of the pre-revolutionary researchers of the student movement emphasizes at this time the fact that “university education, accessible only to one nobility, did not open especially tempting prospects for the students, because. the conditions of the serf regime hindered any cultural undertaking.

Modern authors narrate in detail about the time of the birth of Russian universities. In the book " Higher education in Russia. Outline of history until 1917" it is reported that "all types and types of higher educational institutions were created at the initiative of the state and at the expense of the state" , and therefore "the state hampered any manifestation of public goals if they did not pursue pragmatic tasks" . V.A. Zmeev notes that “universities began to really influence changes in the social class composition of the population of St. clothes."

In relation to the beginning of the 19th century, the collection "Higher Education in Russia ..." characterizes changes in government policy in the field of education as follows. “Autonomy and authoritarianism were changing; Recognition of intrinsic value for higher education was given with difficulty both in the sphere of government and in a slowly evolving society.

A.M. Annenkov dwells in detail on the characteristics of the students of this period. He writes that "already early XIX v. young people who entered the university saw it as the main means for realizing their abilities and desires ", noting that" most of the students studied willingly and seriously "," however, with all the "thirst for knowledge", the general educational level of students remained low due to the rather low qualifications of the teaching staff and imperfect forms of education” . Speaking about the life of pupils of Moscow University, he reports that students read willingly and a lot, and "books and magazines banned by official censorship were especially popular", the theater was also a form of leisure. “As a distinctive feature in the student environment of the first third of the 19th century. freedom of opinion and speech can be singled out,” the researcher concludes. The theme of student life is continued by N.V. Makarov, emphasizing that "students of Moscow University were distinguished by frequent visits to taverns, of which Moscow had enough" . In addition to the theater, in her opinion, “a characteristic feature of student life in the first half of the 19th century was student “gatherings”. Young people gathered informally, discussed university life, professors, and various issues of Russian life. At these "gatherings" there were occasional drinking bouts. In general, “students of the first universities were not distinguished by good manners,” the researcher concludes. E. Vishlenkov, R. Galiullina and K. Ilyin complete the characterization of the students of the early 19th century. They emphasize the fact that "in the 1830s, the Russian student acquired clear identification marks", became more educated and older.

Notes

1. Frommet b. Essay on the history of students in Russia. SPb., 1912. S. 27.
2. Svatikov S. Students before and now // Way of students. Sat. articles. Private collection of proceeds to the fund of the Moscow student house. M., 1916. S. 1–19 (hereinafter: Svatikov S. Students before and now...).
3. Wirtshafter E.K. Social structures: raznochintsy in Russian Empire. Per. from English. T.P. Party. Ed. A.B. Kamensky. M.: Logos, 2002 (hereinafter: Wirtshafter E.K. ).
4. Leikina-Svirskaya V.R. Intelligentsia in Russia in the second half of the 19th century. Moscow. 1971. S. 25 (further: Leikina-Svirskaya V.R. Intelligentsia in Russia in the second half of the 19th century ...).

5. Stafeev S.G. Russian intelligentsia and its role in the social movement (second half of the 19th century) // Person, culture, society: interuniversity. Sat. scientific tr. / Editorial staff: N.V. Dulin (responsible editor) and others / VolgGTU. Volgograd, 2005. Issue. 2. P. 67–76. (Further: Stafeev S.G. The Russian intelligentsia and its role in the social movement (second half of the 19th century) ...).

6. Bocharov V.V. Intelligentsia and violence: socio-anthropological aspect // Anthropology of violence. RAN. Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology. Miklouho-Maclay. Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography. Peter the Great (Kunstkamera). St. Petersburg State University. Rep. Ed. V.V. Bocharov, V.A. Tishkov. St. Petersburg: Nauka, 2001, pp. 39–85 (hereinafter: Bocharov V.V. Intelligentsia and Violence: A Socio-Anthropological Aspect…).

7. Shcherbakova E.I. Raznochinskaya intelligentsia of the 60s of the XIX century as a potential opponent of political detectives // Historical readings on the Lubyanka. Russian special services at the turn of the era: the end of the 19th century - 1922. Moscow, Veliky Novgorod, 1999, pp. 48–55 (hereinafter: Shcherbakova E.I. Raznochinskaya intelligentsia of the 60s of the XIX century as a potential opponent of political detective agencies ...).

8. Sukhotina L.G. Russian intelligentsia and social thought. Publishing House of Tomsk University, 2008 (hereinafter: Sukhotina L.G. ).
9. Ibid. S. 14.
10. Sokolov K.B. Russian intelligentsia of the 18th - early 20th centuries: a picture of the world and everyday life. SPb., 2007 (hereinafter: Sokolov K.B. ).
11. Bocharov V.V. Intelligentsia and Violence: A Socio-Anthropological Aspect…

12. Kolonitsky B.I. Intelligentsia in the late 19th - early 20th century: contemporaries' self-awareness and research approaches // From the history of the Russian intelligentsia. Collection of materials and articles dedicated to the 100th anniversary of the birth of V.R. Leikina-Svirskaya. SPb., 2003. S. 181–201 (hereinafter: Kolonitsky B.I. Intelligentsia in the late 19th - early 20th century: contemporaries' self-awareness and research approaches...).

13. Zhivov V. Marginal culture in Russia and the birth of the intelligentsia. // New literary review. 1999. No. 37 (hereinafter: Zhivov V. Marginal Culture in Russia and the Birth of the Intelligentsia…).
14. Leikina-Svirskaya V.R. The intelligentsia in Russia in the second half of the 19th century ...
15. History of Moscow University. Volume I. Rep. ed. M.N. Tikhomirov. M., 1955.
16. Maslin A.N. Materialism and revolutionary-democratic ideology in Russia in the 60s of the XIX century. M., 1960.
17. Struve P.B. Intelligentsia and revolution (1909) // Russian sources of modern social philosophy. Intelligentsia. Power. People. M., 1993. S. 190–204 (hereinafter: Struve P.B. Intelligentsia and revolution ...).
18. Ilyin I.A. On the Russian intelligentsia (1927) // Russian sources of modern social philosophy. Intelligentsia. Power. People. M., 1993. S. 275–281 (hereinafter: Ilyin I.A. About the Russian intelligentsia ...).
19. Novgorodtsev P.I. On the Ways and Tasks of the Russian Intelligentsia (1918) // Russian Sources of Modern Social Philosophy. Intelligentsia. Power. People. M., 1993. S. 225–241 (hereinafter: Novgorodtsev P.I. About the ways and tasks of the Russian intelligentsia ...).
20. Shcherbakova E.I. Ethics of revolutionary action (60s of the 19th century). Abstract for the competition degree candidate of historical sciences. M., 1996 (hereinafter: Shcherbakova E.I. Ethics of revolutionary action (60s of the XIX century) ...).
21. Wirtshafter E.K. Social Structures: Raznochintsy in the Russian Empire…
22. Usmanov S.M. Hopeless dreams. Russian intelligentsia between East and West in the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries. Ivanovo, 1998 (further: Usmanov S.M. Hopeless dreams. Russian intelligentsia between East and West in the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries ...).
23. Sukhotina L.G. Russian intelligentsia and social thought ...
24. Sokolov K.B. Russian intelligentsia of the 18th - early 20th centuries: a picture of the world and everyday life ...
25. Zhivov V. Marginal culture in Russia and the birth of the intelligentsia ... S. 39.
26. Struve P.B.
27. Shcherbakova E.I.
28. Novgorodtsev P.I. About the ways and tasks of the Russian intelligentsia ... S. 237.
29. Struve P.B. Intelligentsia and revolution ... S. 192.
30. Ilyin I.A. About the Russian intelligentsia ... S. 277.
31. Wirtshafter E.K. Social Structures: Raznochintsy in the Russian Empire…
32. Sukhotina L.G. Russian intelligentsia and social thought ... S. 14.
33. Shcherbakova E.I. Ethics of revolutionary action (60s of the XIX century) ... S. 53.
34. Usmanov S.M. Hopeless dreams. Russian intelligentsia between East and West in the second half of the 19th - early 20th century ... S. 5.
35. Ilyin I.A. About the Russian intelligentsia...
36. Sukhotina L.G. Russian intelligentsia and social thought ...
37. Shcherbakova E.I. Ethics of revolutionary action (60s of the XIX century) ... S. 53.
38. Schwartz E.L. Ordinary miracle: plays, fairy tales. Moscow: Eksmo. 2011, pp. 559–560.
39. Sokolov K.B. Russian intelligentsia of the 18th - early 20th centuries: a picture of the world and everyday life ... S. 38.
40. Ibid. S. 39.
41. Dahl W. Explanatory dictionary of the living Great Russian language. M., 1956. T. IV. Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language by Vladimir Dahl. Second edition, corrected and greatly enlarged from the author's manuscript. Volume four. SPb., M., 1882. S. 347.
42. Feofanov A.M. Students of Moscow University in the second half of the 18th - first quarter of the 19th century. Abstract for the degree of candidate of historical sciences. M., 2006 (hereinafter: Feofanov A.M. Students of Moscow University in the second half of the 18th - first quarter of the 19th centuries ...).
43. Frommet b. Essay on the history of students in Russia ... S. 1.
44. Sliozberg G.B. Pre-revolutionary Russian students // In memory of Russian students. Paris, 1934, pp. 82–95 (further: Sliozberg G.B. Pre-revolutionary Russian students ...).
45. Ponomareva V.V., Khoroshilova L.B. University Noble boarding house. 1779–1830 Moscow: New Chronograph, 2006, p. 63.
46. ​​Census of Moscow in 1882. Issue. II. Population and Occupations. M .: City Printing House, 1885 (hereinafter: Census of Moscow in 1882. Issue II. Population and Occupations ...).
47. Ibid. S. 77.
48. Ibid. S. 77.

49. Census of Moscow in 1902. Part I. Population. Issue. 1. Population by sex, age, field, length of stay in Moscow, marital status, estates, literacy and degree of education. Publication of the Statistical Department of the Moscow City Council. M., 1904 (hereinafter: Census of Moscow in 1902. Part I. Population. Issue 1. Population by sex, age, field, length of stay in Moscow, marital status, estates, literacy and degree of education ...).

50. Ibid. S. 38.
51. Ibid. S. 106.
52. Sliozberg G.B. Pre-revolutionary Russian students ... S. 82.
53. KassowS.D. Students, Professors and State in the Tsarist Russia. L.: University of California Press, 1989. P. 54 (hereinafter: Kassow S.D. Students, Professors and State in the Tsarist Russia…).
54. Ibid. pp. 48–49.
55. Annenkov A.M. Russian students in the first third of the 19th century in the memoirs of contemporaries // Culture of historical memory. Proceedings of the scientific conference (September 19–22, 2011). Petrozavodsk, 2002, pp. 106–113. S. 112 (further: Annenkov A.M. Russian students in the first third of the 19th century in the memoirs of contemporaries...).
56. Sliozberg G.B.
57. Leikina-Svirskaya V.R.
58. Ivanov A.E. Student corporation of Russia in the late 19th - early 20th century: experience of cultural and political self-organization. M., 2004. S. 288 (hereinafter: Ivanov A.E. Student corporation of Russia in the late XIX - early XX century: the experience of cultural and political self-organization ...).

