The autocratic system, which was clearly felt already at the end of the 19th century, the turbulent events of the beginning of the 20th century. - all this left an indelible imprint on Russian culture. In its most diverse spheres, the cataclysms that shook Russia at that time were reflected, and the lingering foreboding of an even more terrible tragedy, which was promised by the near future, inherent in many representatives of the creative intelligentsia.

22. Enlightenment. Seal. The science.

Russia entered the 20th century with an extensive and extensive system education. It included three levels: primary (parochial schools, public schools), secondary, classical gymnasiums, real and commercial schools) and higher (universities, institutes). However, all these educational institutions existed and developed in different conditions.

The most difficult situation was elementary school. This was evidenced by the very low percentage of literates in the country: in 1899 -> 30%, in 1917 - 30%.

At the beginning of the 20th century, Russia spent only 43 kopecks on national education. per capita, while England and Germany - 3.8 rubles. True, after the first Russian revolution began a sharp increase in appropriations for primary education. In 1905, the Second Duma even considered a project on the introduction of a universal primary education Russia, but he never received the force of law.

The situation with secondary educational institutions was somewhat better. in Russia in the first half of the 19th century. a whole network of gymnasiums was created with well-developed curricula and a fairly strong teaching staff. However, in the 1860s in order to combat<опасным>by the enthusiasm of nihilistic youth for the natural sciences, this integral system was artificially deformed. On the one hand, classical gymnasiums were established, where the main emphasis was placed on the teaching of ancient languages, on the other hand, real schools with a narrowly professional technical orientation,

At the beginning of the XX century. under the influence of public demands, the ugly sides of secondary education are gradually straightened out. In gymnasiums, the classical direction was weakened, more time was devoted to teaching natural sciences. Sciences mathematics. Unnecessarily narrow specialization in real schools was also eliminated, the graduates of which now have wider opportunities for obtaining higher education than before. Increasingly popular at the beginning of the 20th century. commercial schools were used, the network of which was created on the initiative and at the expense of the commercial and industrial bourgeoisie. These schools had a better material base than other secondary educational institutions, they gave a good education, they practiced joint education of boys and girls, unprecedented in Russia.

As regards higher educational institutions- institutions and especially universities, they were not inferior to the best European models in terms of the level of organization of teaching. However, it is precisely in this sphere of Russian education that the tragic events of the beginning of the 20th century. had the most fatal effect. Student unrest has become a common occurrence in Russian life since the 1860s. But it was at this time that they took on a completely unprecedented scale. In 1899, the authorities aggravated the strict administrative supervision by the so-called<Временными правилами>, according to which participants in student riots were subject to return to the soldiers. This measure had consequences diametrically opposed to those that the government had hoped for: from 1899 until the first revolution, student unrest continued almost continuously, from time to time developing into strikes that led to the closure of universities and other higher educational institutions. During the revolution, students became one of its most active participants. True, Stolypin, who acted with the most cruel methods, managed to restore relative order in higher educational institutions.

In 1911, a general student strike broke out, as a result of which several thousand students were expelled from universities. Following this began<исход>professors from the Moscow University, who made up his color: N. D. Zelinsky, P. N. Lebedev, K. A. Timiryazev and many others resigned in protest against the repressions. In this way, late XIX v. normal life in institutions of higher education was fluffed up, studies were carried out in fits and starts, politics pushed science into the background.

Early 20th century was marked by strong growth in Russia periodical press and book business. The manifesto of 17 October 1905 introduced, albeit incompletely, freedom of the press. It was exempted from prior censorship, retroactively subjected to judicial and administrative prosecution for publications of an anti-government nature. Although the concept<антиправительственный>was interpreted extremely broadly by the authorities, yet the prospects for publishing have now become much more attractive than before.

If at the beginning of the XX century. 125 legal newspapers were published in the country, then in 1913 - more than 1000. The number of magazines by this time had reached an even larger figure - 1263. At the same time, along with traditional<толстыми>magazines aimed at the educated strata of society, more and more begin to appear<тонкие>- purely entertaining<для family reading>, women's, for children and youth, etc. Some of them were very popular and came out in mass editions.

