Formation of the ancient Russian state characteristic. The main stages, features of the formation and development of the Russian state in the IX-XVII centuries

02.11.2019

Many scientists have long been interested in the question of the emergence of the ancient Russian state. So, when exactly Ancient Russia appeared, it is still impossible to say for sure. Most scientists come to the conclusion that the formation and development of the ancient Russian state is a process of gradual political formations. Many are sure that the Old Russian state arose in the 9th century. Of course, the creation of the Old Russian state entails a lot of questions. The most common is the Norman theory of origin. Ancient Russia.

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Options for creating a state in Ancient Russia

The oldest chronicle "The Tale of Bygone Years" helps to answer this question. It tells about the fact that our ancestors did not live according to the laws of statehood. There is also information here that the Slavic tribes paid tribute to the Khazars and Varangians. Further, it is told about the northern tribes who called the Varangian princes to themselves.

This decision allegedly became the reason that the Slavs could not find common language among themselves about power, and therefore turned to foreign princes for help. Thus, representatives of the Norman theory say that in 862 the Varangian princes came to Russia, taking the thrones: Truvor - in Izborsk: Rurik - in Novgorod, Sineus - in Beloozero. This event is considered the starting point of such a process as the formation of the Old Russian state.

Of course, not everyone is ready to accept this option as true. First of all, the factual material cannot be the basis for an unconditional conclusion about the creation of the state through the appearance of the Varangians. Many sources say that the statehood of the Slavs existed even before the Varangians. Also, scientists cannot agree with such a primitive version of the formation of the greatest state at that time.

The formation and development of the Old Russian state, like any other, is a complex and long process. These are the explanations that formed the basis of the anti-Norman theory of the emergence of Ancient Russia. The founder of this theory is the scientist M. Lomonosov. The refutation of the Norman theory is based on high level political and also social development Eastern Slavs of the 9th century. The Slavs were much higher than the Varangians in terms of economic and political development. If we talk about the Russian Orthodox Church, then it tries to tie the emergence of statehood to the spread of Christianity.

Features of the development of Ancient Russia

In addition to the Slavs, the Old Russian state was also made up of some Baltic and Finnish tribes. That is why we can conclude that the newly formed state from the very beginning could be called ethnically heterogeneous. The basis of Ancient Russia is the Great Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians. Kiev was the capital of this state.

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Speaking of social order Old Russian state, then its basis was made up of feudal lords (princes, bores, warriors, servants), as well as feudal-dependent peasants (smerdy, servants, purchase). Cities were the center of culture of Ancient Russia. The ancient Russian state was a monarchy, where the chief was the prince. It is known that the state conducted an active foreign policy activity, which was based on both forceful methods and diplomatic ones. Law was of great importance, its brightest example is Russian Truth. It was feudalism that led to the gradual withering away of the state.

The period of the brightest heyday in the history of Ancient Russia speaks of its vast territory, which reached the Taman Peninsula, the Dniester, the Vistula, and the Northern Dvina.

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Summing up, we note that by the end of the 10th century, the main features of the Old Russian state had developed:

- dynastic (tribal) princely power;

- the simplest state apparatus in the person of the squad and the governors of the prince;

- tributary system;

- the territorial principle of settlement, displacing the tribal;

- a monotheistic religion that enhances the process of sacralization of princely power.

The severity of the climatic conditions of Eastern Europe, isolation from the centers of ancient civilization delayed and slowed down the process of folding the state among the Eastern Slavs. It was formed as a result complex interaction internal and external factors, which allowed him to appear, based on only one communal basis. The Germanic tribes, having accepted the achievements of Roman civilization, approached the state forms of organizing social life earlier and faster.

One of the features of the ancient Russian state was that from its very beginning it was multi-ethnic in composition. In the future, this will contribute to the fact that the state and the Orthodox religion will become the main forces ensuring internal unity.

State formation was important historical meaning for the Eastern Slavs. It created favorable conditions for the development of agriculture, crafts, foreign trade, and influenced the formation of the social structure. For example, the performance of power functions in a later period contributed to the transformation of princes and boyars into landowners.

Thanks to the formation of the state, ancient Russian culture is being formed, a single ideological system of society is being formed.

Within the framework of the Old Russian state, a single Old Russian nationality is being formed - the basis of the three East Slavic peoples: Great Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian.

For centuries after its inception, the Old Russian state fought off the “waves” of nomads, took the blow on itself, thereby providing favorable conditions for the development of European civilization. On the other hand, Russia became a kind of bridge through which cultural and trade exchanges took place between the West and the East. However, Russia's intercivilizational position will largely influence its own path of development, causing internal contradictions and deepening the socio-cultural split.

If we consider the role of the Old Russian state from the point of view of significance for the history of our country, then it is worth noting that during the period of the Old Russian state, the foundations of statehood were laid, Russian culture began to take shape, a social system was formed, which was a prerequisite for the formation of Russian statehood as a whole.