59. Bagdasaryan V.E. motives deviant behavior students in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. // Russian students: conditions of life and life (XVIII-XXI centuries). All-Russian scientific conference. Collections of scientific articles. M., 2004. S. 83 (hereinafter: Bagdasaryan V.E. Motives for deviant behavior of students in the late 19th - early 20th century. // Russian students: conditions of life and life (XVIII-XXI centuries) ...).

60. From the notes of Professor N.P. Bogolepov. A page from the life of Moscow University. M., 1911. P. 55 (further: From the notes of Professor N.P. Bogolepov. A page from the life of Moscow University ...).
61. Margolis Yu.D. Student censuses in Russia 1872–1912 // Medieval and new Russia. Collection of scientific articles. To the 60th anniversary of prof. AND I. Froyanova. SPb., 1996. S. 658 (hereinafter: Margolis Yu.D. Student censuses in Russia 1872–1912…).
62. Svatikov S.
63. Materials on the university issue. Issue. 2. Report of the commission of the Moscow University in 1901 on the causes of student unrest. Stuttgart, 1904. P. 59 (hereinafter: Materials on the university issue. Issue 2. Report of the commission of Moscow University in 1901 on the causes of student unrest ...).
64. Melgunov C. Student organizations in the 80s–90s at Moscow University (according to archival data). M., 1908. S. 3 (hereinafter: Melgunov C. Student organizations in the 80s–90s at Moscow University (according to archival data) ...).
65. Svatikov S.
66. KassowS.D. Students, Professors and State in the Tsarist Russia… P. 22.
67. Grishunin P.V. Students of metropolitan universities: structures of everyday life. 1820s–1880s Abstract for the degree of candidate of historical sciences. SPb., 2005. S. 18 (hereinafter: Grishunin P.V. Students of metropolitan universities: structures of everyday life. 1820–1880s...).
68. Feofanov A.M. Students of Moscow University in the second half of the 18th - first quarter of the 19th centuries ... P. 25–26.
69. Russian professors. University corporatism or professional solidarity. M.: NLO, 2012. S. 59 (hereinafter: Vishlenkova E., Galiullina R., Ilyina K. Russian professors. University corporatism or professional solidarity…).
70. Melgunov C. From the history of student societies in Russian universities. M., 1904. S. 1 (hereinafter: Melgunov C. From the history of student societies in Russian universities...).
71. Report of the judicial commission for 1893/1894 // From the notes of Professor N.P. Bogolepov. A page from the life of Moscow University. M., 1911. S. 109.
72. Svatikov S. Students before and now ... S. 10.

73. Ivanov A.E. Russian university students on the eve of the first Russian revolution. Socio-political appearance // Revolutionary movement of the democratic intelligentsia of Russia in the period of imperialism. Collection of scientific papers. M., 1984. S. 123 (further: Ivanov A.E. Russian university students on the eve of the first Russian revolution. Socio-political appearance ...).

74. Shchetinina G.I. Students and the revolutionary movement in Russia. Last quarter of the 19th century Abstract for the degree of Doctor of Historical Sciences. M., 1988. S. 42 (hereinafter: Shchetinina G.I. Students and the revolutionary movement in Russia. Last quarter of the 19th century...).
75. KassowS.D. Students, Professors and State in the Tsarist Russia… P. 52.
76. Annenkov A.M.
77. Sliozberg G.B. Pre-revolutionary Russian students ... S. 94.
78. Leikina-Svirskaya V.R. The intelligentsia in Russia in the second half of the 19th century ... S. 27.
79. Ivanov A.E. University policy of autocracy on the eve of the first Russian revolution of 1899–1904. Abstract for the degree of candidate of historical sciences. M., 1975. S. 14 (hereinafter: Ivanov A.E. University policy of autocracy on the eve of the first Russian revolution of 1899–1904…).
80. Georgieva N.G. IN AND. Lenin on the place of students in the bourgeois-democratic revolution // Intelligentsia and revolution. XX century. Rep. ed. d.h.s. K.V. Gusev. M., 1985. S. 90 (hereinafter: Georgieva N.G. IN AND. Lenin on the place of students in the bourgeois-democratic revolution ...).
81. KassowS.D. Students, Professors and State in the Tsarist Russia. P. 401.
82. Simonov V.N. Pupils of Moscow University are active participants in the political movement in the late 19th - present. 20th century Abstract for the degree of candidate of historical sciences. M., 1995. S. 13 (hereinafter: Simonov V.N. Pupils of Moscow University are active participants in the political movement in the late 19th - present. XX century ...).
83. Feofanov A.M. Students of Moscow University in the second half of the 18th - first quarter of the 19th centuries ... P. 25.
84. Svatikov S. Students before and now ... S. 15.
85. Leikina-Svirskaya V.R. The intelligentsia in Russia in the second half of the 19th century ... S. 27.
86. Ivanov A.E. University policy of autocracy on the eve of the first Russian revolution of 1899–1904… P. 13; Ivanov A.E. Russian university students on the eve of the first Russian revolution. Socio-political appearance ... S. 113.
87. Georgieva N.G. IN AND. Lenin on the place of students in the bourgeois-democratic revolution ... S. 91.
88. Melgunov C. Student organizations in the 80s–90s at Moscow University (according to archival data) ... S. 103.
89. Frommet b. Essay on the history of students in Russia ... S. 58.
90. KassowS.D. Students, Professors and State in the Tsarist Russia… P. 399.
91. Margolis Yu.D. Student censuses in Russia 1872-1912 ... S. 658.
92. Zavadsky N.G. Student body and political parties in 1901–1914 SPb., 1998. S. 31 (hereinafter: Zavadsky N.G. Students and political parties in 1901-1914...).
93. Vydrin R. Highlights of the student movement in Russia. M., 1908. S. 28 (further: Vydrin R. The main points of the student movement in Russia ...).
94. Ivanov A.E. Russian university students on the eve of the first Russian revolution. Socio-political appearance ... S. 123; Ivanov A.E. Student Corporation of Russia in the late XIX - early XX century: the experience of cultural and political self-organization ... S. 389.
95. KassowS.D. Students, Professors and State in the Tsarist Russia… P. 54.
96. Vakhterova O.A. Students and authorities in Russia in the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries // Power and Society. Interuniversity collection of scientific papers. SPb., 2000. S. 60.
97. Grishunin P.V. Students of metropolitan universities: structures of everyday life. 1820–1880s… S. 17.
98. Zimin I.V. student uniform and badges in Russia in the 19th - early 20th centuries // Facts and Versions. Historical and cultural almanac. Book. IV. Methodology. Symbolism. Semantics. SPb., 2005. P. 112 (hereinafter: Zimin I.V. Student uniform and badges in Russia in the 19th - early 20th century...).
99. Materials on the university issue. Issue. 2. Report of the commission of the Moscow University in 1901 on the causes of student unrest ... S. 13.
100. Mitskevich S.I. Notes of a public doctor. 1888–1918 M.-L., 1941. S. 7.
101. Sliozberg G.B. Pre-revolutionary Russian students ... S. 83.
102. KassowS.D. Students, Professors and State in the Tsarist Russia… P. 403.
103. Ivanov A.E. Student Corporation of Russia in the late XIX - early XX century: the experience of cultural and political self-organization ... S. 288.
104. Vydrin R. The main points of the student movement in Russia ... S. 14.
105. Saltykov A. Moscow University in 1890–1895 // In memory of Russian students. Paris, 1934, p. 96 (further: Saltykov A. Moscow University in 1890-1895...).
106. Elyashevich V.B. From the memoirs of an old Moscow student (1892–1896) // In memory of Russian students. Paris, 1934, p. 107 (further: Elyashevich V.B. From the memoirs of an old Moscow student (1892-1896) ...).
107. Sabashnikov M.V. Memoirs // Moscow University in the memoirs of contemporaries (1755-1917). M., 1989. S. 580 (hereinafter: Sabashnikov M.V. Memories…).
108. KassowS.D. Students, Professors and State in the Tsarist Russia… P. 196.
109. Simonov V.N. Pupils of Moscow University are active participants in the political movement in the late 19th - present. XX century ... S. 22.
110. Annenkov A.M. Russian students in the first third of the 19th century in the memoirs of contemporaries ... S. 112.
111. Sliozberg G.B. Pre-revolutionary Russian students ... S. 84.
112. Lind W. Memories of my life. Moscow University ... S. 250.
113. Veselaya G.A. Mass public performances of Moscow students in the late XIX - early XX century. (1896–1904). Abstract for the degree of candidate of historical sciences. M., 1974. S. 11.
114. Ivanov A.E. Russian university students on the eve of the first Russian revolution. Socio-political appearance ... S. 121.
115. Radtsig S.I. Pages from memories ... S. 597.
116. Zavadsky N.G. Students and political parties in 1901–1914… S. 37.
117. Bagdasaryan V.E. Motives for deviant behavior of students in the late XIX - early XX century ... S. 83.
118. Saltykov A.
119. Rachkovskaya Yu.K. Students of St. Petersburg and Moscow in the light of the authors of the liberal trend (the end of the 19th - the beginning of the 20th century). Abstract for the degree of candidate of historical sciences. SPb., 1999. S. 17.
120. Khudyakov N.I. Notes of Karakozov. Moscow University (1859–1860) ... S. 438.
121. Shchetinina G.I. Students and the revolutionary movement in Russia. The last quarter of the 19th century ... S. 35.
122. Speshkov S.D. A note compiled on behalf of the Minister of Public Education by a member of the Council, Privy Councilor Speshkov, about various organizations among students and students in various educational institutions ... S. 19.
123. Zavadsky N.G. Students and political parties in 1901-1914 ... S. 37
124. Materials on the university question. Issue. 2. Report of the commission of the Moscow University in 1901 on the causes of student unrest ... S. 23
125. Speshkov S.D. A note drawn up on behalf of the Minister of Public Education by a member of the Council, Privy Councilor Speshkov, about various organizations among students and students in various educational institutions ... P. 17.
126. Frommet b. Essay on the history of students in Russia ... S. 29.
127. Kurbsky V. Essays on student life (from the diary of a former student) ... S. 53.
128. Svatikov S. Students before and now ... S. 15.
129. Sliozberg G.B. Pre-revolutionary Russian students ... S. 94.
130. S. 205 [According to: Izgoev A.S. About intelligent youth (Notes about her way of life and moods) // Milestones. From the depth. M., 1991, S. 112].
131. Melgunov C. Student organizations in the 80s–90s at Moscow University (according to archival data) ... S. 88.
132. Report of the judicial commission for 1893/1894 ... S. 131.
133. Zavadsky N.G. Students and political parties in 1901-1914 ... S. 161.
134. Svatikov S. Students before and now ... S. 15.
135. Sliozberg G.B. Pre-revolutionary Russian students ... S. 94.
136. Saltykov A. Moscow University in 1890–1895… S. 96.
137. Georgieva N.G. IN AND. Lenin on the place of students in the bourgeois-democratic revolution ... S. 90.
138. Shchetinina G.I. Students and the revolutionary movement in Russia. The last quarter of the 19th century ... S. 41.
139. Zavadsky N.G. Students and political parties in 1901–1914… P. 9.
140. Kolonitsky B.I. Intelligentsia in the late 19th - early 20th centuries: contemporaries' self-awareness and research approaches ... S. 188.
141. Sokolov K.B. The Russian intelligentsia of the 18th - early 20th centuries: a picture of the world and everyday life ... [According to: Izgoev A.S. About intelligent youth (Notes about her way of life and moods) // Milestones. From the depth. M., 1991.].
142. Vydrin R. Highlights of the student movement in Russia ... S. 42.
143. Ivanov A.E. Student Corporation of Russia in the late XIX - early XX century: the experience of cultural and political self-organization ... S. 286.
144. Sokolov K.B. Russian intelligentsia of the 18th - early 20th centuries: a picture of the world and everyday life ...
145. Stafeev S.G. The Russian intelligentsia and its role in the social movement (the second half of the 19th century) ... S. 67 [For: History of Russia in questions and answers. Rostov-on-Don, 1999, p. 303].
146. Svatikov S. Students before and now ... S. 15.