The production of books expanded significantly: in terms of the total amount of published literature, Russia at that time ranked third in the world (after Germany and Japan). A noticeable phenomenon in Russian culture is the activity of many book publishers, among which I. D. Sytin and A. S. Suvorin stood out for their scope. Sytin became famous for publications available to the general reader: popular prints, various brochures, school textbooks. Suvorin also acted in the same vein, publishing<Дешевую библиотеку>- works by Russian and foreign authors, art books, popular science works. At the same time, publishing houses appeared, for example, the Sabashnikov brothers, specializing in the publication of serious scientific literature.

At the end of XIX - beginning of XX century. Russian science comes to the forefront. At that time, scientists appeared in its various fields, whose discoveries change the traditional ideas of the world around. In the field natural sciences such a revolutionary role was played by the works of the physiologist I. P. Pavlov, who developed a fundamentally new method for studying living organisms. For discoveries in the field of physiology of digestion, he, the first among Russian scientists, was awarded Nobel Prize(1904). Another Russian naturalist I. I. Mechnikov became Nobel Laureate for research in comparative pathology, microbiology and immunology. The foundations of the new sciences (biochemistry, biogeochemistry, radiogeology) were laid in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. V. I. Vernadsky.

Ahead of their time, scientists who devoted themselves to the development of fundamentally new areas of science worked. N. E. Zhukovsky, who played a huge role in the development of aeronautics, laid the foundations of modern hydro- and aerodynamics. In 1902, under his leadership, a wind tunnel was built - one of the first in Europe; in 1904 the first aerodynamic institute in Europe was established. The works of K. E. Tsiolkovsky, who laid the foundations for the theory of rocket propulsion and theoretical cosmonautics, became the brightest phenomenon not only in Russian, but also in world science.

The revolutionary situation in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. was accompanied by a rise in general interest in politics, humanities: history, philosophy, economics, law. These sciences are<кабинетных>turned into journalistic, a number of scientists began to engage in political activities. At the end of the XIX - beginning of the XX century. religious philosophy, the foundations of which were laid by V. S. Solovyov, acquires special significance.

With extraordinary force and persuasiveness, he spoke out against the materialism and positivism that dominated Russian science, trying to enrich philosophy with ideas drawn from Christianity. Following Solovyov, such remarkable philosophers as N. A. Berdyaev, S. N. Bulgakov, P. A. Florensky, S. N. and E N. Trubetskoy, S. L. Frank and others.

At this time, a number of very striking works appeared related to various areas of historical research:<Очерки по истории русской культуры>P. N. Milyukova,<Крестьянская reform> A. A. Kornilova,<История молодой России>M. O. Gershenzon. More and more attention of historians is attracted by problems of an economic nature: serious studies on the history of the Russian economy have created<легальные марксисты>M. I. Tugan-Baranovsky and P. B. Struve. A kind of indicator high level national historical science has become a brilliant lecture course on Russian history by V. O. Klyuchevsky, published at the beginning of the 20th century.

The names of Russian linguists F. F. Fortunatov, A. A. Shakhmatov, N. V. Krushevsky are associated with the development of a number of fundamental questions general linguistics and the emergence of linguistics as a science. in literature at the beginning of the 20th century. the most prominent figure was A. N. Veselovsky, one of the founders of the comparative historical school, who worked a lot on the phenomenon of literary monuments of various eras and different peoples.

1. Assess the state of Russian education in the late XIX - early XX centuries. Comparison with the post-reform period. Why do historians think Russian education at the turn of the century developed from<просвещенй монархии к монархическому просвещению>?

2. What are the signs of the democratization of publishing activity in Russia, which began after 1905, using the example of one of the publications. Give a detailed description of the democratic press.

3. Prepare a report about one of the Russian scientists of the late XIX - early XX century. See how in his life and scientific activity reflected the complex, contradictory processes of this period of national history.

