How did Peter 1 forbid writing. The prohibitions of Peter I that changed the face of Russia

06.04.2020

The Mongol-Tatar invasion and the invasion of the German knights brought the country to the brink of death.

Literature of the 13th century characterized by tragic pathos and the rise of national-patriotic sentiments. About fierce battles with the invaders and the terrible devastation of the Russian land, chronicles tell about the battle on the river. Kalke "Word about the destruction of the Russian land", "The Life of Alexander Nevsky". The memory of the invasion of Russia was preserved in the works of a later time “The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu” (XIV century), “Kitezhnaya Legend”. The last historical and cultural monument is a cycle of legends about the legendary city of Kitezh, which sank into Lake Svetloyar and thus escaped devastation by the Mongol-Tatars. The cycle was composed over many centuries and finally took shape in the Old Believer "Book, the verb of the chronicler" ( late 18th v.).

From the 2nd half of the XIV century. the rise of Russian culture begins, due to the success of economic development and the first major victory over foreign invaders in the Battle of Kulikovo. Thereafter historical event old cities are being revived and new ones are developing - centers of economic life and culture.

Moscow leads the struggle for the unification of the Russian lands, its influence as one of the cultural centers is growing.

The most outstanding work of this time, Zadonshchina (beyond the Don), is dedicated to the victory at the Kulikovo field. This work was written in the genre of a historical story by Ryazan Zephanius in the 80s. 14th century The author compares the events of his contemporary life with the events described in the Tale of Igor's Campaign. The victory on the Kulikovo field is, as it were, revenge for the defeat of the troops of Igor Svyatoslavovich. This victory restored the glory and power of the Russian land.

Architecture was widely developed, primarily in Novgorod and Pskov, cities politically less dependent on the Mongol khans. In the XIV-XV centuries. Novgorod was one of the largest centers for the development of art, economic and political life.

Russian architects continued the traditions of architecture of the pre-Mongolian period (continuity of cultures). They used masonry of roughly hewn limestone slabs, boulders and partly bricks. Such masonry created the impression of strength and power (and this corresponds to the Russian character). Academician I. E. Grabar noted this feature of Novgorod art: “The ideal of a Novgorodian is strength, and his beauty is the beauty of strength.”

The result of new searches for the traditions of old architecture is the Church of the Savior on Kovalev (1345) and the Church of the Assumption on Volotovo Field (1352). Samples of the new style are the Church of Theodore Stratilates (1361) and the Church of the Transfiguration of the Savior (1374). This style is characterized by elegant external decoration of temples, decoration of facades with decorative niches, sculptural crosses, and niches with frescoes. The Church of the Transfiguration of the Savior, built in Novgorod, is a typical cross-domed church with four powerful pillars and one dome.

Simultaneously with the temple, civil construction was also carried out. The Chamber of Facets was built in Novgorod (1433). Novgorod boyars built stone chambers for themselves. In 1302, a stone Kremlin was laid in Novgorod.

Other large economic and cultural center at that time was Pskov. The city looked like a fortress. The architecture of the buildings is severe and laconic, almost completely devoid of decorative ornaments. The length of the walls of the large stone Kremlin was nine kilometers. Pskov craftsmen won great fame in Russia and had a great influence on Moscow construction.

In Moscow, stone construction began in the 2nd quarter of the 14th century. (construction of the white-stone fortress of the Moscow Kremlin). The Kremlin was constantly built and expanded.

Construction was underway in other cities. The largest building of that time was the Assumption Cathedral in Kolomna - on a high basement, with a gallery.

A new direction in Moscow architecture was the desire to overcome the "cubic" and create a new, upward-looking composition of the building due to the stepped arrangement of vaults.

History of Russian painting of the XIV-XV centuries. as well as architecture, became a natural continuation of the history of painting of the pre-Mongolian period.

Icon painting is developing in Novgorod and Pskov. Novgorod icons of this period are characterized by a laconic composition, a clear drawing, purity of colors, and impeccable technique.