147. Chinenny A., Stoyan T. Students of Russian universities (XIX century) // Higher education in Russia. Scientific and pedagogical journal of the Ministry of General and vocational education RF. 1999. No. 5. P. 141 [According to: Brockhaus F.A., Efron I.A. Encyclopedic Dictionary T. XXXIV. SPb., 1899. S. 754] (hereinafter: Chinenny A., Stoyan T. Students of Russian Universities (XIX century)…).

148. Ibid. P. 142 [S. 142 - By: Higher education in Russia. Essay on history until 1917. NII VO. M., 1995. S. 117].
149. Vydrin R. The main points of the student movement in Russia ... S. 11.
150. Higher education in Russia. Outline of history until 1917. Ed. prof. V.G. Kinelev. M., 1995. S. 260 (hereinafter: Higher education in Russia. Outline of history until 1917. Edited by Prof. V.G. Kinelev ...).
151. Ibid. S. 260.
152. Zmeev V.A. Russian students of the XVIII century // Russian students at the turn of the century. Materials of the All-Russian Student Forum. Ed. Yu.V. Kovrizhinykh, G.V. Kupriyanova. Scientific editor T.E. Petrov. M., 2001. S. 5.
153. Ibid. S. 16.
154. Higher education in Russia. Outline of history until 1917. Ed. prof. V.G. Kinelev ... S. 261.
155. Annenkov A.M. Russian students in the first third of the 19th century in the memoirs of contemporaries ... S. 107.
156. Ibid. S. 108.
157. Ibid. S. 109.
158. Ibid. S. 111.
159. Ibid. S. 112.
160. Makarova N.V. Students in the 19th century: life and customs // Russian students: conditions of life and life (XVIII-XXI centuries). All-Russian scientific conference. Collections of scientific articles. M., 2004. S. 61 (hereinafter: Makarova N.V. Students in the 19th century: life and customs ...).

When starting to study the topic, students should remember that in the second half of the 19th century, important changes were taking place in Russian culture. This was largely due to those large historical events that took place in Russia. The most important factor that had a huge impact on the development of all aspects of society was the abolition of serfdom and the bourgeois reforms that followed it. Thanks to these transformations, capitalism developed rapidly in Russia, which changed the entire old economic system country, led to a change in the social and spiritual image of the population, its way of life, customs, to the growth of cultural needs.

The development of education should be considered on the example of the transformative policy of the Minister of Public Education A.V. Golovnin. The rise of science and technology was also associated with educational reforms. Need to consider scientific activity Russian Academy sciences, university professors, numerous scientific and scientific-technical societies that arose in Russia in the second half of the 19th century.

The education reforms also resulted in a noticeable growth of libraries and museums, periodicals and book publishing.

The development of Russian literature in the second half of the XIX century. caused by the crisis of relations between the authorities and society after Crimean War, therefore, the ideas of public service, citizenship, and denunciation of the existing reality were put forward in a central place in it. Considering in general terms the work of N. A. Nekrasov, I. S. Turgenev, F. M. Dostoevsky, L. N. Tolstoy and others, students should try to formulate the main line of development of Russian literature in the period under consideration and the degree of its influence on spiritual development society.

The issue of the development of Russian art must be considered, paying attention to the new social processes that took place in the country. In particular, the appearance of a diverse intelligentsia, thanks to which the attitude of cultural figures to their place and role in society has changed.

In the second half of the 19th century, a national art school, the achievements of which covered not individual types of art, but precisely artistic culture as a whole, embracing various types of art, and the entire system of their interaction, and the relationship of art with society.

Considering the question of the development of architecture, it should be noted that as a result of the rapid development of capitalist relations after the abolition of serfdom, the number of cities, especially large centers, grew.

New methods of building were born, new building materials were used.

The main artistic trend in the architecture of this time was eclecticism. Among the Russian architects of the post-reform era there were many outstanding masters. Students should get acquainted with the work of A.E. RezanovA, A.M. Gornostaev, V.O. Sherwood and others.

The question of the development of Russian painting requires knowledge that the leading center for the training of professional architects, sculptors, and artists was still the Academy of Arts of Russia. It should not be denied that the Academy trained specialists of the European level. However, the restriction of freedom of creativity by academic dogmas caused discontent among the part of her students who shared democratic convictions. Dissatisfaction with the academic teaching system among some students of the Academy of Arts in the 60s. 19th century led to the first organized action against the academic order. In the history of Russian culture, this event is known as the "Riot of the Fourteen". Students need to understand the reasons for the protest of young artists, study materials about the activities they created in 1863. "The First St. Petersburg Artel of Free Artists".

It is especially important to analyze the reasons for the creation, the composition of the participants, the ideological guidelines of the Association of Traveling Art Exhibitions.

Considering the work of masters of fine arts, it is necessary to single out the main directions in the development of painting: everyday genre, historical painting, portrait and landscape painting

Students should study the biographies of such famous painters of the second half of the 19th century as V.G. Perov, I.E. Repin, V.I. Surikov, A.K. Savrasov, I.I. Shishkin and others.

The development of sculpture in the period under study was associated with the work of sculptors of the academic direction - M.O. Mikeshin and A.M. guardian. The realistic direction in sculpture was expressed in the work of M.M. Antokolsky.

The democratization of the country's artistic life, which took place in the early 1860s, led to qualitative, radical shifts in the entire way of musical life. This is confirmed by the development of musical criticism and theoretical thought about music; organization in 1860 of the Russian Musical Society (RMO). Its goal was to "develop musical education and a taste for music in Russia and encourage domestic talent." In 1862, in St. Petersburg, and in 1866, in Moscow, on the initiative of the famous pianists and conductors brothers A. G. and N. G. Rubinshten, conservatories were opened. For the first time, the profession of musician acquired a legal status; the title of "free artist", assigned at the end of the course, meant a certain civil status.

The successor of the creative tradition of M. I. Glinka was P. I. Tchaikovsky, whose name is associated with the development of Russian musical culture of the era under study. The realistic traditions of M. I. Glinka were further developed in the work of the members of the circle of composers of the realistic direction - “The Mighty Handful”, which included M. A. Balakirev, M. P. Mussorgsky, N. A. Rimsky-Korsakov, A. P. Borodin and Ts. A. Cui. Students should study their biographies, know the main musical works. Theatrical life in the 1860s-1890s was represented by opera houses - the Bolshoi and Mariinsky, as well as drama theaters. The leading role was played by the Maly and Alexandrinsky theatres. Students must study dramaturgy, directing features, theatrical education system; get acquainted with the history of the creation of the capital's theaters, as well as the work of the leading artists who worked in them (M. S. Shchepkin, P. M. Sadovsky, P. A. Strepetova, G. N. Fedotov, M. N. Yermolov - at the Maly Theater; V. V. Samoilov, P. V. Vasiliev, K. A. Varlamov, M. G. Savina - at the Alexandrinsky Theater.

It is important to note that after the abolition of the monopoly of the Imperial Theaters in 1882, the creation of theaters in the Russian provinces began. Students must prepare performances about the theaters of the Don.

Abstract topics:

1. New trends in Russian culture in the post-reform period.

2. "Wanderers" and their social significance.

3. Provincial theater in the second half of the 19th century (on the example of the development of theaters in Rostov-on-Don, Taganrog, Novocherkassk).

Sources and literature:

1. Botkina A.P.M. Tretyakov in life and art. M., 1960.

2. Minchenkov Ya.D. Memories of the Wanderers. L., 1961.

3. Tenisheva M. K. Impressions of my life. L., 1991.

1. Allenov M.M. and others. Russian art X - early XX: Architecture. Sculpture. Painting. Graphics. M., 1989.

2. Aronov A.A. World art culture: Russia: the end of the 19th - 20th centuries. Study guide. M., 1999.

3. Gordeeva E. M. Composers of the "Mighty Handful". M., 1986.

4. Zezina M.R. Koshman L.V., Shulgin V.S. Culture of Russia in the IX-XX centuries. - M., 1996.

5. Kondakov I.V. Culture of Russia. M., 1999.

6. Kuleshov V.I. History of Russian literature of the 19th century. M., 1997.

7. Culture and art of Russia in the 19th century. M., 1985.

8. Leikina-Svirskaya V.R. Intelligentsia in Russia in the second half of the 19th century. M., 1971.

9. Lisovsky V. G. Academy of Arts. L., 1988.

10. Likhachev D.S. Russian art from antiquity to the avant-garde. M., 1993.

11. Nikitin V.S. Tchaikovsky: old and new. - M., 1990.

12. Organization of science in post-reform Russia. L., 1987.

13. Essays on Russian culture in the second half of the 19th century. \ edited by N.M. Volynkin. M., 1982.

14. Petrovskaya I.F. Theater and audience of Russian capitals. 1875-1917. - L. 1990.

15. Petrovskaya I.F. Theater and audience in provincial Russia. Second half of the 19th century. - M., 1979.

16. Plotnikov V.I. Folklore and Russian fine arts of the second half of the 19th century. L., 1987.

17.