Levandovsky A.A., Shchetinov Yu.A. Russia in the XX century. 10-11 classes. - M.: Enlightenment, 2002

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Enlightenment and Printing in Russia at the Turn of the Century
The education system in Russia at the turn of the XIX - and education of the XX centuries. still included three stages: primary (parochial schools, public schools, secondary, classical gymnasiums, real and commercial schools) and higher education (universities, institutes). According to the data of 1913, the literate among the subjects Russian Empire(excluding children under 8 years of age) averaged 38-39%.
Much of the development public education was associated with the activities of the democratic public. The policy of the authorities in this area does not appear to be consistent. So, in 1905, the Ministry of Public Education issued a draft law “On the introduction of universal primary education in the Russian Empire" for consideration by the II State Duma, but this draft never received the force of law.

The growing need for specialists contributed to the development of higher, especially technical, education. In 1912 there were 16 higher technical educational institutions in Russia. Only one university, Saratov (1909), was added to the previous number of universities, but the number of students increased markedly - from 14 thousand in the middle. 90s to 35.3 thousand in 1907. Private higher educational institutions (Volnaya graduate School P.F. Lesgaft, Psychoneurological Institute of V.M. Bekhterev, etc.). Shanyavsky University, which worked in 1908-18. at the expense of the liberal leader of public education A.L. Shanyavsky (1837-1905) and who provided secondary and higher education, played an important role in the democratization of higher education. The university accepted persons of both sexes, regardless of nationality and political views.

Further development at the beginning of the 20th century. received a female higher education. At the beginning of the XX century. in Russia there were already about 30 higher educational institutions for women pedagogical institute in St. Petersburg, 1903; Higher women's agricultural courses in Moscow under the leadership of D.N. Pryanishnikov, 1908, etc. Finally, the right of women to higher education was legally recognized in 1911.

Simultaneously with Sunday schools, new types of cultural and educational institutions for adults began to operate - working courses, for example, Prechistensky in Moscow, among whose teachers were such prominent scientists as I.M. Sechenov, V.I. Picheta and others, educational workers' societies and people's houses - original clubs with a library, assembly hall, tea and trading shop (Ligovsky people's house of Countess S.V. Panina in St. Petersburg).

The development of the periodical press and book publishing had a great influence on education. At the beginning of the XX century. 125 legal newspapers were published, in 1913 - more than 1000. In 1913 1263 magazines were published. By 1900, the circulation of the mass literary, artistic and popular science "thin" magazine Niva (1894-1916) had grown from 9,000 to 235,000 copies.

In terms of the number of published books, Russia ranked third in the world (after Germany and Japan). In 1913, 106.8 million copies of books were published in Russian alone.

The largest book publishers A.S. Suvorin in St. Petersburg and I.D. Sytin in Moscow contributed to the familiarization of the people with literature, releasing books at affordable prices (“Cheap Library” by Suvorin, “Library for Self-Education” by Sytin). In 1989 - 1913 in St. Petersburg, the book publishing partnership "Knowledge" worked, which since 1902 was headed by M. Gorky.

Russian Science in the Silver Age

At the turn of the XIX - XX centuries. new areas of science were developed, including aeronautics. N.E. Zhukovsky is the founder of modern hydro- and aerodynamics. He created the theory of hydraulic shock, discovered the law that determines the magnitude of the lift force of an aircraft wing, developed the vortex theory of a propeller, etc. The great Russian scientist was a professor at Moscow University and the Higher technical school. K.E. Tsiolkovsky developed the theoretical foundations of aeronautics, aero - and rocket dynamics. He owns extensive research on the theory and...

Chapter VIII. RUSSIAN CULTURE OF THE END OF THE 19TH - BEGINNING OF THE 20TH CENTURIES

General crisis the autocratic system, which was clearly felt already at the end of the 19th century, the turbulent events of the beginning of the 20th century - all this left an indelible imprint on Russian culture. In its most diverse spheres, the cataclysms that shook Russia at that time were reflected, and the lingering foreboding of an even more terrible tragedy, which was promised by the near future, inherent in many representatives of the creative intelligentsia.