Wall painting in Russia of this time belongs to the golden age. Along with icon painting, fresco was widely used - painting on wet plaster with paints diluted in water. In the XIV century. fresco painting takes shape compositionally, the landscape is introduced, the psychologism of the image is enhanced.

A special place among the artists of the XIV-XV centuries. occupied by the brilliant Theophanes the Greek (c. 1340 - after 1405). The works of Theophanes the Greek - frescoes, icons are distinguished by their monumentality, strength and dramatic expressiveness of images, bold and free pictorial manner. He embodied in his works the spirituality of man, his inner strength. Together with Andrei Rublev, they paint the Annunciation Cathedral in the Kremlin (1405).

Another famous master of this time is the great Russian artist Andrei Rublev (c. 1360/70 - c. 1430). His work marked the rise of Russian culture during the creation of a centralized Russian state and the rise of Moscow. Under him, the Moscow school of painting flourishes. The works of Andrey Rublev are distinguished by deep humanity, spirituality of images, the idea of concord and harmony, and the perfection of the artistic form.

His most famous work is the icon "Trinity". In this masterpiece we see the expression of a deep humanistic idea of consent and philanthropy, harmony.

Culture of Russia at the end of the 15th–16th centuries.

For the historical and cultural development of Russian lands, the period of the end of the XV-XVI centuries. was a turning point. The formation of a single Russian state continued, the country finally freed itself from the Mongol-Tatar yoke, and the formation of the Russian nationality was completed. All this had a significant impact on the formation of cultural processes.

Secular and democratic elements are growing in Russian culture.

Works appear in the literature that support the new state policy. The theory of the origin of the Russian state found its expression in the "Tale of the Princes of Vladimir". It stated that the Russian sovereigns trace their origins to the Roman Emperor Augustus. This idea was supported by the church, which also connected it with the concept of "Moscow - the Third Rome". The economic and political achievements of Russia at that time had a noticeable impact on raising the level of literacy and education. Literacy was taught in private schools mainly by priests and deacons. In schools they studied the Psalter, and in some - elementary grammar and arithmetic.

An important role in the history of Russian culture was played by the appearance typography. Its first attempts date back to the end of the 15th century, but it began in 1553. 1563 was built first printing house in Moscow. Printing became a state monopoly. The printing house was headed by Ivan Fedorov and Pyotr Mstislavets. In 1564 the first Russian printed book “ Apostle».

Among the literary monuments of that time is a huge 10-volume collection of church literature "Monthly Readings". These are the biographies of Russian saints written by Metropolitan Macarius, compiled by months in accordance with the days of honoring each saint.

Generalizing annalistic works are created, for example, the Front Chronicle Code - a kind of The World History from the creation of the world to the middle of the XVI century. A monument of Russian historical literature is also the "Book of Powers", compiled by Ivan IV's confessor Andrei. It outlines Russian history from Vladimir I to Ivan IV.

The set of everyday rules and instructions contains " Domostroy". He defended the patriarchal way of life in the family. The book gave advice on how to be frugal and so on.

Architecture of the period of the XV - XVI centuries. reflected the growing international role of the Russian state. Coming new stage both in temple and civil architecture.

The creation of the Russian centralized state was marked by the construction on the site of the old new Kremlin, the ensemble of which finally took shape in the late 15th - early 16th centuries. At this time, bricks began to be used in construction. Brickwork replaced the traditional white stone. In 1485 - 1495. The white stone walls of the Kremlin were replaced with brick ones.

In 1475 - 1479. A new Assumption Cathedral was built, which became a classic example of monumental temple architecture of the 16th century.

In 1484 - 1489. Annunciation Cathedral was built - the home church of the Grand Dukes.

In 1505 - 1508. The Archangel Cathedral was built, in the external appearance of which the secular style of architecture was clearly expressed. The Archangel Cathedral was a tomb temple, where all the great princes were transferred, starting with Ivan Kalita, and then the kings (until Peter I).