18. Poznansky V.V. Essays on the history of Russian culture in the second half of the 19th century. M., 1976.

19. Russian artistic culture of the second half of the 19th century. M., 1991.

20. Ryabtsev Yu. S. History of Russian culture: Artistic life and life of the XVIII-XIX centuries. M., 1997.

21. Sarabyanov D.V. History of Russian art of the second half of the 19th century: a course of lectures. M., 1989.

22. Soboleva E.V. The struggle for the reorganization of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences in the middle of the XIX century. L., 1971.

23. Soboleva E.V. Organization of science in post-reform Russia. L., 1983.

24. Sternin G.Yu. Russian artistic culture of the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries. M., 1995. Shchetinina G.I. The ideological life of the Russian intelligentsia. Late XIX - early XX century. M., 1995.

25. Shchetinina, G.I. The ideological life of the Russian intelligentsia. Late 19th-early 20th century M., 1995.

26. Eymontova, R. G. Russian universities on the verge of two eras: From serf Russia to capitalist Russia. M., 1985.

27. Yakovkina N. I. History of Russian culture: XIX century. SPb., 2000.

Tests

to the topic: "Russian culture in the second half of the nineteenth century".

A.M. Feofanov

UNIVERSITY AND SOCIETY: STUDENTS OF MOSCOW UNIVERSITY OF THE XVIII - BEGINNING OF THE XIX CENTURY (SOCIAL ORIGIN AND LIFE)

UNIVERSITY AND SOCIETY: STUDENTS OF MOSCOW UNIVERSITY IN XVIII -ARLY XIX CENTURY (BACKGROUND AND MODE OF LIFE)

Keywords: history of Russia in the late 18th - early 19th century, Moscow University, social composition of the population, students, social composition of the population of the Russian Empire.

Key words: history of Russia of late XVIII - early XIX century, Moscow University, social membership of population, students, social membership of population of the Russian Empire.

annotation

The article talks about the existence of the Moscow Imperial University in the first decades of its existence, the end of the 18th - the beginning of the 19th century. Such a little-studied issue as the life of students, its social composition, way of life, cultural life participation in public life. The conditions of life and education at Moscow University are compared with the conditions that existed in Western, primarily German, universities.

The article tells about Moscow Imperial University in the first decades of its existence (late XVIII - early XIX century). There is touched upon such an insufficiently known problem as students’ life, its social membership, mode of life, cultural life, participation in public life. The conditions of life and education in Moscow University are compared to those of European ones, first of all of German universities.

The formation and development of Moscow University took place with the direct participation of the state, which needed trained personnel. University graduates joined the ranks of officials, the military, became writers, scientists and courtiers, i.e. constituted the elite of society. But university education did not immediately acquire value in the eyes of society. Namely, the attitude of society to education and determined the number of students. Of course, society's view of the university also changed depending on the policy pursued by the state, and not only in the field of education, but also social policy. The university itself, as a scientific and social center, had a cultural impact on society.

Number and social composition. The social composition reflects the degree of connection with the university of various strata of society. So far, historiography has not received adequate coverage of the issue of the number and social composition of students at Moscow University in the period under review. Everything was limited to general phrases about the "raznochinsk character" of Moscow University in the second half of the 18th - first quarter of the 19th centuries, in order to emphasize its "democratic" direction.

Several epochs are distinguished in the dynamics of the number of students at Moscow University. Surges in receipts are associated with an increase in public attention to

university. A surge was (sometimes) followed by a fall. The sharp increase in the number of students is associated with the renovation of the university Muravyov, when there was a tripling of the number of students.

In the initial period, which lasted until the end of the 1770s, the maximum number of students admitted did not exceed 25 people, and the average value was 15 students per year.

Since 1780, in the dynamics of the number of students at Moscow University, the results of the impact of the “Novikov decade” that began in 1779 have been felt. In 1780-1784. The number of students entering the university increased sharply and fluctuated from 17 to 54 people, with an average number of 37 people. A significant number of students in these years were accepted for the maintenance of the Friendly Scientific Society.

Beginning in 1785, student enrollment fell again. Moscow University, as the center of the Masonic circle, caused concern and mistrust of the government of Catherine II, Novikov's public initiatives were suppressed, and the university itself could not yet independently provide for itself a wide influx of students.

A new period in the dynamics of the number of students opened in 1803, when one of the results of the university reforms was to attract public attention to Moscow University. From that moment on, the number of applicants has been steadily growing: in 1803-1809 it was from 28 to 61 people, in 1810-1820 - from 70 to 117 people. All this indicates a qualitative change in the social status of Moscow University after the adoption of the Charter of 1804 and the new role of students in society, when studying at the university began to be considered necessary for further entry into life. The clear boundary between 1809 and 1810 is connected with the same change. under the influence of the decree adopted on August 6, 1809 on examinations for the rank. This decree established a direct link between education and promotion to the rank, requiring everyone who wanted to receive the ranks of 8th and 5th grade to present a certificate received from the university and indicating that they had passed the exams. After the adoption of the decree, the number of people wishing to become students increased dramatically.

Starting with a modest figure of 30 students and about 15 applicants per year, Moscow University by 1812 reached the milestone of 300 students (students and students), which brought him into a number of the largest universities in Europe.

Moscow University was all-class educational institution. The low number of students at Moscow University in the second half of the 18th century was explained primarily by the insufficient influx here from the leading Russian service class - the nobility. In the eyes of the Russian nobles of that time, studying at the university was not a value in itself, studying university sciences was considered a luxury that was not necessary for further service, and “the very word student sounded something ungentlemanly”. The nobles willingly studied at the gymnasium, but instead of continuing their studies at the university, they preferred to enter the cadet corps or directly into military service. Raznochintsy, on the other hand, more often entered religious educational institutions, because they did not have the means to study at the university at their own expense.

In Europe, in the same way, the nobles preferred to pave the way to the highest government positions through a military career. Representatives of the noble class "had an irresistible aversion to examinations and diplomas, because, unlike commoners, they did not need to document what was due to them by birthright." You can remember M.M. Speransky, who spoke sharply about exams for rank, offering to accept any nobleman into military service as an officer, demanding from them only knowledge of the beginnings of mathematics and the Russian language.

Since the beginning of the XIX century. a steady trend is formed, according to which the nobles accounted for at least half of the applicants. These conclusions make it possible to significantly correct statements about the “raznochinsk” nature of Moscow University.

In total, for the period from the founding of Moscow University to the beginning of the Patriotic War of 1812, we identified, according to various data (indication of class when enrolling in a university gymnasium, title, biographical data), about 500 nobles and more than 400 commoners, out of a total of about 1,400 people who studied at the Moscow university of that time. From this we can conclude that the number of nobles made up more than a third of the total number of all students in the second half of the 18th - early 19th centuries, but hardly more than half. It should also be taken into account that many graduates of the Noble Boarding School, who were nobles and became visitors to university lectures, remained under the jurisdiction of the boarding authorities, i.e. actually students, were not included in the published lists of students.

Let us now consider the main social groups of students in the second half of the 18th - early 19th centuries. more. Raznochintsy. This group includes the children of soldiers, philistines, merchants, petty officials (clerks, copyists, clerks), less often children of secretaries (boards, departments and spiritual consistories), doctors (head physicians, healers and assistant doctors), pharmacists, teachers. The main part of the raznochintsy were children of the clergy, mostly rural priests, less often deacons, as well as sextons, psalmists and other clerks.

Sometimes people from the clergy could have a close relationship with other social groups: they were the children of priests, whose ancestors were nobles, but for some reason they took the rank. For example, the father of Fyodor Petrovich Lubyanovsky was from a noble family, descended from a Polish native, but he himself served as a priest. From a noble family was Anton Antonovich Prokopovich-Antonsky, whose father became a priest in the Chernihiv province.

Peasants practically did not study at Moscow University during this period (although the “Project on the Establishment of Moscow University” of 1755 gave them such an opportunity): only the example of Gavrila Zhuravlev, a former serf, is known.

University Director Prince M.I. Argamakova. Some serfs could study at Moscow University with the permission of their masters, but did not receive freedom and, accordingly, were not students. This is how the serf Nikolai Smirnov, who was a servant of the Golitsyn princes, studied at the university.

Nobles. Among the students of Moscow University in the second half of the XVIII century. the entire spectrum of the Russian nobility is represented - from the capital to the provincial, from titled persons to small estate families. The first titled nobles appeared among the students of Moscow University as early as 1760. These are princes Leon Gruzinsky and Timofei Gagarin. We also meet representatives of such families as the Shikhmatovs, the Salagins, the Kasatkin-Rostovskys, and the Diveevs. At the same time, the famous memoirist, poet and playwright, Prince I. M. Dolgorukov studied at Moscow University.

Of course, among the nobles who studied at Moscow University, there were representatives not only of aristocratic families, but also of the broad mass of the service nobility. In 1779, to attract nobles to study, the Noble Boarding School was opened, created on the initiative of M.M. Kheraskov. Soon the boarding house gained a reputation as the leading elite educational institution in Moscow. Pupils of the upper classes received the right to attend university lectures. Thus, for the students of the Noble boarding school, the production of students at the turn of the 18th-19th centuries. did not contradict the fact that they continued to be in the boarding house itself: we find such examples in the biographies

brothers Turgenev, Grammatin, Odoevsky. At the same time, the nobles willingly studied at the boarding school, but rarely continued their studies at the university itself.

As a result of the activities of the trustee M.N. Muravyov at Moscow University and government reforms in the field of education at the beginning of the 19th century. not only did the number of students increase sharply, but the social composition of the student body also changed. From 1807 to 1812 titled nobles entered the university every year. The lists of students included the names of not only Russian princes, but also German Baltic barons, such as Engelhard, Ridiger, Bistrom, Budberg, and others.

In Europe, for representatives of the third estate, a university diploma opened the way to state (royal or princely) service1. In response to competition from educated commoners who served in the state apparatus, the need for education also arose among the nobility. In the XVIII century. “the ruling class, in order to maintain its position, was forced to receive a university education”2. The lectures of professors are listened to by the aristocracy, including princes, counts, barons and princes of the royal house. The titled nobility was in the XVIII century. in the universities of Würzburg, Tübingen, Strastburg and Jena about 5%, in Leipzig, Heidelberg and Halle about 7%, and in Göttingen it even reached 13%3

Russian nobles of the second half of the 18th century. considered the university as a stepping stone to start a future service career, and for this they mainly used the gymnasium (where they received the certificates necessary for promotion to the rank, which was not the case in Europe), and students were rarely enrolled. Therefore, initially the students of Moscow University, indeed, had a raznochin character, although the share of the nobility in it was about one quarter and was quite tangible. Gradually, the social composition of the students changed in favor of an increasing proportion of the nobles, which indicated the strengthening of the public recognition of the university and its role in the education of the service class.