In the XX century. Russia entered with a fairly extensive and ramified system of education. It included three stages: primary (parochial schools, public schools), secondary (classical gymnasiums, real and commercial schools) and higher (universities, institutes). At the same time, all these educational institutions existed and developed in different conditions.

The hardest thing was the position of the elementary school. This was evidenced by a very low percentage of literates in the country: 21% in 1897 ᴦ., 30% in 1917 ᴦ. At the beginning of the XX century. Russia spent only 43 kopecks on public education. per capita, while England and Germany - 3.8 rubles. Indeed, after the first Russian revolution began a sharp increase in appropriations for primary education. In 1905 ᴦ. the Second Duma even considered a project to introduce universal primary education in Russia, but it never received the force of law.

The situation with secondary educational institutions was somewhat better. In Russia in the first half of the XIX century. a whole network of gymnasiums was created with well-developed curricula and a fairly strong staff of teachers. At the same time, in the 1860s. in order to combat the "dangerous" enthusiasm of nihilistic young people for the natural sciences, this integral system was artificially deformed. On the one hand, classical gymnasiums were established, where the main emphasis was placed on the teaching of ancient languages, on the other hand, real schools with a narrowly professional technical orientation.

At the beginning of the XX century. under the influence of public demands, the ugly sides of secondary education are gradually straightened out. In gymnasiums, the classical direction was weakened, more time was devoted to teaching the natural sciences and mathematics. Unnecessarily narrow specialization in real schools was also eliminated, the graduates of which now have wider opportunities for higher education than before. Increasingly popular at the beginning of the 20th century. commercial schools were used, the network of which was created on the initiative and at the expense of the commercial and industrial bourgeoisie. These schools had a better material base than other secondary educational institutions, they gave a good education, they practiced an unprecedented in Russia joint training of boys and girls.

As for higher educational institutions - institutes and especially universities, they were not inferior to the best European models in terms of the level of organization of teaching. At the same time, the tragic events of the beginning of the 20th century affected precisely this sphere of Russian education. had the most fatal effect. Student unrest has become a common occurrence in Russian life since the 1860s. But it was at this time that they took on a completely unprecedented scale. In 1899 ᴦ. the authorities exacerbated tight administrative oversight with the so-called ʼʼTemporary Rulesʼʼ, according to which participants in student riots were subject to return to the soldiers. This measure caused consequences diametrically opposed to those expected by the government: from 1899 ᴦ. right up to the first revolution, student unrest continued almost continuously, from time to time developing into strikes, which led to the closure of universities and other higher educational institutions. During the revolution, students became one of its most active participants. True, Stolypin, who acted with the most cruel methods, managed to restore relative order in higher educational institutions. At the same time, in 1911 ᴦ. A general student strike broke out, which resulted in several thousand students being expelled from universities. This was followed by an exodus from Moscow University of professors, who made up its color: N. D. Zelinsky, P. N. Lebedev, K. A. Timiryazev and many others resigned in protest against the repressions. Τᴀᴋᴎᴍ ᴏϬᴩᴀᴈᴏᴍ, from the end of the 19th century. normal life in higher educational institutions was disrupted, studies were carried out in fits and starts, politics pushed science into the background.

Early 20th century was marked by the intensive growth in Russia of the periodical press and book business. Manifesto October 17, 1905 ᴦ. introduced, albeit incomplete, freedom of the press. It was exempted from prior censorship, retroactively subjected to judicial and administrative prosecution for publications of an anti-government nature. Although the concept of "anti-government" was interpreted by the authorities extremely broadly, nevertheless, the prospects for publishing activities have now become much more attractive than before.

If at the beginning of the XX century. 125 legal newspapers were published in the country, then in 1913 ᴦ. - more than 1000. The number of magazines by this time had reached an even larger figure - 1263. ʼʼthinʼʼ - purely entertaining, ʼʼfor family readingʼʼ, women's, for children and youth, etc. begin to come out. Some of them were very popular and came out in mass editions.