Secular buildings were also erected in the Moscow Kremlin, for example, the Faceted Chamber, which was intended for ceremonial receptions.

The highest achievement of Russian architecture of the XVI century. was the construction of the temple tent type, which most clearly expressed the national identity of Russian traditions. An example of a hipped temple was the Intercession Cathedral (St. Basil's Cathedral). The cathedral was built in 1555-1560. Russian architects Barma and Postnik in honor of the capture of Kazan.

In the XVI century. "fortification construction" gained enormous scope.

A line of fortifications was erected in Moscow (Kitay-Gorod, then Bely Gorod). These works were supervised by the famous master Fedor Kon, he also built the Smolensk Kremlin.

Painting of the period of the late XV - XVI centuries. represented by the works of the talented Russian artist Dionisy. He painted the Assumption Cathedral.

Gradually, the range of painting themes is expanding, and interest in non-church subjects, especially historical ones, is growing. The genre of historical portrait is developing.

The painting of this period is characterized by a growing interest in real historical figures and events.

According to Academician D.S. Likhachev, “from all periods of history Russian culture exactly XV-XVI centuries. are especially important. It was then that the interrupted process of creating a single state was restored and culture was revived ... "

RUSSIAN CULTURE IN THE 14-16 CENTURIES
INFLUENCE OF THE TATAR-MONGOLIAN YOG ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF RUSSIAN CULTURE

As a result of the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars, severe damage was inflicted on material and cultural values. A sharp increase in the disunity of the Russian lands from the middle of the 13th century made itself felt, which negatively affected the development of Russian culture. Immediately after the establishment of the Horde dominion in Russia, the construction of stone buildings was temporarily stopped.

The art of a number of artistic crafts was lost.

During the period of feudal fragmentation, local centers of chronicle writing were formed, as well as literary art schools. During the Mongol-Tatar yoke, some of these traditions were preserved, which created the basis for a future cultural upsurge by the end of the 14th century. In addition, the struggle for state integrity and independence brought together the cultures of different lands, as well as the culture of the elite and the people. Despite the fact that many cultural works died, many appeared.

Involved in the system of world trade relations through Golden Horde, Russia adopted a number of cultural achievements of the countries of the East, the technology of manufacturing various objects, architectural achievements and general cultural ones.

On the other hand, the Mongol-Tatar invasion influenced the rise of Moscow as the center of the unification of Russia. And gradually the all-Russian culture began to take shape on the basis of the culture of Vladimir Rus.

CHRONICLE

Starting from the second half of the 13th century, chronicle writing was gradually restored in the Russian lands. Its main centers remained the Principality of Galicia-Volyn, Novgorod, Rostov the Great, Ryazan, and from about 1250 Vladimir. There are also new centers Moscow, Tver.

Since the second half of the 14th century, the compilation of chronicles and handwritten books has experienced a significant rise. The leading place is gradually occupied by the Moscow chronicle tradition with its ideas of uniting the lands around Moscow. The Moscow chronicle tradition has come down to us as part of the Trinity Chronicle at the beginning of the 15th century and, unlike local chronicles, is the first since Ancient Russia a code of an all-Russian character, here the right of the princes of Moscow to be the head of Russia is justified.

In the middle of the 15th century, a brief world history appeared - the chronograph.

ORAL FOLK CREATIVITY OF RUSSIA

At the same time, the most important genre of literature in the 13th century, which received dynamic development, was oral folk art: epics, songs, legends, military stories. They reflected the ideas of Russian people about their past and about the world around them.

The first cycle of epics is a refinement and revision of the old cycle of epics about the Kievan state.

The second cycle of epics— Novgorod. It glorifies the wealth, power, love of freedom of the free city, as well as the courage of the townspeople in protecting the city from enemies.

The main characters are Sadko, Vasily Buslaevich.

Other genres appear in the 14th century and are dedicated to understanding the Mongol conquest. Tales-tales: about the battle on the Kalka River, about the ruin of Ryazan, about the invasion of Batu, as well as about the defender of Smolensk - the young Smolyanin Mercury, who saved the city at the behest of the Virgin from the Mongol troops. Part of the works of this cycle was included in the annalistic vaults.