Age of students enrolled in the university. An exact answer is much more difficult due to the imperfection of our source data. In the absence of an archive for the second half of the 18th - the first decade of the 19th century. in our reconstructed lists of students, we can establish the year of their birth only if there is any additional data. These are, firstly, the statements about the successes of students who studied in 1764-1768, preserved in the RGADA, in which, along with other data, the age of students was given. Also, the year of birth is known among those students who became writers, statesmen and public figures, and then student lists can be supplemented with data from biographical dictionaries.

The majority of students entering Moscow University were between 15 and 19 years of age. An absolute record for the second half of the 18th century. recorded in the case of Yevgeny Syreyshchikov (in the future - a teacher at a university gymnasium, who received the title of extraordinary professor of philosophy there): he was promoted to students from the gymnasium at the age of 11 in 1768, when the student body was significantly weakened after the removal of several dozen students for work in the Legislative Commission. At the beginning of the XIX century. such cases were somewhat more common: at the age of 11, Alexander Lykoshin entered the students and, apparently, his comrade Griboedov (if we assume the later of the two possible dates of the writer’s birth), and at the age of 13 Griboyedov had already graduated from the verbal department of his university with a degree candidate, and later continued to listen to lectures of the ethical and political department.

In general, in the XVIII century. students were older (16-18 years old) than at the beginning of the 19th century, and even older (as a rule, 19 years old and above) were graduates of seminaries entering the university (as D.N. Sverbeev wrote, they already “shaved their beards” ). In connection with the desire of noble families to accelerate the advancement of their offspring through the ranks at the beginning of the 19th century. there was such a phenomenon as "students-boys".

It was the Charter of 1804, which secured the right to the rank of class 14 for the title of university student, that stimulated noble families to send their children to students as early as possible (a phenomenon akin to how in the 18th century noble children from infancy

were in the regiments). The fact that when enrolling in a university at the beginning of the 19th century. in noble families, the title of a student was valued primarily, and not the opportunity to comprehend science, the diary of S.P. perfectly conveys. Zhikhareva. “My title is not a trifle and will please my

home,” writes Zhikharev, who became a student in 1805 at the age of 16. “I foresee,” he continues, “that it will not be long for me to listen to my good professors. Father, delighted with my 14th grade, hurries the service.

1 Khavanova O.V. Merits of fathers and talents of sons. S. 12.

Paulsen F. German universities. S. 110.

3A History of the University in Europe. P. 321.

Thus, the "rejuvenation" of the students of Moscow University in the early XIX

v. associated with the influx of students of young nobles.

The main problems of organizing student life are: did students stand out as a separate group, and with the help of what attributes did this happen. According to paragraph 21 of the "Project for the Establishment of Moscow University", the ultimate goal of a student's studies is to receive a certificate. This certificate fulfilled a certain social function(which, as a rule, was not in Western universities) - provided "protection" when entering the service. Noble students in the 18th century sought to obtain a certificate that gave the right to production in the next rank. For raznochintsy, the university had to specifically "petition" for their rank-and-file production.

Initially, the university was considered by the state almost exclusively as an educational institution for the training of officials, who can be taken away without waiting until the end of their period of study. A significant number of students who did not complete the course were appointed to serve in the Senate and other state institutions, and were appointed teachers. So, in 1767, 42 students were taken to the Legislative Commission, which disrupted the normal course of education, since after that only 5 students remained at the “higher” faculties: 4 in law and 1 in medicine.

The normal course of study of many of the students was interrupted Patriotic War 1812, during which many of them dropped out of school, joined the militia or went to provide medical care to Army. Among the reasons for the dismissal of students during this period, there is already a desire to continue education in other educational institutions. For example, Vasily Matveyevich Chernyaev in 1812 moved to the medical faculty of Kharkov University.

The rules of conduct at the university were quite strictly regulated. The first of the intra-university acts regulating the life of students was adopted in 1765. Students were forbidden to quarrel and fight, especially duels and seconds. This project was published in 1765 under the title "Charter, to the observation of which all university students undertake in writing." For admission to students, a certificate of "good manners" was required. Students had to "dress in a decent manner, avoiding cynical infamy, as well as excessive panache", "live modestly and in proportion to their incomes, without entering into any debts."

Uniform was the corporate sign of the university. “The university had its own uniform, similar to the uniform of the Moscow province,” crimson with a blue velvet collar and white buttons. The first mention of the introduction of a uniform at the university dates back to 1782 and is associated with the celebration of the 20th anniversary of the accession to the throne of Empress Catherine II. The uniform of the Moscow province, which both professors and students had to wear, then consisted of a red cloth camisole, knee-length pantaloons, stockings, shoes and a black triangular hat.

But not all students wore such a uniform. The only exceptions were the days of university-wide celebrations. It is known from Timkovsky's notes that “the students did not have any specific uniform in their attire”, even “not everyone had a university uniform. Everyone, even those on a salary, was dressed as he could and as he wanted. Ilya Fedorovich himself wore a "Novgorod blue and black" uniform.

“Forms,” recalled Poludensky, who studied at the university in the 1790s, “as now, self-styled students did not have, as for state ones, they had

coats and uniforms. There was a difference in uniforms between the raznochintsy and the nobles, and, as was said before, they lived separately. “At first, the raznochintsy had a blue uniform with red cuffs, and the nobles had a red one with blue cuffs.” In fact, the difference in uniforms between raznochintsy and nobles was only among high school students. “When raznochintsy gymnasiums were promoted to students,” P.I. Strakhov, - they exchanged a crimson dress for a green noble one.

On October 14, 1800, Moscow University's own uniform was officially approved, different from the uniforms of other departments - a dark green caftan, "the collar and cuffs on the caftan are crimson, the buttons are white, in one half with the coat of arms of the Empire, and in the other with the attributes of learning." On April 9, 1804, a new student uniform was approved by the decree “On uniforms for Moscow University and subordinate schools”: “a single-breasted caftan of dark blue cloth, with a standing collar and crimson cuffs”, decorated with gold embroidery. But even during the reign of Alexander I, students, especially those of their own kind, continued to wear their own dress. According to the memoirs, "students, both state-owned and private, went in particular dresses, of course, almost all in frock coats and rare in tailcoats." And even in the 1820s, according to Pirogov's memoirs, "uniforms did not yet exist."

The situation changed only in the reign of Nicholas I. When examining the university, it was noticed that students "do not have a uniform and defined uniform in all respects." On May 22, 1826, a decree was issued “On allowing state students of Moscow University to have shoulder straps on their uniforms” “to distinguish them from their own”, and on September 6, 1826, a decree “On uniforms for students of Moscow University and for pupils of a noble boarding school and gymnasium” . According to him, a blue single-breasted student uniform was adopted. The uniform was needed so that "students, having a uniform dress, accustomed to order and to their future appointment for public service."

No less, and even more important sign of a student than a uniform, was a sword. In § 23 of the Draft on the Establishment of Moscow University, it was indicated that the sword was given to students "for encouragement", "as is the case in other places." The sword was a symbol of personal dignity; it was worn by the nobles. Thus, non-nobles, receiving the title of students, were, as it were, equal in rights with the noble class. In addition, in accordance with the Charter of 1804, a university student entering the service was immediately enrolled in the 14th grade, which gave the rights of personal nobility. Therefore, after 1804, the handing over of the sword already had not only a symbolic, but also a real meaning of a change in the social status of the former commoner. THEM. Snegirev recalled how, after his graduation in 1807 as a student, “with childish admiration he put on a student uniform, a three-cornered hat and hung a sword, which he put on his bed with him ... It seemed to me that not only relatives and neighbors, but also counter and the transverse ones looked at my sword, and what flattered my childish vanity most of all, the guards and soldiers saluted me.

Here we see a clear resemblance to German universities. Paulsen notes that if in the Middle Ages “university statutes forced the scholastic to wear spiritual dress, from the middle of the 17th century the student, both in dress and manners, considers himself a model of a nobleman. And along with the sword, this necessary accessory of a noble costume, the duel also penetrated into the university world. It is characteristic that at the same time fencing teachers appeared at the universities (in the Middle Ages, students were forbidden to carry weapons). So “the forms of life of the nobility acquire the value of an ideal; the place of the medieval scholar, the cleric-seminarian, occupies academic student XVII century, playing the role of a cavalier.

According to § 24 of the "Project for the Establishment of Moscow University", a university court was established. The appearance of such a university court confirmed

corporate nature of the first Russian university: after all, for any

of the European University, such a court was an inalienable property and exercised the right of "academic freedom" of the members of the corporation, according to which none of them (a professor, a student or even an employee of the university) was under the jurisdiction of the city authorities, but could only be judged by the same members as him. corporations, and only in accordance with the laws issued by his university. True, at Moscow University this norm did not take root well and acted without fail only in relation to students, while gymnasium teachers in the second half of the 1750s. had several clashes with the Moscow magistrate, trying to prove that they did not have the right to arrest them for misconduct (in particular, for debts). The University Charter of 1804 confirmed the corporate law of the university court.

On the conduct of cases in the university court in the XVIII century. give a presentation of excerpts from the minutes of the University Conference. The court was carried out by the director of the university together with other members of the Conference. The punishments for students who violated discipline (mainly due to fights) were deprivation of the sword, imprisonment for several days in a punishment cell, dismissal from state scholarships, and finally, expulsion from the university.

A special kind of violation of university regulations were cases of student marriage. Although there was no direct prohibition of a student from marrying in any university laws, however, the curator Adodurov wrote: “I was informed that student Yudin married among those who were on state support ... not only is it indecent, but it also creates a great obstacle in teaching the sciences. Student Yudin was deprived of his scholarship.

Some students have fled the university. In the order of the curator Adodurov about the "runaway student" Ivan Popov dated October 30, 1768, just such a case is described. For his act, student Popov was expelled from the university and sent to the office of the Synod, since he came from a clergy class. Thus, the expelled student was deprived of the increase in social status he had achieved, returning back to his class.

Students in the 18th century begins to realize his own identity, to realize himself as a kind of community, different from other inhabitants of the city. This manifested itself, in particular, in clashes between representatives of the university and city dwellers. Such skirmishes begin from the very first years of its existence. Already in 1757

in the city, a fight between high school students and “titular junkers” (students of colleges) was recorded. Its instigator Pyotr Argamakov, the son of the university director, along with other participants was arrested and punished with rods.