The Russian state arose more than a thousand years ago as a Slavic state - Kievan Rus. It was in the 9th century. Its territory extended in the south to the Black Sea, and in the north to the Baltic. Its capital - Kiev - the mother of Russian cities - the core of the East Slavic world, trade, political, cultural relations of Russia. Kievan Rus, according to the historian B. A. Rybakov, is the youth and youth of the three fraternal Slavic peoples - Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian - who lived as one family, forming then a single ancient Russian people.

In the ninth century there were two largest center the formation of Russian statehood - Novgorod (founded in 859) - the capital of the Slavs, Krivichi, parts - Finno-Ugric tribes and Kiev (founded in 860) - the center of glades, northerners and Vyatichi, between which there was a tense struggle for leadership in the unification of the East Slavic lands. The North, represented by Novgorod, won this fight, and the political center for the creation of the Old Russian state was transferred to Kiev.

There is no single approach to the question of the formation of the Old Russian state. There are two theories here: Norman and anti-Norman. Supporters of the first theory, which arose in the 18th century, believe that the Slavs were not able to create their own state. This was allegedly brought to them by the Varangians (Normans, newcomers from Scandinavia), and they created the ancient Russian state.

Major pre-revolutionary historians Karamzin, Solovyov, Klyuchevsky treated this theory with confidence.

Anti-Normanists (Chess, Kostomarov, Ilovaisky, and also M.V. Lomonosov) believe that there is more speculation in this theory about the role of the Varangians, they deny this assumption and believe that the Slavs already had statehood by the time the Varangians arrived. These disputes continue. The dispute is still going on about the origin of the word "Rus". Normanists believe that it is of northern, Varangian origin; anti-Normanists believe that it is of Slavic origin. Historian Rybakov believes that "Rus" comes from a Slavic tribe.

“Ros” or “Rus”, who lived along the banks of the Ros River, a tributary of the Dnieper. Today, the theory of “neonormanism” also dominates in the West, taking into account the role of internal factors in the creation of the ancient Russian state and the role of the Varangians.

Historians believe that the Varangians and their squads played the role of accelerating the process of formation of the ancient Russian state, in uniting the East Slavic lands, in the formation of feudal relations in Russia. V ancient source"The Tale of Bygone Years", written by the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Nestor, there is a story about the calling by Novgorod in 862 of the Varangian princes Rurik, Sineus and Truvor to reign, and as a hired squad, who then seized power and used it to spread their influence . The reasons for the formation of the Old Russian state are not connected with the personality of this or that person, but with the objective processes that took place in the economic and political evolution of the Eastern Slavs.

The unification of the Slavic tribes was also accelerated by external danger, the need for defense against nomads. From the 8th century - with the Khazars, and from the end of the 9th century. with the Pechenegs. Economic situation The 9th century, when the path “from the Varangians to the Greeks” (from Scandinavia to Byzantium) was being formed, demanded the unity of the Slavs, the unification of the entire territory along this path. The real implementation of this unity fell to the lot of the Novgorod prince, a descendant of Rurik Oleg, who in 882 with a squad descended along the Dnieper, captured Kiev, killed Askold and Dir, who reigned there, and made this city the capital. This is considered the conditional date of the formation of the Old Russian state.

The position of Kiev at the southern end of the path “from the Varangians to the Greeks, and even next to those responsible for the Volga and Don, was especially significant. “Whoever owned Kiev,” Klyuchevsky wrote, “he held in his hands the key to the main gates of Russian trade.”

Having established his power in Kiev, Oleg managed to short term bring the neighboring tribes of the Drevlyans, Severyans, Radimichis to obedience, and his successor, Prince Igor, of the streets and Tivertsy. Igor's son Svyatoslav (the most warlike prince of the first Rurikovich) fought against the Vyatichi, conquered Volga Bulgaria, and undertook a number of successful campaigns against Byzantium. In the course of these numerous campaigns and wars, the territory under the control of the Kiev prince took shape.

At the beginning of the 11th century, Russia united almost all the East Slavic lands and became the largest state in Europe.

The reign of Oleg (882-912) - the first ruler of the Old Russian state, is covered with conflicting legends, one of them remained in the people's memory as an epic song about the death of Oleg from his own horse, processed by A.S. Pushkin in his "Song of the Eternal Oleg).

Christianity, adopted by Prince Vladimir at the end of the 11th century (988) from Byzantium, served as a powerful factor in the unification of Russia. Until the middle of the 10th century, paganism remained the dominant religion. The decisive factor in the creation of Russia's own state was the real internal preconditions. As the famous researcher wrote Kievan Rus B.D. Grekov “the formation of a state is not a sudden event, but a process, and a long process. This process consists in the formation of the most powerful economically and politically class, which takes power over the mass of the population into its own hands, organizes this mass.

For a deep understanding and understanding of the essence of the process of the formation of the state in Russia, it is necessary to turn to the internal factors of its development - economic, social, political, which had a decisive influence on the formation of ancient Russian statehood.