LITERATURE OF RUSSIA

In the tradition of lamentation it is written "A word about the destruction of the Russian land"(only the first part survived). The ideas of national liberation and patriotism are also reflected in works dedicated to the northwestern borders of the Russian land: "The Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky". A number of hagiographic works are dedicated to the princes who died in the horde. This life of Mikhail Chernigov. The princes are presented in these works as defenders of the Orthodox faith and Russia.

Images, literary style, individual turns, expressions were borrowed from here. It does not report a campaign or battle, but expresses feelings from what happened. Written following the results of the Battle of Kulikovo.

This victory is considered here as retribution for the defeat on the Kalka River. The work expresses pride in the victory, Moscow is glorified as state center Russia. Zadonshchina has been preserved in the original. Characterized by good literary language.

In the genre of secular literature written Sailing over three seas Afanasy Nikitina. This is one of the few secular works preserved in Russia. It recounts the impressions of travels to India and many Eastern countries. This is a travel diary.

THE BEGINNING OF PRINTING IN RUSSIA

The end of the 15th century is associated with the completion of the formation of the Great Russian people.

A language was formed that differed from Church Slavonic. The Moscow dialect became dominant.

With the formation of a centralized state, the need for literate, educated people increased.

In 1563 Ivan Fedorov headed the state printing house. His assistant was Fyodor Mstislavovich. . The printing house worked mainly for the needs of the church.

In 1574, the first Russian alphabet was published in Lvov.

GENERAL POLITICAL THOUGHT OF RUSSIA IN THE 16TH CENTURY.

reforms Chosen Rada under Ivan the Terrible were aimed at strengthening the centralization of the state. The general political thought of Russia reflected several trends on the relationship between power and individual segments of the population, designed to support it. Either the tsarist government had to fight the boyars, or the boyars had to be its main support.

The Great Menaion of the Honor of Metropolitan of All Russia Macarius (1481/82-31.XII. 1563) is a book collection of 12 handwritten books, which constitutes an annual “reading circle” for almost every day, each of the 12 Menaia contains material for one of the months (starting from September). According to the plan of the initiator, the organizer of the correspondence and the editor of this book collection, Macarius, 12 folios of huge volume and size were supposed to absorb “all the holy books of Chetya”, revered and read in Russia, thanks to which the Great Menaion of Chetya became a kind of encyclopedia of Russian book literature of the 16th century.

Domostroy- a monument of Russian literature of the 16th century, which is a collection of rules, advice and instructions in all areas of human and family life, including social, family, economic and religious issues. It is best known in the mid-16th century edition attributed to Archpriest Sylvester.

Although Domostroy was a collection of tips on housekeeping, it was written in artistic language and became a literary monument of the era.

PAINTING OF RUSSIA

Despite some decline in the development of the country, Russian painting reached its peak by the 14th-15th centuries. V contemporary literature this period is regarded as the Russian revival. At this time, a series of remarkable painters was working in Russia.

At the end of the 14th and beginning of the 15th century, a person from Byzantium worked in Novgorod, Moscow, Serpukhov and Nizhny Novgorod. painter Theophanes the Greek.

He superbly combined the Byzantine tradition and the already established Russian one. Sometimes he worked in violation of the canons. His images are psychological, spiritual tension is conveyed in his icons. He created the painting of the Church of the Savior on Ilyen Street in Novgorod, together with Semyon Cherny - the painting of the Moscow Church of the Nativity of the Virgin (1395) and the Archangel Cathedral (1399).

The great Russian artist who worked during this period is Andrei Rublev.

He is a master of laconic, but very expressive composition. An amazing pictorial color is visible in his works. And in his icons and frescoes one can feel the ideal of moral perfection. At the same time he was able to convey subtle soul feelings characters. He participated in the painting of the old Annunciation Cathedral in the Kremlin (1405) together with Theophan the Greek and the prokhor from Gorodets, painted the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir (1408). Trinity Cathedral in the Trinity - Sergius Monastery and the Spassky Cathedral of the Andronikov Monastery (1420).