“The city police,” recalled Pirogov, who studied at Moscow University in 1824-1828, “did not have the right to dispose of students and the guilty had to be delivered to the university.” This privilege was abolished by decree of Nicholas I dated

September 4, 1827 "On the assignment of students of Moscow University, living outside the university, to the supervision of the city police."

Students who were unable to study on their own allowance were admitted to the state kosht on the basis of a petition, subject to good academic performance, good behavior and presentation of a certificate of poverty, signed by several persons of noble birth. The first state students received 40 rubles a year. In 1799, their salary, which was paid out in thirds, was already 100 rubles. in year. If the number of state students exceeded the established number, they could be paid a student stipend, i.e. the same as received by state-owned high school students. Since 1804, the state kosht was 200 rubles a year, and in the medical department - 350 rubles. First of all, those students whom the government was preparing to serve as doctors or teachers were admitted to state-owned hospitals. After graduating from university, they were to

as compensation to the state for education, serve at least 6 years under the Ministry of Public Education.

Some students lived in apartments with friends or relatives. M.A. Dmitriev lived with his uncle. By kinship with Professor Barsov, Poludensky lived in his apartment. Without the help of acquaintances or relatives, it would be quite difficult for self-sufficient students to support themselves.

A favorite place for student meetings was the tavern "Great Britain", where comradely drinking parties were sometimes arranged. In general, students often visited taverns. “It happened very often,” Dmitriev recalled, “that, returning at one in the afternoon from lectures, I had to go on foot back either to Tverskaya or Kuznetskaya Most to dine with a restaurateur.”

In a letter from Göttingen to his brother, A.I. Turgenev, Nikolai, responding to the reproach of A.F. Merzlyakova, who “was hurt to see his friend’s brother often in the coffee shop and with Chebotarev,” writes: “I went there not for pranks, not to drink and fool around there, but for pleasure, completely allowed. There I often found acquaintances, friends, talked with them, drank tea, coffee, read newspapers and nothing more.

“According to the formidable saying of Sandunov at that time: “The samovar is a tavern tool and is not suitable for school,” a veto was imposed on this tool, and therefore some had copper teapots and thus consoled themselves with tea drinking. Others fled for this business to the taverns Tsaregradsky (in Okhotny Ryad) and Znamensky (not far from the present Treasury Chamber). In these bright establishments (now there are no traces of them), some of the students were regular patrons. In taverns, students drank not only tea, but also stronger drinks. “It happened like this: the sex served tea, after a few seconds the spoon knocks, the sex rushes in. They say to him: “Give more hot water”, he grabs a kettle, in which there is still a lot of water (and no water is needed) and brings the same kettle, as if with water, but it contains aqua vitae. It can be seen that at that time the conditions of tavern establishments did not allow trading in precious moisture, and the owners were afraid of spies, who no doubt were everywhere. State-owned students managed to visit the tavern even in the morning before lectures.

Zhikharev preferred dinners and balls to other entertainment, he often attended opera and ballet. Pupils of the university with less demanding requests had fun in a different way: they participated in fistfights on Neglinnaya, where, according to the memoirs of I.M. Snegirev, “bursaks of the theological academy and students of the university converged, wall to wall: the little ones started, the big ones ended. The Neglin patchworkers helped the university students.”

Many students liked to walk in Maryina Roshcha or Sokolniki on holidays. Lyalikov recalls that the students “did not miss the so-called monastic festivities on their temple holidays. Once, I remember, the three of us hired a boat at the Moskvoretsky Bridge (Aug. 6) and sailed to the Novospassky Monastery. They also swam to the Sparrow Hills, ate milk and raspberries in Maryina Roshcha and Ostankino.

The students also visited the theatre. The University Theater was one of the first in Russia. Students and high school students took part in the preparation of the performances. The theater had an educational mission, bringing the university closer to Russian society. In addition to theatrical performances, masquerades were also given at Christmas time or Shrovetide, and "on Sundays and holidays, evening dances or concerts sometimes took place."

Since 1760, the student troupe has become professional and is called the Russian Theatre. Such Russian actors as Troepolskaya, Lapin, Mikhailova and others began their activities in the university theater. In 1776, the entrepreneur Medox created the first permanent public professional theater in Moscow, for which in 1780 Medox built a large building on Petrovka Street - Petrovsky theatre. It was in it that in 1783 the comedy "Undergrowth" by Fonvizin was shown for the first time in Moscow. The troupe included outstanding actors, among them - Peter

Alekseevich Plavilshchikov, who graduated from Moscow University in 1779. In 1825, a new building was built on the site of the Petrovsky Theater (now the Bolshoi Theatre).

Students spent the money saved from tuition fees, as well as earned by translating books and private lessons, to visit the theater and buy books.

An important role during the stay of students at the university was given to their church life. When the university was located in the building of the Apothecary House, students went to services in the Kazan Cathedral. After the university acquired Repnin’s house, “next to this place, standing nearby along Nikitskaya Street, was the parish stone church of the Assumption of the Mother of God, or St. Dionysius the Areopagite, was renamed university and attached to it. On April 5, 1791, she was consecrated in the left wing of the university building under construction at Mokhovaya Church in the name of St. martyr Tatiana. In September 1817, the church of St. George on Krasnaya Gorka, and in 1820 a chapel was consecrated in honor of St. martyr Tatiana.

According to the memoirs of Poludensky, in late XVIII v. At that time, there was no special church at the university, and students were taken in turn to different parish churches.

As Lyalikov recalled, students “usually fasted during the first week of Great Lent. Vespers were listened to in the large dining room in the constant presence of Sandunov and both sub-inspectors. The choir was one of their own." “We communed the Holy Mysteries,” he recalled, “in St. George’s Church on Mokhovaya. Imagine (even now it surprises me): during the whole time, quite a long time, the communion of students (there were 40 of us, and three times as many medical students) Sandunov and Mudrov were holding a veil in front of those approaching the chalice, like inspectors. Students visited not only the university church, but also other Moscow churches. “In general, we were often told to go to services in our parish (George on Krasnaya Gorka) church; but everyone constantly went to the neighboring Nikitsky Monastery or in groups somewhere far away, for example, to Donskoy, Novodevichy. The reasons for choosing this or that church were both beautiful singing and a good sermon in this temple. Zhikharev was a lover of church singing. After mass, however, he can go to see an art gallery (of the late Prince Golitsyn) or horse races.

Students also showed themselves as part of the literary space of Moscow. In the XVIII century. The university included a whole complex of institutions. It operated a library, a printing house and a bookstore. It was in the university printing house that the newspaper Moskovskie Vedomosti began to be printed, around which lovers of literature united. Gymnasium students and students of Moscow University were involved in the work on the issue of this newspaper. “Literary and typographical activity at the university,” Shevyrev writes, “every year revived more and more. The newspapers aroused the attentive participation of the public. In 1760 it was impossible to find a complete copy of the previous year's newspapers in a bookshop.

In the early 1760s, a new group of periodicals appeared at Moscow University - literary magazines. University publications were conceived as a plan to educate society through cultural impact on it.

The first four magazines (“Useful Amusement”, “Free Hours”, edited by Kheraskov, “Innocent Exercise” (published by I.F. Bogdanovich), “Good Intention”), published at Moscow University in the early 1760s, were literary publications. They were attended famous writers- Sumarokov, Kheraskov, Trediakovsky and an extensive group of young people who began to try their hand at creativity.

In 1771, on the initiative of curator Melissino, Moscow University formed its first official scientific society - the Free “Russian” Assembly. It was founded "to correct and enrich the Russian language, through the publication of useful, and especially for the instruction of the youth of need, writings and translations,

verse and prose." Melissino himself was the chairman of the meeting, he was replaced by the director of the university

M.V. Priklonsky. The members of the society included many "noble persons", such as Princess Dashkova, historian M.M. Shcherbatov, Sumarokov and Prince Potemkin himself. The meetings of the Assembly were held very solemnly and magnificently. According to the descriptions of contemporaries, Potemkin was sitting at the table, "exhibiting the diamond buckles of his shoes, flaunting them in front of the students who, in uniforms, standing around, were present at these meetings." The Free Russian Assembly attracted the Russian elite to the cause of education, which made it possible to exert a significant influence on society and generate many supporters, including Novikov and M.N. Muraviev.

Societies of a somewhat different nature appeared at Moscow University in the 1780s. Their appearance is associated with the activities of Freemasons, primarily Novikov and Schwartz. Novikov himself was a pupil of the Moscow University; Kheraskov attracted him to work at the university. On May 1, 1779, the university concluded a contract with Novikov, according to which the university printing house was leased to him for ten years. Novikov's main goal was to spread enlightenment, "which he understood only as based on religious and moral principles, mainly in a mystical spirit." For translate foreign books he attracted students, thereby providing them with substantial material support. Since 1779, he has been publishing the Morning Light magazine in Moscow.

In 1779 Novikov met Schwartz, a professor of German at the university. Their common goals were "the training of teachers in the spirit of Masonic ethics, the introduction of new rules of education." Thanks to their labors, in 1779 the Teacher's (Pedagogical) Seminary was opened, and in 1782 - the Translation (Philological) Seminary. The first of them was intended to prepare students for teaching, and the second - for translation into Russian foreign compositions. On March 13, 1781, at the university, on the initiative of Schwartz, the first student society was opened under the name "Assembly of University Pupils". The society's goal was to improve Russian language and Literature" through writings and translations. Many students were active participants in the meeting. M.I. Antonovsky “composed a charter for this society, the rules of which, considering the members of this society, were so well educated that, after they left the university and entered public service, then turned out to be the most capable people to it, so that a rare one of them now serves without distinction (except for those persecuted by envy and malice), less than the 4th class.

In 1782, on a Masonic basis, a Friendly Scientific Society was formed around the university. It brought together more than 50 people. More than 20 students studied under his supervision, including the future metropolitans Seraphim (Glagolevsky) and Mikhail (Desnitsky), professors P.A. Sokhatsky, A.A. Prokopovich-Antonsky and P.I. Strakhov. It was the circle of Novikov's comrades in the Friendly Scientific Society that produced literary publications at the university in the 1780s.

In 1781, Novikov published the "Moscow Monthly Edition", in 1782 the journal "Evening Dawn" began to be published, and from 1784 - "The Rest of the Worker". The content of these magazines mainly consisted of poems or "discourses" written by students on moral and philosophical topics. "The Rest of the Worker" had a pronounced occult-mystical orientation, as evidenced by the fact that articles such as "On the Science Called Cabal" were placed there, and the well-known mystic Swedenborg was also given a positive assessment.