The production of books expanded significantly: in terms of the total amount of published literature, Russia at that time took third place in the world (after Germany and Japan). A noticeable phenomenon of Russian culture is the activity of many book publishers, among which I. D. Sytin and A. S. Suvorin stood out for their scope. Sytin became famous for publications available to the general reader: popular prints, various brochures, school textbooks. Suvorin acted in the same vein, publishing in mass editions the "Cheap Library" - works by Russian and foreign authors, books on art, popular science works. At the same time, publishing houses appeared, for example, the Sabashnikov brothers, specializing in the publication of serious scientific literature.

At the end of XIX - beginning of XX century. Russian science is moving to the forefront. In its various fields at this time, scientists appear whose discoveries change traditional ideas about the world around them. In the natural sciences, such a revolutionary role was played by the works of the physiologist I. P. Pavlov, who developed a fundamentally new method for studying living organisms. For discoveries in the field of physiology of digestion, Pavlov, the first among Russian scientists, was awarded the Nobel Prize (1904 ᴦ.). Another Russian naturalist I. I. Mechnikov became a Nobel laureate for research in the field of comparative pathology, microbiology and immunology. The foundations of the new sciences (biochemistry, biogeochemistry, radiogeology) were laid in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. V. I. Vernadsky.

Ahead of their time, scientists who devoted themselves to the development of fundamentally new areas of science worked. N. E. Zhukovsky, who played a huge role in the development of aeronautics, laid the foundations of modern hydro- and aerodynamics.

In 1902 ᴦ. under his leadership, a wind tunnel was built - one of the first in Europe; in 1904 - the first aerodynamic institute in Europe was created. The works of K. E. Tsiolkovsky, who laid the foundations for the theory of rocket propulsion and theoretical astronautics, became the brightest phenomenon not only in Russian, but also in world science.

The revolutionary situation in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. was accompanied by a rise in general interest in politics, in the humanities: history, philosophy, economics, law. These sciences from ʼʼofficeʼʼ turned into publicistic, a number of scientists began to engage in political activities. At the end of XIX - beginning of XX century. religious philosophy, the foundations of which were laid by V. S. Solovyov, acquires special significance. With extraordinary force and persuasiveness, he spoke out against the materialism and positivism that dominated Russian science, trying to enrich philosophy with ideas drawn from Christianity. Following Solovyov, such remarkable philosophers as N. A. Berdyaev, S. N. Bulgakov, P. A. Florensky, S. N. and E N. Trubetskoy, S. L. Frank and others.

At this time, a number of very striking works appeared related to various areas of historical research: ʼʼEssays on the history of Russian cultureʼʼ by P. N. Milyukov, ʼʼ Peasant reformʼʼ A. A. Kornilova, ʼʼ The history of young Russiaʼʼ M. O. Gershenzon. More and more attention of historians is attracted by problems of an economic nature: serious studies on the history of the Russian economy were created by the ʼʼlegal Marxistsʼʼ M. I. Tugan-Baranovsky and P. B. Struve. A peculiar indicator of the high level of Russian historical science was the brilliant lecture course on Russian history by V. O. Klyuchevsky, published at the beginning of the 20th century.

The names of Russian linguists F. F. Fortunatov, A. A. Shakhmatov, N. V. Krushevsky are associated with the development of a number of fundamental issues of general linguistics and the emergence of linguistics as a science. in literature at the beginning of the 20th century. the most prominent figure was A. N. Veselovsky, one of the founders of the comparative historical school, who worked hard on comparing literary monuments of different eras and different peoples.

Questions and tasks

1. Tell us about the Russian education system. 2. What was the impact of the events of the early 20th century? on Russian students? 3. What explains the growth in the number of periodicals after the first Russian revolution? What features distinguished the activities of the leading book publishers in Russia? 4. Tell us about the most important scientific discoveries of Russian scientists at the beginning of the 20th century.

The general crisis of the autocratic system, which was clearly felt already at the end of the 19th century, the turbulent events of the beginning of the 20th century - all this left an indelible imprint on Russian culture. In its most diverse spheres, the cataclysms that shook Russia at that time were reflected, and the lingering foreboding of an even more terrible tragedy, which was promised by the near future, inherent in many representatives of the creative intelligentsia.