"Trinity". 1411 or 1425-27, State Tretyakov Gallery

The image reflects the biblical story, when the forefather Abraham received at home three travelers sent by God and who brought him news of the impending birth of his son. The first images of three angels at the table appeared in Byzantium of the 14th century, and were called Philoxenia (Greek - "hospitality") of Abraham.

One of the first who breathed a new Eucharistic meaning into this icon was the Russian icon painter, St. Andrei Rublev. He depicted the Three Angels as the three hypostases of God. The middle angel symbolizes the Son of God - Jesus Christ, the left - God the Father, the right God - the Holy Spirit (the basis of such an interpretation of the icon in the clothes and disposition of the Angels), however, the same appearance Likov shows that the Holy Trinity is a single and indivisible Whole. Before the Angels is a bowl - a symbol of Christ's sacrifice for our sins.

At the end of the 15th century, an outstanding contribution to the development of Russian painting was made by the outstanding icon painter Dionysius. He was an excellent colorist and a very complex master. Together with his sons Theodosius and Vladimir, as well as other students, he created frescoes of the Assumption Kremlin Cathedral.

Among his creations was the famous icon of the Savior in strength.

At the same time, the Novgorod icon-painting school also functions. It is distinguished by the brightness of colors and the dynamism of the composition.

ARCHITECTURE OF RUSSIA

In the 14th-16th century, in connection with the centralization of the state, Moscow was decorated (under Ivan Kalita, stone construction developed).

Under Dmitry Donskoy, a white-stone Kremlin was first erected.

During the yoke, a series of old Russian churches is being restored. Thanks to completions and rebuildings, there is a tendency towards the crystallization of the Russian national architectural style based on the synthesis of the traditions of the Kiev and Vladimir-Suzdal lands, which in the future became a model for subsequent construction in the late 15th and early 16th centuries.

On the advice of Sophia Paleolog (grandmother of Ivan IV the Terrible), masters from Italy were invited. The purpose of this is to display the power and glory of the Russian state. The Italian Aristotle Fioravanti traveled to Vladimir, examined the Assumption and Dmitrievsky Cathedrals. He successfully managed to combine the traditions of Russian and Italian architecture. In 1479 he successfully completed the construction of the main temple of the Russian state - the Assumption Cathedral of the Kremlin. Following this, a faceted chamber was built to receive foreign embassies.

The appeal to national origins was especially clearly expressed in the stone architecture of the traditional Russian tent style, so characteristic of the wooden architecture of Russia.

The masterpieces of the tent style were the Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye (1532) and the Intercession Cathedral on Kremlin Square in Moscow. That is, their own architectural style appears.

Intercession Cathedral

Introduction p. 3
Chapter 1. Russian culture of the XIV - XV centuries P. 6
1. Book business S. 6
2. Literature. Chronicle S. 8
3. Architecture p. 12
4. Painting S. 15
5. Accumulation of scientific knowledge P. 17
Chapter 2. Russian culture of the 15th - early 16th centuries P. 19
1. Book business S. 19
2. Chronicle. Literature S. 20
3. Architecture p. 21
4. Painting S. 25
Conclusion p. 26
List of used literature. S. 27