The prerequisites for the formation of the Old Russian state matured over the course of centuries, from the 6th to the 8th centuries. At this time, there were significant changes in the socio-economic life of the Eastern Slavs. They replaced slash-and-burn agriculture associated with collective labor with plowed agriculture. Improved tools (iron coulters, plows). The consequence of agricultural progress was that tribal collectives of 100 people were replaced by the economy of one peasant family. The tribal community ceased to be an economic necessity and disintegrated, giving way to a territorial, "neighboring" community (vervi). The community members were no longer united by kinship, but by a common territory and economic life.

The decomposition of the tribal system was facilitated by separate crafts from other types of economic activity, the growth of cities and foreign trade. Due to foreign trade, the tribal nobility was enriched first of all. Relying on permanent military squads, the tribal nobility (princes, governors) imposed tribute on the communal peasants.

So the socio-economic prerequisites for the formation of the state were formed. Significant changes have also taken place in political life Eastern Slavs. In ancient times, they were divided into 150-200 separate tribes. However, in the VI-VIII centuries. 14-15 large tribal unions appeared. The East Slavic tribes mentioned in the Tale of Bygone Years - Polans, Drevlyans, Dregovichi, Ilmen Slavs and other representatives are already tribal associations. At the head of such associations were princes and tribal nobility, but the popular assembly, the veche, still enjoyed great influence. Tribal unions are the political form of the era of military democracy, that is, of that transitional period that links the last stages of the development of the primitive communal system with the first stages of the new feudal system.

The Old Russian state by its nature was an early feudal monarchy. At the head of the state table is the hereditary prince - Grand Duke Kiev, relying on a large and well-armed squad. The rulers of other principalities were subordinate to the Kiev prince. The prince was a legislator, a military leader, a supreme judge, an addressee of tribute. In all management matters, he consulted with the squad. The most respected senior warriors, who made up the permanent council, the "thought" of the prince, began to be called boyars. "Gridni", "youths" and "children's" junior squads acted as representatives of the high-princely administration, carried out individual assignments, served the palace economy, and were the elite part of the army.

Local power was exercised by princely relatives, governors from senior combatants. Princely tributaries, swordsmen, virniki and other administrative persons traveled all over the country, collected tribute, carried out court and reprisals on behalf of the Kiev Grand Duke.

Every year, with the onset of winter, the prince with his retinue or on his behalf, the boyars went to the “polyudye” - to collect tribute with furs, honey, wax, bread and other products from the households of the communal peasants. Part of the tribute was intended for sale to Constantinople, the rest of the prince fed and dressed the squad. Sometimes, instead of part of the tribute, the prince granted the warriors the right to collect tribute from a certain territory.

An important role in Kievan Rus continued to play the people's militias. Along with the combatants, "howls" are constantly mentioned on the pages of the annals. The princely power was limited by elements of the preservation of popular self-government. The people's assembly - "veche", actively operated in the IX-XI centuries. and later.

The question of the socio-political structure of the Old Russian state is quite controversial. The most significant source for characterizing the social structure of ancient Russia is the oldest set of laws - Russian Truth.

The main population of the country were free peasants - community members, "people", as Russkaya Pravda calls them. There is another point of view, according to which the main peasant population of the country was the smerds mentioned more than once in the sources. However, Russkaya Pravda, speaking of community members, constantly uses the term "people" and not "smerds." For the murder of Lyudin, a fine of 40 hryvnia is due, and for the murder of a smerd - only 5. Apparently, smerds were not free or semi-free princely tributaries who sat on the ground and carried duties in favor of the prince.

Russian Pravda devotes a significant place to slaves. They were known under different names: servants, serfs. The main source of slavery was captivity. The serfs were completely powerless. For the murder of his serf, the master did not answer before the court, but was subjected only to church repentance. In the XII century. Purchases appeared in Russia, ruined community members who fell into debt dependence for a “kupa” (loan) from the prince or his combatant. A zakup was different from a slave; he had the right (most likely) to redeem himself, returning the kupa. He could go to work to pay off his debt. The purchase continued to conduct its own, separate from the master. His farm was not the property of the master. The position of the purchase, deprived of personal freedom, but not separate from the means of production, is close to the status of the future serf.

According to Russkaya Pravda, other categories of population dependence are also known: Ryadovichi, who entered into a “row” (agreement) with the master, outcast people who have lost their social status.

Thus, we see that the peasantry of the times of Kievan Rus was very diverse in terms of the degree of their freedom or dependence.

The main type of economic activity of the ancient Russian peasantry was agriculture, where wheat, oats, millet, rye, barley, etc. were cultivated. Bread was divided into spring and winter, a three-field system of agriculture appeared. The population was also engaged in cattle breeding, hunting, fishing and beekeeping.

Old Russian peasants lived in communities. This feature of the peasants was reproduced by B. A. Rybakov. “Russian peasants of the 10th-12th centuries,” he wrote, “settled in small unfortified villages and villages. The center of several villages was the "graveyard"; a larger village, in which the collection of feudal dues took place.