Education. Seal. The science

In the XX century. Russia entered with a fairly extensive and ramified system of education. It included three stages: primary (parochial schools, public schools), secondary (classical gymnasiums, real and commercial schools) and higher (universities, institutes). However, all these educational institutions existed and developed in different conditions.

The hardest thing was the position of the elementary school. This was evidenced by a very low percentage of literates in the country: 21% - in 1897, 30% - in 1917. At the beginning of the 20th century. Russia spent only 43 kopecks on public education. per capita, while England and Germany - 3.8 rubles. True, after the first Russian revolution, a sharp increase in appropriations for primary education began. In 1905, the Second Duma even considered a project to introduce universal primary education in Russia, but it never received the force of law.

The situation with secondary educational institutions was somewhat better. in Russia in the first half of the 19th century. a whole network of gymnasiums was created with well-developed curricula and a fairly strong staff of teachers. However, in the 1860s in order to combat the "dangerous" passion of nihilistic youth for the natural sciences, this whole system was artificially deformed. On the one hand, classical gymnasiums were established, where the main emphasis was placed on the teaching of ancient languages, on the other hand, real schools with a narrowly professional technical orientation.

At the beginning of the XX century. under the influence of public demands, the ugly sides of secondary education are gradually straightened out. In gymnasiums, the classical direction was weakened, more time was devoted to teaching the natural sciences and mathematics. Unnecessarily narrow specialization in real schools was also eliminated, the graduates of which now have wider opportunities for higher education than before. Increasingly popular at the beginning of the 20th century. commercial schools were used, the network of which was created on the initiative and at the expense of the commercial and industrial bourgeoisie. These schools had a better material base than other secondary educational institutions, they gave a good education, they practiced joint education of boys and girls, unprecedented in Russia.

As for higher educational institutions - institutes and especially universities, they were not inferior to the best European models in terms of the level of organization of teaching. However, it is precisely in this sphere of Russian education that the tragic events of the beginning of the 20th century. had the most fatal effect. Student unrest has become a common occurrence in Russian life since the 1860s. But it was at this time that they took on a completely unprecedented scale. In 1899, the authorities aggravated the strict administrative supervision with the so-called "Provisional Rules", according to which participants in student riots were subject to return to the soldiers. This measure had consequences diametrically opposed to those that the government had hoped for: from 1899 until the first revolution, student unrest continued almost continuously, from time to time developing into strikes that led to the closure of universities and other higher educational institutions. During the revolution, students became one of its most active participants. True, Stolypin, who acted with the most cruel methods, managed to restore relative order in higher educational institutions. However, in 1911 a general student strike broke out, as a result of which several thousand students were expelled from universities. This was followed by an “exodus” from the Moscow University of professors, who made up its color: N. D. Zelinsky, P. N. Lebedev, K. A. Timiryazev and many others resigned in protest against the repressions. Thus, from the end of the XIX century. normal life in higher educational institutions was disrupted, studies were carried out in fits and starts, politics pushed science into the background.

Early 20th century was marked by the intensive growth in Russia of the periodical press and book business. The manifesto of 17 October 1905 introduced, albeit incompletely, freedom of the press. It was exempted from prior censorship, retroactively subjected to judicial and administrative prosecution for publications of an anti-government nature. Although the concept of "anti-government" was interpreted extremely broadly by the authorities, the prospects for publishing were now much more attractive than before.

If at the beginning of the XX century. 125 legal newspapers were published in the country, then in 1913 - more than 1000. The number of magazines by this time had reached an even larger figure - 1263. At the same time, along with the traditional "thick" magazines designed for the educated sections of society, all “thin” ones are beginning to come out in greater numbers - purely entertaining, “for family reading”, women's, for children and youth, etc. Some of them were very popular and came out in mass editions.

The production of books expanded significantly: in terms of the total amount of published literature, Russia at that time took third place in the world (after Germany and Japan). A noticeable phenomenon in Russian culture is the activity of many book publishers, among which I. D. Sytin and A. S. Suvorin stood out for their scope. Sytin became famous for publications available to the general reader: popular prints, various brochures, school textbooks. Suvorin acted in the same vein, publishing the Cheap Library in mass editions - works by Russian and foreign authors, books on art, popular science works. At the same time, publishing houses appeared, for example, the Sabashnikov brothers, specializing in the publication of serious scientific literature.