Introduction

In the middle of the XIII century, Russia was subjected to the Mongol-Tatar invasion, which had disastrous consequences for its economy and culture. It was accompanied by the extermination and capture of a significant part of the population, the destruction of material values, cities and villages. The Golden Horde yoke, which had been established for two and a half centuries, created extremely unfavorable conditions for the restoration and further development economy and culture.
As a result of political events XIII- XIV centuries, various parts of the ancient Russian people were divided, cut off from each other. Entry into different public entities hindered the development of economic and cultural ties between individual regions of the formerly united Russia, deepened the differences in language and culture that existed before. This led to the formation, on the basis of the ancient Russian nationality, of three fraternal nationalities - Russian (Great Russian), Ukrainian and Belarusian. The formation of the Russian (Great Russian) nationality, which began in the 14th and ended in the 16th century, was facilitated by the emergence of a common language (while maintaining dialectal differences in it) and culture, and the formation of a common state territory.
Two main, closely interconnected circumstances of the historical life of the people at that time determined the content of culture and the direction of its development: the struggle against the Golden Horde yoke and the struggle for the elimination of feudal fragmentation, the creation of a single state.
The Mongol-Tatar invasion led to a deepening of feudal fragmentation. In a culture of disunity feudal principalities along with separatist tendencies, unifying tendencies became more and more distinct.
The idea of the unity of the Russian land and the struggle against the foreign yoke became one of the leading in culture and a red thread runs through the works of oral folk art, writing, painting, architecture.
The culture of this time is also characterized by the idea of the inextricable connection between Russia of the XIV-XV centuries with Kievan Rus and Vladimir-Suzdal Rus. This tendency was clearly manifested in oral folk art, annals, literature, in political thought, architecture.
In this essay, we examined the development of Russian culture in the XIV - early XVI centuries. This period can be divided into two stages: XIV - the middle of the XV century and the end of the XV - the beginning of the XVI century. Within the first period, in turn, two stages of the historical and cultural process can be distinguished. The first of them (until about the middle of the XIV century) is marked by a noticeable decline in various fields culture, although already from the end of the XIII century. there were signs of a renaissance. From the second half of the XIV century. - the second stage - the rise of Russian culture begins, due to the success of economic development and the first major victory over the conquerors in the Battle of Kulikovo, which was an important milestone on the path to liberating the country from foreign yoke. The Kulikovo victory caused an upsurge of national consciousness, which was reflected in all areas of culture. While maintaining significant local features in culture, the idea of the unity of the Russian land becomes the leading one.
The turn of the XV - XVI centuries is a turning point in the historical development of the Russian lands. Three interconnected phenomena are characteristic of this time: the formation of a unified Russian state, the liberation of the country from the Mongol-Tatar yoke, and the completion of the formation of the Russian (Great Russian) people. All of them had a direct impact on the spiritual life of Russia, on the development of its culture, predetermined the nature and direction of the historical and cultural process.
Overcoming feudal fragmentation, creating a unified state power created favorable conditions for the economic and cultural development of the country, served as a powerful stimulus for the rise of national self-consciousness. The beneficial influence of these factors affected the development of all Russian culture at the end of the 15th - the first half of the 16th century, manifesting itself especially clearly in socio-political thought and architecture.
And in the spiritual culture, the idea of unity and the struggle for independence with foreign invaders continued to be one of the leading ones.
During the period of the Mongol-Tatar yoke, Russia was isolated from the countries of Central and Western Europe, which had advanced in their development. For the Russian state, the establishment of ties with Western European culture was an important condition for overcoming backwardness and strengthening its position among European powers. At the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th century, relations with Italy and other countries successfully developed, which had a beneficial effect on Russian culture, outstanding architects and other masters came to work in Russia.
The most important factor in the development of culture is the influence of the church on the spiritual life of society, the strength of its position in the state. Throughout the period under review, these relationships were far from uniform.
The development of progressive tendencies in culture, elements of a rationalistic worldview turned out to be associated with circles opposed to autocracy.