Such an obvious propaganda of mysticism could not fail to attract the attention of the authorities. In a decree dated December 23, 1785, Catherine II wrote that “many strange books” were being printed in Novikov’s printing house, and Archbishop Platon was ordered to examine them and test Novikov in the law of God. As a result, Novikov's circle was persecuted:

in 1786 the Philological Seminary and the Friendly Learned Society were closed. As a result, student literary activity froze for several years.

Students of Moscow University took an active part in the social and literary life of Russia. Many of them were talented writers, poets; some of them became publishers. Thanks to the translation activities of students, Moscow and all of Russia got acquainted with Western literature. The process of education and upbringing continued outside the walls of university classrooms, in private apartments. Student circles formed new views, laid down a system of values, thus, the process of the student's entry into public life took place. This is how the “cultural colonization” of urban space by the university took place.

Thus, the transfer of European university realities to Russia took place, although the local soil created certain specifics. Moscow University, like European ones, was a corporation, the signs of which were relative autonomy, its own court, uniform and some other privileges.

The daily life of students at Moscow University still bore the imprint of the estates they came from, and the formation of a single "corporate" denominator in the period under review is out of the question. At the same time, communication brought young men from different social groups together, formed single space ideas. Ultimately, the initial history of the students of Moscow University at that time testifies to the ongoing process of the formation of a student corporation, awareness of common interests and life tasks, which in many respects became characteristic of students in the middle of the 19th century.

The university brought together representatives of different classes by organizing common forms of life. Although raznochintsy prevailed among students and professors at the university for a long time, it was closely associated with the culture of the nobility.

Federal Agency for Education
State educational institution
higher professional education
Vyatka State University
Faculty of Humanities
Department of History of Russia

COURSE WORK

« Russian STUDENTS IN THE SECOND HALF OF THE 19TH CENTURY »

Completed: student gr. Is-21 N.Yu.Kuritsyna

              Scientific adviser: deputy chair
N.I. Nikulin

Kirov 2011

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction …………………………………………………………………………….3
1 Overview of university education in the second half of the 19th century......................6
2 University statutes……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
3 Students of Russia in the second half of the XIX century ……………………….17
3.1 Social composition and worldview ……………………………………...17
3.2 Life and entertainment …………………………………………………………..22
3.3 National corporations and student communities …..………………...29
Conclusion …………………………………………………………………………34
References ……………………………………………………………...36

Introduction

University education has existed in Europe for over 900 years, and in Russia for about 300. The university is one of the most enduring and fruitful creations of European genius. He played an outstanding role in the development and establishment of modern science throughout the world.
The system of university education in Russia differed significantly from the Western one, although it was its direct successor. It was the difference from others and the originality of the educational system that attracted scientists to the study of Russian universities.
The first scientific research on the history of Russian universities appeared in the second half of the 19th century, first of all, to note the publication of the professor of Kiev University V. Ikonnikov “Russian universities in connection with the course of social development”, placed in the “Bulletin of Europe” (1876, No. 9-11 ). The author made one of the first attempts to trace the development of the university idea in Russia and its implementation over a century and a half. He considered the history of universities in close connection with the social life of the country. It is also worth highlighting the essay by P.N. Milyukov “Universities of Russia”, placed in volume 68 of the Encyclopedic Dictionary of F.A. Brockhaus - I.A. Efron (St. Petersburg, 1902). This essay described in detail the development of Russian universities until the end of the 19th century and contained rich factual and statistical material.
Of the private plots of university history, the greatest attention was paid to the student movement: Vydrin R.I. “Highlights of the student movement in Russia”, Melgunov S.P. “From the history of student societies in Russian universities”, etc.
After the revolution of 1917, the history of Russian universities was not given due attention for several decades. And only after the 50s. interest in this issue has revived. The main attention of Soviet historians was drawn to the study of certain periods in the history of Russian universities. It is necessary to note the works of A.E. Ivanov, G.I. Shchetinina, R.G. Eymontova. All of them started with the publication of articles, and completed their research with solid monographs, representing a significant contribution to the historiography of Russian universities.
As if summing up some results of the study of domestic higher education before 1917, a team of authors published in 1995 the book “Higher Education in Russia: an outline of the history before 1917.” The monograph contains a lot of interesting factual material, the appendices are of great value.
In Russia, an independent university system arose and developed, the role and place of which in the life of Russian society has not yet received comprehensive coverage. And without this, it is impossible to reform universities or bring their activities in line with the requirements of modernity. Considering this and the fact that numerous reforms are currently being implemented in the field of education, this study seems to be relevant.
When formulating the topic of the study, it was also taken into account that, referring to the humanitarian block of sciences, history is actively engaged in the study of the life and life of people within a certain historical stage. Proceeding from this, the study of higher education in Russia will be most complete if it is carried out through the study of students.
The system of higher education in Russia is not static. Reforms in this area have taken place and are taking place with enviable regularity. Usually the period of the most active transformations is associatedwith the accession to the throne of Alexander II, which determined the time frame of this study for the second half of the 19th century.
Thus, the object of study is the higher schools (universities) of post-reform Russia, considered in an organic relationship with the situation of Russian students in the second half of the 19th century.
And, consequently, the historical process of reforming the Russian high school(universities) in the period of 60 - 90s. XIX century through university charters, everyday and worldview characteristics of the Russian students of the era under consideration.
The purpose of the study is to reveal the features of university education and student life in these time frames. From which I follow the following tasks:

    Summarize information about the universities that existed in Russia in the second half of the 19th century.
    To study the regulatory framework of universities and student associations.
    Consider the social composition of students in the second half of the 19th century.
    Reveal the role of the origin of students in the formation of the ideology of the student world.
    Describe the daily life of a student of this era.
    Consider the activities and functions of student associations.
Following from the tasks set, the study is based on the analysis of normative sources, journalism and memoirs of the period of the second half of the 19th century, as well as the study of scientific works of domestic historians.
The course structure consists of an introduction, three chapters, a conclusion and a bibliography.
The provided research can be used by school teachers in teaching the course "History of the Fatherland" or in the formation of elective courses. And also to prepare students, both of the Faculty of History and other profiles for seminars.

Chapter I. REVIEW OF UNIVERSITY EDUCATION IN THE SECOND HALF OF THE 19TH CENTURY

It is customary to begin the history of Russian universities on January 28, 1724, when the Senate adopted a Decree on the establishment of the Academy of Sciences with a university and a gymnasium. Although officially St. Petersburg University began functioning in the status of a university only in 1819. The first real higher education institution in Russia to receive the status of a university was the Moscow State University (MGU), opened in 1755.
Usually a new stage in the development of Russian universities is associated with the accession to the throne of Alexander II. However, the facts show that in Last year The reign of Nicholas I began certain changes in attitudes towards education in general, and universities in particular.
The Committee for the Transformation of Educational Institutions was created under the leadership of D. Bludov. In 1854, a new minister of public education, S. S. Norov (brother of the Decembrist), was appointed, who, together with his unofficial adviser A. V. Nikitenko (professor of the SPU and a liberal censor), presented to the tsar a report on the need to improve the situation of universities. If in 1854 Nicholas I did not allow the celebration of the 50th anniversary of Kazan University, then in 1855 the 100th anniversary of Kazan University was solemnly celebrated, and the tsar sent a letter of thanks to the university on this occasion. In addition, in 1854, after a long break, it was allowed to increase enrollment in some universities, but only in medical faculties.
With the beginning of the reign of Alexander II, the process of change accelerated, the most restrictive prohibitions of previous years were gradually lifted. Already in 1855, restrictions on the admission of students were lifted, and from 1856 graduates were again sent to foreign universities to prepare for the professorship, the rights of universities to elect rectors and deans were restored, and from 1859 it was allowed to subscribe books from abroad without censorship, since 1860 the former departments of philosophy and state law were revived, and new ones were opened in accordance with the requirements of the time. In a short time, there was a rapid increase in the number of university students, by an average of 2 times over 8 years. There was a rapid change in the composition of teachers, the professorial staff was updated by almost 50% in 1855-1862, especially in law faculties.
Many young professors appeared in the departments, including those who were considered politically unreliable, who were exiled, etc. So, N. I. Kostomarov, who had just returned from exile and replaced the conservative Ustryalov, was elected to the department of Russian history of the SPU.
There was a radical change in the heads of universities, military trustees were replaced by civilian officials. For example, an outstanding surgeon, Professor N.I. Pirogov became a trustee of Kiev University (the first case in the history of Russian universities). Young talented scientists appeared as rectors: Kiev University was headed by 34-year-old Professor Bunge N. (future Minister of Finance of Russia), Kazan University - 32-year-old prof. Chemistry A.M. Butlerov.
Enlightenment and science in the second half of the 19th century developed under more favorable conditions compared to the previous time. The abolition of serfdom and other bourgeois reforms contributed to the acceleration of economic progress and the development of the social movement.
By the middle of the XIX century in Russia there were: Moscow (1755), Derpt (since 1802), Vilensky, Kazansky, Kharkov (1804), Kiev, St. Petersburg (1819). After the adoption of the University Charter of 1863, two more universities were opened: Novorossiysk in Odessa (1865) and Warsaw (1869).
In addition to classical universities, the number of higher technical educational institutions has increased. Polytechnic institutes were founded in Kiev, St. Petersburg, Novocherkassk; Technological Institute in Tomsk.
Great strides were made in higher education, with the number of universities reaching ten by the end of the century. The university charter of 1863 gave the universities almost complete autonomy in a wide variety of fields. But in 1884, the government of Alexander III introduced a new charter that deprived the universities of autonomy and increased supervision over them. In the 70-80s. the foundation was laid for women's higher education - courses were opened in different cities.
The number of students during the reign of Alexander II increased by almost two and a half times (in 1854 - 3547 students, in 1880 - 8193 students) 1 .
Under Alexander III, another university was opened - in Tomsk.The grand opening of the first university in Siberia took place on July 27, 1888. The Charter of 1884 was extended to the new university. However, Tomsk University allowed the admission of students from theological seminaries, among 72 first-year students in 1888 there were 30 graduates of gymnasiums, 40 - theological seminaries, 2 were transferred from other universities. In 1893, 34 people were released from this reception - the first Siberian doctors. Features of Tomsk University: donations and long construction led to the fact that it immediately turned out to be well equipped, with many laboratories, a botanical garden, a library with almost 100 thousand books and magazines; among the students there were many expelled for participation in revolutionary activities from other universities, a significant number of them came from low-income families, besides, in Tomsk there were few opportunities for extra money, so private donations for scholarships played a large role, which allowed many students to receive from 100 to 420 rub. in year. In subsequent years, there was a struggle to open new faculties in Tomsk, and in 1898 admission to the Faculty of Law was announced, out of 142 accepted then, 47 graduated in 1902.
Thus, in the second half of the 19th century in Russia, higher education began to develop even more actively both in terms of quality and quantity.