One of major events associated with Kievan Rus, with the formation and development of the Old Russian state, is the folding of the Eastern Slavs into the Old Russian nationality. To replace the tribe - the ethical category of the primitive communal system - along with the development of feudal relations in Russia, a different, more developed community of people comes - the nationality. Over time, all the tribal and territorial associations of the Eastern Slavs merged into the Old Russian nationality. Political unity led to the strengthening of the linguistic community, the development of the language of the people. Kievan Rus reached its highest power under Vladimir Monomakh (1113-1125). After his death, the princes of the lands began to leave the power of the Grand Duke. Kiev lost its leading position. Feudal fragmentation began. Kievan Rus broke up into three dozen independent principalities and territories with their own administration and economic structure. This period lasted from the 12th to the 15th centuries.

In the process of formation of the Old Russian state, three main stages can be distinguished:

Stage I (VIII-mid-IX centuries). going on maturation of the prerequisites for statehood in the East Slavic tribes. Internal factors played a decisive role in this process:

ethnic community,

A certain similarity of economic interests,

Proximity of the area

The need for protection from external enemies (neighboring tribes and states),

The need to expand the territory through military campaigns.

Starting from the VI century. among the Eastern Slavs, power is isolated and strengthened tribal aristocracy, primarily military leaders, relying directly on real armed force - squad. This type of social organization is called "military democracy".

Against this background, there are tribal unions and their centers are highlighted. By the 8th century the Eastern Slavs had certain state forms. historical sources testify to the existence of unions of East Slavic tribes:

- Valinana (among the Volhynians in the upper reaches of the Bug River),

- Kuyavia (identified with Kiev),

- Slavia (associated with Novgorod),

· - Artania (location unknown, possibly in the area of the modern city of Ryazan).

Appears polyudya system(collection of tribute from community members in favor of the leader-prince, so far voluntarily, perceived as compensation for military expenses and administrative activities).

Stage II (II half of the IX-mid-X centuries). The process of folding the state accelerated largely due to the active intervention of external forces - the Khazars and the Normans (Varangians), who forced the Slavic and Finno-Ugric tribes to pay tribute.

But one can speak about the real principles of ancient Russian statehood first of all when prince's power came to be seen as special state power(second half of the 9th-first half of the 10th centuries). Its character can be judged, first of all, by the organization of the collection of tribute and people, by an active foreign policy, especially in relation to Byzantium.

Vocation Rurik Novgorodians (862) and unification by his successor Oleg (879-912) Northern and Southern Russia under the rule of Kiev in the 9th century. allowed to concentrate the power of the Kiev princes over the territory from Ladoga to the lower reaches of the Dnieper.

There was a kind of federation of tribal principalities, headed by Prince of Kiev. His power was manifested in tribute collection from all the tribes included in this association.

Oleg, relying on the power of the Slavic-Norman squad and "wars" (armed free community members), commits successful campaigns against Byzantium in 907 and 911. As a result, they signed beneficial agreements for Russia, providing her with the right to duty-free trade on the territory of the empire and a number of other privileges.

Igor(912-945)

and also defended its borders from the formidable nomads who appeared - Pechenegs.

In 944-945. he committed two trips to Byzantium, which violated its agreements with Russia, but, having suffered defeat, was forced to conclude a less favorable agreement with the empire.

In an agreement with Byzantium in 945, the term itself is found "Russian land". In the same year, during the polyudya, he was killed by the Drevlyans for demanding tribute in excess of the usual.

Stage III (II half of the X-beginning of the XI centuries). It begins with the reforms of the princess Olga (945-964). Having avenged the Drevlyans for the death of her husband, in order to prevent what happened to Igor in the future, she established a fixed rate of tribute collection (“lessons”), and to collect it set special places("graveyards"), where the boyar with a small retinue "sat" (i.e. watched the collection of tribute).

"Polyudye" turned into "reason».

Graveyards become the backbone of local princely power.

Politics of Olga's son, Prince Svyatoslav (964-972) was aimed mainly at fight against an external enemy. The defeat of Khazaria and campaigns on the Danube required a lot of effort, money and time. In connection with this, the prince-warrior (that was the name of Svyatoslav both among the people and in the annals) practically did not deal with issues of the internal structure of the state.

New steps in the development of the Russian state is associated with the activities of the illegitimate son of Svyatoslav - Vladimir I (980-1015), who came to power as a result of a cruel, bloody struggle with his brothers for the throne of Kiev.

1. He expanded the territory of Kiev states, adding to it the southwestern (Galicia, Volyn) and western (Polotsk, Turov) Slavic lands.

In addition, feeling the danger to the strength of his power, associated with the inferiority of his origin (the son of the slave Malusha - the housekeeper of Princess Olga), Vladimir sought strengthen princely power basically -

Introduction monotheistic religion (monotheism) .

Introduction institute of governors

It first does this by creating pantheon of 5 gods headed by Perun, which was especially revered by warriors. But this reform did not take root, and he went for radical changes - he introduced monotheism, accepting himself and forcing all of Russia to accept Christianity.

The introduction of Christianity not only created the basis for the spiritual unity of the Russian people, but also strengthened the supreme power in the state (“one god in heaven, one prince on earth”), increased the international prestige of Kievan Rus, which ceased to be a barbarian country. In addition, Christian morality called for humility, which justified the feudal exploitation of ordinary community members by the prince, his entourage, and the landowning boyars, who were the backbone of princely power.