At the end of XIX - beginning of XX century. Russian science is moving to the forefront. In its various fields at this time, scientists appear whose discoveries change traditional ideas about the world around them. In the natural sciences, such a revolutionary role was played by the works of the physiologist I. P. Pavlov, who developed a fundamentally new method for studying living organisms. For discoveries in the field of physiology of digestion, Pavlov, the first among Russian scientists, was awarded the Nobel Prize (1904). Another Russian naturalist I. I. Mechnikov became a Nobel laureate for research in the field of comparative pathology, microbiology and immunology. The foundations of the new sciences (biochemistry, biogeochemistry, radiogeology) were laid at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. V. I. Vernadsky.

Ahead of their time, scientists who devoted themselves to the development of fundamentally new areas of science worked. N. E. Zhukovsky, who played a huge role in the development of aeronautics, laid the foundations of modern hydro- and aerodynamics.

In 1902, under his leadership, a wind tunnel was built - one of the first in Europe; in 1904, the first aerodynamic institute in Europe was established. The works of K. E. Tsiolkovsky, who laid the foundations for the theory of rocket propulsion and theoretical astronautics, became the brightest phenomenon not only in Russian, but also in world science.

The revolutionary situation in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. was accompanied by a rise in general interest in politics, in the humanities: history, philosophy, economics, law. These sciences from "cabinet" turned into publicistic, a number of scientists began to engage in political activities. At the end of XIX - beginning of XX century. religious philosophy, the foundations of which were laid by V. S. Solovyov, acquires special significance. With extraordinary force and persuasiveness, he spoke out against the materialism and positivism that dominated Russian science, trying to enrich philosophy with ideas drawn from Christianity. Following Solovyov, such remarkable philosophers as N. A. Berdyaev, S. N. Bulgakov, P. A. Florensky, S. N. and E N. Trubetskoy, S. L. Frank and others.

At this time, a number of very striking works appeared related to various areas of historical research: “Essays on the History of Russian Culture” by P. N. Milyukov, “Peasant Reform” by A. A. Kornilov, “History of Young Russia” by M. O. Gershenzon . More and more attention of historians is attracted by problems of an economic nature: serious studies on the history of the Russian economy were created by the "legal Marxists" M. I. Tugan-Baranovsky and P. B. Struve. The brilliant lecture course on Russian history by V. O. Klyuchevsky, published at the beginning of the 20th century, became a peculiar indicator of the high level of Russian historical science.

The names of Russian linguists F. F. Fortunatov, A. A. Shakhmatov, N. V. Krushevsky are associated with the development of a number of fundamental issues of general linguistics and the emergence of linguistics as a science. in literature at the beginning of the 20th century. the most prominent figure was A. N. Veselovsky, one of the founders of the comparative historical school, who worked hard on comparing the literary monuments of different eras and different peoples.

Questions and tasks

1. Tell us about the Russian education system. 2. What was the impact of the events of the early 20th century? on Russian students? 3. What explains the growth in the number of periodicals after the first Russian revolution? What features distinguished the activities of the leading book publishers in Russia? 4. Tell us about the most important scientific discoveries of Russian scientists at the beginning of the 20th century.

Science, enlightenment and the seal of the end XIX- startXXcenturies.

The abolition of serfdom, the bourgeois reforms carried out during the 60-70s. 19th century significantly accelerated the formation of capitalist relations in Russia, intensified the processes community development generally. Technical progress, the transformation of the social structure, changes in the management system predetermined the need to improve the education system.