1. Russian culture of the XIV - mid-XV centuries

1. BOOK BUSINESS.
Although the disastrous consequences of foreign invasions had a negative impact on the preservation of book wealth and on the level of literacy, nevertheless, the traditions of writing and literacy, established in the 11th-12th centuries, were preserved and further developed.
The rise of culture from the second half of the 14th century was accompanied by the development of the book business. The largest centers In the early days of bookishness there were monasteries, in which there were book-writing workshops and libraries, numbering hundreds of volumes. The most significant were the book collections of the Trinity-Sergius, Kirillo-Belozersky and Solovetsky monasteries that have survived to our time. From the end of the XV century. the inventory of the library of the Kirillo-Belozersky monastery has come down to us (4, p. 67).
But the church did not have a monopoly on the creation and distribution of books. As evidenced by the postscripts of the scribes themselves on the books, a significant part of them did not belong to the clergy. Book writing workshops also existed in cities, at princely courts. Books were made, as a rule, to order, sometimes for sale.
The development of writing and book business was accompanied by changes in the technique of writing. In the XIV century. expensive parchment was replaced by paper, which was delivered from other countries, mainly from Italy and France. Changed the graphics of the letter; instead of a strict "statutory" letter, the so-called semi-charter appeared, and from the 15th century. and "cursive", which speeded up the process of making a book. All this made the book more accessible and contributed to meeting the growing demand (9, p. 47).
Liturgical books prevailed in book production, the necessary set of which was in every religious institution - in a church, a monastery. The nature of the reader's interests was reflected in "who's" books, that is, books intended for individual reading. There were many such books in the monastic libraries. The most common type of "fourth" book in the XV century. have become collections of mixed composition, which researchers call "libraries in miniature".
The repertoire of the "fourth" collections is quite extensive. Along with translated patriotic and hagiographic works, they contained original Russian compositions; next to religious and edifying literature were works of a secular nature - excerpts from the annals, historical stories, journalism. The appearance in these collections of articles of a natural science nature is noteworthy. So, in one of the collections of the library of the Kirillo-Belozersky monastery of the beginning of the 15th century. articles "On the latitude and longitude of the earth", "On the stages and fields", "On the distance between heaven and earth", "Moon current", "On the earthly dispensation", etc. were placed. The author of these articles decisively broke with the fantastic ideas of church literature about the structure of the universe. The earth was recognized as a ball, although it was still placed in the center of the universe (4, p.32). In other articles, a completely realistic explanation of natural phenomena is given (for example, thunder and lightning, which, according to the author, come from the collision of clouds). Here are also articles on medicine, biology, extracts from the works of a Roman scientist and physician of the 2nd century BC. Galena.
The Russian book of the 14th-15th centuries played an outstanding role in the revival of literary monuments of the past and in the dissemination of contemporary works of deep ideological and political sound.