The next decisive step, completing the creation of the state, was the replacement of the tribal princes by Vladimir governors (they were 12 sons of Vladimir and approximate boyars), appointed prince of Kiev. Governors should have

defend the new faith

and to strengthen the power of the prince in the field, being the "eye of the sovereign."

The strengthening of power gave Vladimir the opportunity to organize the population of the country for creating powerful defensive lines on the southern borders state and resettle part of the population here from more northern territories (Krivichi, Slovenes, Chudi, Vyatichi). This made it possible to successful fight with raids Pechenegs . As a result, the prince, as epics testify, began to be perceived in the popular mind not just as a warrior-defender, but as the head of state, organizing the protection of his borders.

The final step in the formation of Russian statehood was made by the son of Vladimir I, Yaroslav the Wise (1019-1054), which marked the beginning of Russian written legislation. He created the first part of the first written code of laws - "Russian Truth" ("The Truth of Yaroslav"). It was written back in 1015, when he was his governor in Novgorod, and was intended for Novgorodians. Having entered the throne of Kiev in 1019, Yaroslav extended it to the territory of the entire state. Subsequently, for a century and a half, Yaroslav's Truth was supplemented by his sons ("The Truth of the Yaroslavichs"), Vladimir Monomakh ("Charter of Vladimir Monomakh") and subsequent rulers of the Russian state and existed as a legislative basis until the adoption of the first Sudebnik in 1497.

The emergence of a written code of laws in the early ninth century. became necessary because disintegration of the tribal community many simple people lost their status and suffered insults, not being able to turn to tribal groups. The only protection for community members and ordinary citizens was the prince and his squad. This further increased the power of the prince.

Russkaya Pravda, as a developing monument, gives an idea of the increasingly complex social structure, categories of free and dependent population, i.e. proper objects and subjects government controlled.

Being predominantly a procedural collection, Russkaya Pravda said little about judicial organization (the prince and judges are mentioned as court bodies, and the prince's court as a place of court). The fact is that many disputes were resolved out of court, by the forces of the interested parties themselves.

The significance of Russkaya Pravda lies in the fact that it influenced the development of local legislation and, in the future, national legislation.

In addition, it carried the idea of the responsibility of the authorities in court cases, primarily before God, and the self-serving court in the interests of the authorities itself was qualified as wrong.

In general, the first written legislative code of Russia is important evidence of the maturity of the state.

Thus, by the beginning of the XI century. Kievan Rus had the main features of the formed statehood:

A single territory covering the place of residence of all Eastern Slavs;

Dynastic princely power, which extended to the entire territory of the state;

A unified system of state administration based on vicegerency;

A single tax system for the entire state;

A single monotheistic religion that enhances the process of sacralization (sanctification) of princely power;

A unified legal basis in the form of a written set of laws.

In subsequent periods, these features of Russian statehood were further developed.

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Non-state educational institution higher professional education

"Institutestatemanagement,rightsandinnovativetechnologies»

FACULTY OF LAW

ESSAY

in the discipline "History"

TOPIC "Features of the formation of ancient Russian statehood"

Completed by a student: 2 courses of the correspondence department

Direction "Jurisprudence" Vorontsova O.V.

The work was checked by: Ph.D. Baklanov V.I.

Moscow 2015

Introduction

1.1 Norman theory

3. Social order

3.1 Political system

Conclusion

rus system political legal

Introduction

The study of the history of political thought is important not only in itself, but also for the correct understanding and solution of the problems of our time. The history of political thought goes back thousands of years. The origin of ancient Russian political ideology is connected with the chronicles that appeared in the first half of the 11th century.

The introduction of Christianity at the end of the 10th century, enriching the most ancient Russian political ideas, opened up for Ancient Russia the possibility of a free ideological and political dialogue with Byzantium, Europe, and the entire Christian world.

The origin of the legal thought of Ancient Russia was reflected by the most important source that has come down to us - Russkaya Pravda. According to the time of its appearance, it is the oldest monument of Slavic law, entirely based on the judicial practice of the Eastern Slavs.

The developing social contradictions, sometimes resulting in uprisings of the urban lower classes of Kiev in the second half of the 11th - early 12th centuries, the need to repel an external threat from the nomads and strengthen the independence of the state, over which Byzantium tried to establish hegemony, were the main sources that fed the main content of the political ideology of that time. The ideas of the independence of the Russian state, its unity, strong princely power become leading in the political literature of Kievan Rus. In the future, as feudal relations were strengthened, the processes of feudal fragmentation developed, and external danger increased, the ideas of the unity of all Russian lands (first around Kiev, and then Moscow) and the mitigation of social contradictions by appeasing exploitation and oppression began to be increasingly persistently promoted.

This paper examines the stages and features of the formation of ancient Russian political and legal thought.

1. Formation of the Old Russian state

The formation of the state among the Eastern Slavs was a logical result of a long process of decomposition of the tribal system and the transition to a class society.