CHAPTER II. UNIVERSITY STATUTE

The study of university statutes in Russia in the XIX century. can make a significant contribution to understanding the multifaceted process of formation of the regulatory framework of universities.
If in the West university life proceeded slowly and measuredly, its organizational forms, which took shape over the centuries, practically did not change, and universities existed as separate entities, each with its own charter, then in Russia it showed very energetic dynamics and proceeded in much more acute and conflict forms. . This is because universities in the West began as private enterprises run by founders at their own risk. The state stood apart, as an outside observer or arbitrator.
In Russia, the association of professors has never played an independent role, as in the West, since the professors were in the service and, in relations with students, acted on behalf of the state. Universities were created by the state, fully financed by the treasury and were called imperial. Therefore, their statutes (the same for all) were carefully developed and adopted, as a rule, in the course of a complex legislative procedure, with the involvement of the best legal forces. Suffice it to recall that such prominent statesmen and public figures as V.N. Karazin and M.M. Speransky. The statutes were approved by the emperor, which gave them the highest legal status and made them a kind of code of university life. During a period of less than a hundred years, four statutes were changed in the country (1804, 1835, 1863, 1884). Between the statutes of 1804 and 1884 there was a huge distance, in which, over the course of the shortest period on the scale of history, a whole era fit in, and each of the statutes, in itself, represented major stages in the construction of a higher school. And every time these were largely different statutes, reflecting the significantly updated realities of university life. In this case, we are talking about the formation and formation of a highly sensitive and active social community of students, new for Russia, which predetermined considerable problems and features of the law-making process. In the literature, the active role of the state in universities is assessed negatively: “Throughout the 19th century. four times according to the number of reigns of emperors, reforms and counter-reforms in higher education are replaced. Tsarism now retreats, then again goes over to an attack on relatively independent higher education. In an effort to reconcile irreconcilable statehood and science, the higher school was reconstructed four times in the 19th century.” 2
Based on the chronological framework of this study, let us dwell in more detail on the Charters of 1863 and 1884.
The system of training scientific and pedagogical personnel of Russian universities was finally formed in the second half of the 19th century.
Established in accordance with the new university charter, adopted on July 18, 1863, the system of training scientific and pedagogical personnel of universities was class-based and selective. The government pursued a dual policy in this regard. On the one hand, it could not fail to attract the best scientific and pedagogical forces to the universities, but, on the other hand, it constantly sought to select them on a class basis in accordance with the requirement of reliability. At the same time, the second trend clearly prevailed, as a result, universities and other higher educational institutions experienced an acute shortage of highly professional scientific and pedagogical personnel.
The state has taken many measures to combat the problem of shortage of personnel. According to the Charter of 1863, the number of lectures given by professors was not regulated, in contrast to the Charter of 1835. Under the latter, each professor was required to teach at least eight hours a week. Tenured professors delivered as many hours of lectures per week as the faculty would assign them based on the considerations they presented. As a result, universities were able to increase their teaching staff by 67 percent 3 .
In order to provide universities with the missing professors and teachers, the Ministry of Public Education in 1862 adopted a resolution on inviting foreign scientists to universities for the positions of professors and associate professors. The government also allowed the Minister of Education to send young scientists abroad to prepare them for professorships. The seconded were obliged to serve in the department of the ministry for two years for each year of their stay abroad. During the period 1862-1865, for example, 89 people were sent abroad 4 . Similar trips were made to other universities in the country.
The Institute of Candidates was also used to replenish the teaching staff of universities. Students who completed the full course of the university with excellent success and submitted a dissertation approved by the faculty received a candidate's degree and remained at the university to receive a master's and professorship. Those left at the university were under the supervision of professors, attended lectures on selected sciences and conducted practical classes.
Acquiring a master's degree required new oral examinations and a public defense of a dissertation. A candidate in a year could apply for a master's degree. Masters after a year could apply for a doctorate degree, subject to the presentation and public defense of the dissertation. Academic degrees at universities could be awarded to both Russian subjects and foreigners.
The content, forms and methods of training young scientists, both in Russia and abroad, were determined by the universities themselves and presented through the trustee of the educational district at the discretion of the Ministry of Public Education.
In January 1864, a new regulation on tests for academic degrees was approved. In accordance with it, at all faculties, the number of categories of sciences, for which doctoral and master's degrees were awarded, was increased. The new regulation abolished examinations for applicants for the degree of doctor of science, requiring only the presentation of a dissertation and its public defense (with the exception of a doctor of medical sciences).
The introduction of the new University Charter and Regulations contributed to the growth in the number of defended dissertations. During the period 1863-1874, 572 people received the degree of doctor of science, 280 people received the master's degree (whereas in the 16 previous years these figures were 130 and 184, respectively).
Universities, in accordance with the Charter of 1863, had their own printing houses and bookstores, could publish periodicals, have their own censorship for theses and other scientific publications. In addition, universities, with the permission of the Minister of Public Education, were given the right to establish learned societies for the improvement of any particular part of the sciences. All this, of course, also created objective opportunities for improving the professionalism of the scientific and pedagogical staff of Russian universities.
According to the charter of 1863, they were admitted to the university from the age of 17,without entrance examinations for those who successfully graduated from the gymnasium. The student signed on the observance of the university rules, the wearing of the uniform was canceled, outside the walls of the university the student became subject to the police. The creation of student organizations was not allowed. The transition of a student from course to course became possible only through tests, graduating from the university with good grades and submitting dissertations received a candidate's degree, and those who graduated satisfactorily and did not submit dissertations were awarded the title of a real student. The category of state students was eliminated and scholarships were introduced for those in need, lectures were levied for fees established by universities (an average of 40-50 rubles per year).
The charter of 1863, which opened up new opportunities for the development of domestic education and science, lasted only until 1884. After the assassination of Tsar Alexander II by Narodnaya Volya in 1881, the government resumed its offensive against university autonomy and tightened control over teaching. Nevertheless, the universities have preserved themselves as centers of advanced scientific knowledge and spiritual life in Russia.
The university counter-reform was carried out in 1884 by the Minister of Public Education I.D. Delyanov, who, when asked about the reasons for the dismissal of one of the professors, replied that “he has only thoughts in his head” 5 . Appointed to the post of Minister of Public Education in 1882, Delyanov submitted to the State Council a draft university reform developed by Count D.A. Tolstoy. The majority of the members of the State Council spoke out against the project, but the opinion of the minority was approved, and on August 23, 1884, the General Charter of the Imperial Russian Universities was issued, which hampered university autonomy, limiting university self-government. The power of district trustees over universities was greatly expanded. The rector was not elected by the council, but was appointed by the Minister of Public Education, who henceforth could not take into account the opinion of the professors when appointing teachers and could give instructions to the professors, make reminders and remarks 6 .
The competence of the university council and faculty meetings was largely limited. Deans were appointed by the trustee, the position of vice-rector was abolished, and the university court was destroyed. The examination for students who completed the course was carried out in special state commissions, only those students who had been credited with a set number of semesters were allowed to test. Overall, tuition fees have doubled.
The Charter of 1884 introduced a number of innovations into the practice of university education that have not lost their relevance today: “examination requirements”, which in a certain sense meant the transition of higher education to unified curricula and programs and the introduction of a state educational standard in the modern sense of this phrase; the restoration of a de facto full-time associate professor, the abolition of the title of a real student and candidate, and an increase in the importance of practical training. Some of the provisions of the statute, although not implemented, were very attractive academically for their formulation: giving the student the right to choose a lecturer, curriculum, the opportunity to listen to lectures from another faculty.
The new charter, although it limited the limits of university autonomy and academic freedoms within the framework of a single statehood, did not abolish them at all. The election of rectors and professors was preserved with some practical restrictions.
The foregoing indicates that everything that happens in university life in the 80-90s. The 19th century, after the adoption of the charter of 1884, was more in line with the modernization of the university system than with fundamental reforms. But the ongoing modernization had a clearly expressed political motive: to expel anti-government sentiments and opposition from universities, to turn the teaching staff into conscientious and obedient education officials, and students into “trustworthy” and organized students.
In general, the analysis of the statutory texts allows us to conclude: firstly, about the worthy, if not central, place of students (the main object and subject of legal relations) in the university system and about the energetic dynamics of the statutory norms governing its legal relations; secondly, about the exclusive role of the state in university construction; thirdly, about the steady increase in legislative activity and the progressive nature of the movement of statutory norms. First of all, the materials of the analysis testify to the rapid, with the accumulation of practical experience, the growth of the normative mass itself, along with an increase in the quality of the legal elaboration of norms.
In conclusion, it should be noted that, on the whole, the level of university education in Russia was quite high, and in the late 19th and early 20th centuries it was quite consistent with Western European education.


CHAPTER III. STUDENTS IN THE SECOND HALF OF THE XIX CENTURY


3.1 Social composition and outlook

The social composition of the student body in Russia was much more democratic than, for example, in England or Germany, where almost exclusively children of the aristocracy and the bourgeoisie studied at the universities. The tuition was low and there were many "scholarship holders".
The characteristic features of the Russian student association, even brotherhood, in comparison with the order prevailing in the famous British universities, were sharply noticed by A.I. democratic. Their doors were open to anyone who could pass the exam, and was neither a serf, nor a peasant, nor dismissed by his community. The motley youth, who came from above and below, from the south and the north, quickly melted into a compact mass of camaraderie. Social distinctions did not have with us that offensive influence which we find in English schools and barracks; I am not talking about English universities: they exist exclusively for the aristocracy and for the rich. A student who would take it into his head to boast of a white bone or wealth among us would be excommunicated from water and fire, tortured by his comrades.
In contrast to closed educational institutions, in which mostly nobles studied, a significant number of students at universities were people of the humble and not rich. To make ends meet, students were often forced to earn extra money. It was in the 19th century that the habitual appearance of a Russian student was formed, renting a cheap room and earning a living by private lessons or translations. True, the social status of the students was quite high. But poverty and homelessness have always been the companions of Russian students.
Since the 60s of the 19th century, the main part of Moscow students consisted of the provincial poor, of raznochintsy, who had nothing in common with the townsfolk,
In the post-reform period, the number of university students continued to grow, and in 1880 there were already more than 8 thousand of them. The composition of the student body was changing, there were more students who needed scholarships and earned a living. So, at Kazan University in the early 70s. only 28% of students could exist on their own money, and in Odessa the number of those in need reached 80%. Special scholarships were introduced for a number of categories of students. So, in 1863, 150 scholarships were established for former SPU students who studied at other universities and were preparing for the teaching position. For students studying Slavic philology, in 1862 scholarships of Cyril and Methodius were established. They could receive 4 students at Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kazan, Kharkov and Kiev universities (240 rubles per year).
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