The reform in the field of education was one of the most important among the complex of transformations that followed the manifesto of 1861. In 1864, the “Regulations on Primary Public Schools” were published, according to which the network of primary educational institutions expanded in Russia, which were divided into three types: 1 Zemstvo schools created by local zemstvo institutions. 2. Church schools. 3. Public schools of the Ministry of Public Education. At the same time, a new charter of secondary educational institutions was introduced, which from now on were divided into two types: Classical gymnasiums- in them the main emphasis was placed on the study of subjects of the humanities cycle and, above all, "classical" languages ​​​​(Ancient Greek and Latin) and Real Schools, where more attention was paid to natural science subjects: mathematics, physics, chemistry. Great strides have been made in the field of women's education. In the 2nd half of the 19th century, women's progymnasiums and gymnasiums appeared in many county towns. By the beginning of the 1980s, there were already seven universities in the country. In addition to classical universities, the number of higher technical educational institutions has increased.

A feature of the originality of Russian culture 2 half of XIX v. was that concerning low level elementary literacy of the overwhelming majority of the population in Russia was combined with an unusually high rate of development of domestic science, which at that time achieved great success.

Research in the field of natural sciences was especially widely known in the world: I.M. Sechenov (study of the brain and nervous system), I.P. Pavlov (theory of reflexes), I.I. Mechnikov (immunology, embryology, problems of aging, pathology, etc.)

The development of chemistry was marked by remarkable discoveries: A.M. Butlerov (theory chemical structure substances), D.I. Mendeleev ( periodic law chemical elements).

In physics, the end of the 19th - the beginning of the 20th centuries. was marked by a number of brilliant discoveries: A.G. Stoletov (questions of electricity, magnetism, the physical nature of light, the first law of the photoelectric effect), P.N. Yablochkov (arc lamp, “Yablochkov candle”), A.N. Lodygin (incandescent lamp ), A.S. Popov (radio), A.F. Mozhaisky (airplane), K.E. Tsiolkovsky (a project for the development of near-Earth space using vehicles driven by jet engines).

Special place in Russian science at the turn of the century belongs to V.I. Vernadsky, the former founder of geochemistry, biogeochemistry, and radiogeology. He developed the doctrine of the noosphere, a new evolutionary state of the biosphere (covered by the life of the Earth's surface), in which one of the decisive factors in its development is the rational activity of man.

End of the 19th century was the era of the last great travelers. There are almost no "white spots" left on the map. However, not all earth's surface has been studied uniformly. A significant contribution to the development of geography and ethnography was made by Academician P.P. Semenov-Tien Shansky (explored the Tien Shan, initiated several expeditions to Central Asia), N.M. Maclay (exploration of New Guinea and Oceania).

The development of historical science during this period was also significant: In the 2nd half of the 19th century, S.M. Solovyov wrote the most complete and detailed “History of Russia from Ancient Times” in 29 volumes, which remains to this day; VO Klyuchevsky writes works on hagiography and the history of medieval Russia.

An event in the cultural life of Russia was the release of " explanatory dictionary living Great Russian language” V.I. Dahl. The collector of Russians was engaged in the study of Russian literature folk tales A. N. Afanasiev. The works of the Russian philologist and art historian F. I. Buslaev gained great fame.

The social upsurge of the 60s affected both the general growth of printed matter (in terms of circulation and titles) and the change in the subject matter of literature. Many textbooks, religious books, and fiction are published in the capital, and there is an increase in the output of serious socio-economic and natural science literature.

In connection with the cultural activities of the intelligentsia, the number of public publications for the people, for people engaged in self-education, has increased.

But at the same time, the production of popular books is also growing. By the end of the century, the share of translated literature had significantly decreased. This was due to the success of Russian literature, the development of domestic science, social thought. The new industrial upsurge of the late 1980s and early 1990s, the revolutionary movement of the working class, and the activities of the first Marxist organizations contributed to the growth in the production of books and other printed works, and markedly changed the book assortment.

The number of publications by 1901 reached 10318, the total circulation - 56331 thousand copies. Petersburg and Moscow remained the main centers of book publishing in the second half of the 19th century, followed by Kiev, Odessa, Kharkov.

1. Culture of Russia. / Sat. Art. ed. Frolova A.K. – M.: Speech, 2005.

2. Milyukov P.N. Essays on the history of Russian culture. – M.: Thought, 1993.