The process of property and social stratification among the community members led to the separation of the most prosperous part from their midst. The tribal nobility and the prosperous part of the community, subjugating the mass of ordinary community members, needs to maintain their dominance in state structures.

The embryonic form of statehood was represented by the East Slavic unions of tribes, which united in superunions, however, fragile ones. One of these associations was, apparently, the union of tribes headed by Prince Kiy (VI century). There is information about a certain Russian prince Bravlin, who fought in the Khazar-Byzantine Crimea in the 8th-9th centuries, passing from Surozh to Korchev ( from Sudak to Kerch). Eastern historians talk about the existence on the eve of the formation of the Old Russian state of three large associations of Slavic tribes: Kuyaba, Slavia and Artania. Kuyaba, or Kuyavoy, was then called the area around Kiev. Slavia occupied the territory in the area of Lake Ilmen. Its center was Novgorod. The location of Artania - the third major association of Slavs - has not been precisely established.

According to The Tale of Bygone Years, the Russian princely dynasty originates in Novgorod. In 859, the northern Slavic tribes, who then paid tribute to the Varangians, or Normans (according to most historians, immigrants from Scandinavia), drove them across the sea. However, soon after these events, internecine struggle began in Novgorod. To stop the clashes, the Novgorodians decided to invite the Varangian princes as a force standing above the opposing factions. In 862, Prince Rurik and his two brothers were called to Russia by the Novgorodians, laying the foundation for the Russian princely dynasty.

1.1 Norman theory

The legend about the calling of the Varangian princes served as the basis for the creation of the so-called Norman theory of the emergence of the Old Russian state. Its authors were invited in the XVIII century. to Russia, German scientists G.Bayer, G.Miller and A.Schletser. The authors of this theory emphasized the complete absence of prerequisites for the formation of a state among the Eastern Slavs. The scientific inconsistency of the Norman theory is obvious, since the determining factor in the process of state formation is the presence of internal prerequisites, and not the actions of individual, even outstanding, personalities.

If the Varangian legend is not fiction (as most historians believe), the story of the calling of the Varangians only testifies to the Norman origin of the princely dynasty. The version about the foreign origin of power was quite typical for the Middle Ages.

The date of formation of the Old Russian state is conditionally considered to be 882, when Prince Oleg, who seized power in Novgorod after the death of Rurik (some chroniclers call him the governor of Rurik), undertook a campaign against Kiev. Having killed Askold and Dir, who reigned there, for the first time he united the northern and southern lands as part of a single state. Since the capital was moved from Novgorod to Kiev, this state is often called Kievan Rus.

Already at that time, Normanism met with objections from leading Russian scientists, among whom was M.V. Lomonosov. Since then, all historians dealing with Ancient Russia have divided into two camps - Normanists and anti-Normanists.

Modern domestic scientists mostly reject the Norman theory. The most important researchers of the Slavic countries also join them. See Lovmyansky Kh. Rus and the Normans. M., 1985. .

The main refutation of the Norman theory is the rather high level of social and political development of the Eastern Slavs in the 9th century. The ancient Russian state was prepared by the centuries-old development of the Eastern Slavs. In terms of their economic and political level, the Slavs stood above the Varangians, so they could not even borrow state experience from the newcomers.

The chronicle story contains, of course, elements of truth. It is possible that the Slavs invited several princes with their retinues as military specialists, as was done in later times in Russia, and in Western Europe as well. It is authentically known that the Russian principalities invited squads not only of the Varangians, but also of their steppe neighbors - the Pechenegs, Karakalpaks, Torks. However, it was not the Varangian princes who organized the Old Russian state, but the already existing state gave them the corresponding state posts. However, some authors, starting with M.V. Lomonosov, they doubt the Varangian origin of Rurik, Truvor, believing that they could also be representatives of any Slavic tribes. In any case, there are practically no traces of the Varangian culture in the history of our Motherland. Researchers, for example, calculated that for 10 thousand square meters. km. On the territory of Russia, only 5 Scandinavian geographical names can be found, while in England, which the Normans conquered, this number reaches 150.

We do not know exactly when and how exactly the first principalities of the Eastern Slavs arose, preceding the formation of the Old Russian state, but in any case they already existed before 862, before the notorious "calling of the Varangians." In the German chronicle, since 839, the Russian princes are called Khakans - kings.

But the moment of the unification of the East Slavic lands into one state is known for certain. In 882, Prince Oleg of Novgorod captured Kiev and united these two most important groups of Russian lands; then he managed to annex the rest of the Russian lands, creating a huge state for those times. Russian Orthodox Church tries to link the emergence of statehood in Russia with the introduction of Christianity.

Of course, the introduction of Christianity had great importance to strengthen the feudal state, the good church illuminated the subordination of the Orthodox to the exploiting state. However, the baptism of Russia took place no less than a century after the formation of the Kievan state, not to mention the earlier East Slavic states.

In addition to the Slavs, some neighboring Finnish and Baltic tribes entered the Old Russian Kievan state. This state, therefore, from the very beginning was ethnically heterogeneous. However, it was based on the ancient Russian nationality, which is the cradle of three Slavic peoples - Russians (Great Russians), Ukrainians and Belarusians. It cannot be identified with any of these peoples in isolation. bourgeois Ukrainian nationalists even before the revolution, they tried to portray the Old Russian state as Ukrainian. This idea has been taken up in our time in nationalist circles, which are trying to quarrel the three fraternal Slavic peoples. Meanwhile, the ancient Russian state did not coincide in territory or population with modern Ukraine, they only had a common capital - the city of Kiev. In the IX and even in the XII century. it is still impossible to talk about a specifically Ukrainian culture, language, etc. All this will appear later, when, due to objective historical processes, the ancient Russian nationality breaks up into three independent branches.

2. The main stages in the formation of the Old Russian state

In the process of formation of the Old Russian state, 4 stages can be distinguished:

1 Decomposition of tribal relations. In connection with increased migration in the V-VII centuries. there was a mixture of the Slavic population that came from the Carpathians and the Danube with the local population of the East European Plain. The neighboring community gradually replaced the tribal one. Improvement in technology and tools contributed to the emergence of commodity surpluses, which led to the exchange of goods and the emergence of property inequality.

2. To ensure the exchange of goods, settlements appear, and then cities. Groups are distinguished according to the way of life support: product manufacturers, merchants, warriors. The dominant position of cities over the surrounding villages is manifested. Intertribal conflicts strengthen the role of military leaders and contribute to their enrichment.

3. Seizure of power by the princes in cities and villages. Formation of the squad as an apparatus of suppression and administration. The property of the prince allows him to direct the squad to solve political problems.

4. There is an unification of the East Slavic and some other tribes into the Old Russian state - Kievan Rus. The principles of the transfer of power are being formulated, the collection of tribute is regulated, interstate relations are being built, and a state religion is being introduced.

Thus, by the end of the 10th century, a state was formed on the territory from the White to the Black Seas and from the Carpathian Mountains to the Don steppes, which existed until the middle of the 13th century and became the common cradle of the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian peoples.

3. Social order

The social structure of the Old Russian state was complex, but the main features of feudal relations were already quite clearly looming. Formed feudal ownership of land - the economic basis of feudalism. Accordingly, the main classes of feudal society were formed - feudal lords and feudally dependent peasants.

The most important feudal lords were princes. Sources point to the presence of princely villages where dependent peasants lived, working for the feudal lord under the supervision of his clerks, elders, including those who specially observed the field workers. The boyars were also big feudal lords - the feudal aristocracy, which grew rich due to the exploitation of the peasants and predatory wars.

With the introduction of Christianity, the church and monasteries became collective feudal lords. Not immediately, the church gradually acquires land, the princes grant her a tithe - a tenth of the income from the population and other, including judicial, income.

The main right and privilege of the feudal lords was the right to land and exploit the peasants. The state also protected other property of the exploiters. The life and health of the feudal lord were also subject to enhanced protection. For an encroachment on them, a high measure of punishment was established, differentiated depending on the position of the victim. The honor of the feudal lord was also highly guarded: insult by action, and in some cases by word, also entailed serious punishments.

In the ancient Russian state, the figure of a typical feudally dependent peasant appears - the purchase. Zakup has his own household, but need makes him go into bondage to the master. He takes a kupa from the feudal lord - a sum of money or assistance in kind and, because of this, is obliged to work for the owner.

In the multi-structured ancient Russian society, there was also an "involuntary servant". Russian Truth does not call a free man a serf or a servant, but an unfree woman a robe, uniting both general concept"servants".

For the Old Russian state, the absence of enslavement of the peasants is also characteristic: Feudal dependence can exist in different forms. This stage in the development of feudalism is characterized by the absence of attachment of the peasant to the land and the absence of the personality of the feudal lord. Even a purchase, if he somehow contrives to collect money to pay the debt, can immediately leave his master.

Large and numerous cities existed in the Old Russian state. Already in the IX - X centuries. there were at least 25 of them. In the next century, more than 60 cities were added, and by the time of the Mongol-Tatar invasion in Russia there were about 300 cities. See: Buganov V.I., Preobrazhensky A.A. The evolution of feudalism in Russia. M., 1980. Merchants, who were a privileged category of people, stood out among the urban population. This applies especially to guests engaged in foreign trade. Skillful artisans also lived in Kiev, Novgorod and other cities, building magnificent temples and palaces for the nobility, making weapons, jewelry, etc.

Cities were centers of culture. The ancient Russian village was illiterate for a long time. But in the cities, literacy was widespread, not only among merchants, but also among artisans. This is evidenced by both numerous birch bark letters and author's inscriptions on household items.

As we can see, estates, that is, large groups of people united by the unity of legal status, are already taking shape in the Old Russian state. Therefore, one can hardly agree with some domestic and foreign authors who believe that the estate system was characteristic only of Western feudalism.

The Old Russian state was multi-ethnic, as already noted, moreover, from the very beginning. As the Slavs moved to the northeast, they inevitably entered the area of settlement of the Finnish tribes. However, this process was mostly peaceful and was not accompanied by the subjugation of the indigenous population. In the vast forests of the Volga basin and beyond, there was enough space for everyone, and the Slavs peacefully mixed with the local tribes. With the introduction of Christianity, this synthesis was facilitated by the same baptism of all pagans - both Slavs and Finns. The Russian Metropolitan Hilarion, in his "Sermon on Law and Grace" (XI century), speaks of the equality of all Orthodox peoples. In legislation, we also will not find any advantages for the Slavs, for Russia. Moreover, Russkaya Pravda provides certain advantages in the field of civil and procedural law for foreigners, based on the principles of traditional Russian hospitality.

3.1 Political system

S.V. Yushkov believed that the Old Russian state arose and existed for some time as a feudal state. Most modern researchers consider this state to be early feudal from the very beginning. As such, he had certain characteristic features.

The Old Russian state was relatively unified, as it obeyed the will of one monarch. However, the form of state unity of Ancient Russia was peculiar and at the same time typical of feudalism. Its essence was the relationship of suzerainty - vassalage, when the entire structure of the state rests on the ladder of the feudal hierarchy.

Some pre-revolutionary, and even modern authors see in the Old Russian state already a federal form of state unity Novoseltsev A.P. The formation of the Old Russian state and its first ruler. 1991 #2-3. It seems that this is hardly justified. Federation is more late types state, especially the bourgeois one. In our country, it arose only after the October Revolution.

The ancient Russian state was a monarchy. It was headed by the Grand Duke. There are major laws issued by the Grand Dukes and bearing their names: the Charter of Vladimir, the Truth of Yaroslav, etc.

The grand dukes performed the external functions of the state not only by force of arms, but also through diplomacy. Ancient Russia stood at the European level of diplomatic art. It concluded various kinds of international treaties - military, commercial and other.

Sometimes in the Old Russian state feudal congresses, congresses of the tops of the feudal lords, were convened, resolving disputes between princes and some other important matters.

Conclusion

Russian political thought in the 11th-14th centuries. has come a long way in development. Its characteristic features were a practical-political orientation, the desire to answer the main questions of its time, to show ways to solve them. The peculiar combination of religious ideas and secular argumentation in political writings was also characteristic. Of course, theology was the dominant worldview!?! but in principle, medieval scholasticism, characteristic of almost the entire corresponding period in Western Europe, did not play a leading role.

In the development of Russian political thought of this time, two main stages can be distinguished: 11-13 and 14-16 centuries. At the first stage, attention to foreign policy problems prevailed - the idea of the independence of the Russian state can be traced starting from the "Sermon on Law and Grace". Organically related to it was domestic political issues - the task of overcoming feudal fragmentation, the idea of the unity of the Russian land. A remarkable work of ancient Russian literature, The Tale of Igor's Campaign, imbued, despite Igor's defeat, with patriotism and historical optimism, faith in the Russian people, in its strength and future, became a kind of accumulator of the leading problems.

In the second stage, after release from Tatar-Mongol yoke, overcoming feudal fragmentation, domestic political problems come to the fore. With increasing force, the ideas of a strong autocratic power are developing, breaking all types of opposition (boyar, church, people) to strengthening the autocratic power of the tsar, imposing serfdom, conducting an active foreign policy to strengthen their independence and power.

The historical conditions of the country's development gave rise to and supported the idea state power standing high above the people. The need to protect and then liberate Russia from foreign invaders, the discord of the specific princes, the harsh forms of feudal enslavement of the peasantry - all this contributed to the formation and strengthening of the autocracy of the tsars. In addition, in Russia there was no dualism of spiritual and secular authorities, as in the countries Western Europe. The feudal Orthodox Church, having achieved guarantees of the inviolability of church property, generally served to strengthen the autocracy. In the theories that prevailed in subsequent centuries, the heirs of the ideas of the 11th-14th centuries, a semi-mystical view of royal power as something unshakable, supernatural was already sharply expressed.

Ancient Russian political thought and politics had a rich regulatory framework. One of the sources was Russkaya Pravda in a short edition - “The Russian Law”. It determined the legal status of certain groups of the population, which was divided into free and independent people.

On the whole, Russkaya Pravda of the 11th-13th centuries represented a whole series of legal establishments at different times. Over time, Russkaya Pravda turned from a princely dominal law into a collection of norms of feudal law as a whole. The stages of “completing” the Russian Truth gave rise to a number of its lists - the Short Edition, the Extended Edition and the Abbreviated Edition. Each of the editions introduced norms corresponding to the realities of life.

The study of the history of the political and legal thought of Ancient Russia is important for understanding the stages in the formation of Russian statehood.

List of used literature

1. Buganov V.I., Preobrazhensky A.A. The evolution of feudalism in Russia. M., 1980.

2. Isaev I.A. History of the state and law of Russia. Textbook. M.: Lawyer, 1999.

3.. Lovmyansky H. Russia and the Normans. M., 1985.

4. Novoseltsev A.P. The formation of the Old Russian state and its first ruler, 1991.

5. Chistyakova O.I. History of domestic state and law. Textbook. M.: Beck, 1996.

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1.1 Norman theory

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