2. LITERATURE. CHRONICLE.
Russian literature of the XIV-XV centuries inherited from ancient Russian literature its sharp publicism, put forward critical issues political life of Russia. Chronicle writing was especially closely connected with socio-political life. Being historical works, the chronicles were at the same time political documents that played an important role in the ideological and political struggle (1, p.12).
In the first decades after the Mongol-Tatar invasion, chronicle writing experienced a decline. But it, interrupted for a while in some, resumed in new political centers. Chronicle writing was still distinguished by local features, great attention to local events, tendentious coverage of events from the positions of one or another feudal center. But the theme of the unity of the Russian land and its struggle against foreign invaders was a common thread in all chronicles.
At first, the Moscow chronicle, which appeared in the first half of the 14th century, also had a local character. However, with the growth of the political role of Moscow, it gradually acquired a nationwide character. In the course of development, the Moscow chronicle became the focus of advanced political ideas. It not only reflected and ideologically consolidated Moscow's successes in the unification of the Russian lands, but also actively participated in this work, vigorously promoting unifying ideas.
The revival of the all-Russian annals at the end of the 14th and beginning of the 15th centuries testified to the growth of national self-consciousness. The first all-Russian code, which broke with narrow local interests and took the position of the unity of Russia, was compiled in Moscow at the beginning of the 15th century (the so-called Trinity Chronicle, which perished during the Moscow fire of 1812). Moscow chroniclers did a great job of unifying and processing disparate regional vaults. Around 1418, with the participation of Metropolitan Photius, the compilation of a new annalistic code (Vladimir Polychron) was undertaken, the main idea of which was the union of the Moscow grand ducal power with the urban population of feudal centers in order to politically unify Russia. These vaults formed the basis of subsequent annalistic vaults. One of the most significant works of Russian chronicle writing was the Moscow collection of 1479 (1, p. 49).
All Moscow chronicles are permeated with the idea of the need for state unity and strong grand ducal power. They clearly speak of the historical and political concept that developed at the beginning of the 15th century, according to which the history of Russia in the 14th-15th centuries is a direct continuation of the history of Ancient Russia. Chronicles promoted the later official idea that Moscow inherits the political traditions of Kiev and Vladimir, is their successor. This was emphasized by the fact that the vaults began with The Tale of Bygone Years.
Unifying ideas that met the vital interests of various strata of feudal society were also developed in a number of other centers. Even in Novgorod, which was distinguished by especially strong separatist tendencies, in the 30s of the 15th century, the all-Russian Novgorod-Sophia code was created, which included the code of Photius. The chronicle of Tver also assumed an all-Russian character, in which strong grand ducal power was propagated and the facts of the liberation struggle against the Golden Horde were noted. But it clearly exaggerated the role of Tver and the princes of Tver in the unification of Russia (1, p. 50).
The central theme of literature was the struggle of the Russian people against foreign invaders. Therefore, one of the most common genres was the military story. The works of this genre were based on specific historical facts and events, and the characters were real historical figures.
An outstanding monument of narrative literature of the military genre is "The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu". The main part of its content is the story of the capture and ruin of Ryazan by the Tatars and the fate of the princely family. The story condemns feudal strife as the main reason for the defeat of the Russians, and at the same time, from the point of view of religious morality, what is happening is assessed as a punishment for sins. This testifies to the desire of church ideologists to use the very fact of the catastrophe to propagate Christian ideas and strengthen the influence of the church.
The struggle against the Swedish and German feudal lords was reflected in the secular retinue story about Alexander Nevsky, which contained detailed description Battle of the Neva and " ice battle". But this story did not reach us. It was reworked into the life of Alexander Nevsky and received a religious coloring. The story about the Pskov prince Dovmont, dedicated to the struggle of Pskov against German and Lithuanian aggression, underwent a similar transformation (1, p. 52).
A monument of Tver literature of the early 14th century is "The Tale of the Assassination of Prince Mikhail Yaroslavich in the Horde". This is a topical political work that had an anti-Moscow orientation. On the basis of an oral folk poetic work, the Tale of Shevkala was written, dedicated to the uprising in Tver in 1327.
The victory over the Mongol-Tatars on the Kulikovo field in 1380 caused a rise in national self-consciousness, inspired the Russian people with self-confidence. Under its influence, the Kulikovsky cycle of works arose, which are united by one the main idea- about the unity of the Russian land as the basis of victory over the enemy. The four main monuments included in this cycle are different in character, style, and content. All of them speak of the Battle of Kulikovo as the greatest historical victory of Russia over the Tatars (4, p.24-25).
The deepest and most significant work of this cycle is "Zadonshchina" - a poem written by Zephanius Ryazan shortly after the Battle of Kulikovo. The author did not seek to give a consistent and detailed depiction of events. Its purpose is to sing great victory over a hated enemy, glorify its organizers and participants (4, p.345). The poem emphasizes the role of Moscow in organizing the victory, and presents Prince Dmitry Ivanovich as the true organizer of the Russian forces.
In the Chronicle of the Battle of Kulikovo, for the first time, a coherent story is given about the events of 1380. It emphasizes the unity and cohesion of the Russian forces around the Grand Duke, the campaign against the Tatars is regarded as an all-Russian cause. However, in the story there is a noticeable deviation from the real historical facts, which are comprehended from the point of view of religious morality: the ultimate cause of the defeat of the Tatars is "divine will"; in the spirit of religious concepts, the behavior of the Ryazan prince Oleg is condemned; Dmitry Donskoy is depicted as a Christian ascetic, endowed with piety, peacefulness and love of Christ.
"The Legend of the Battle of Mamaev" is the most voluminous and most popular work of the Kulikovo cycle. It is ideologically and artistically contradictory; two different approaches to understanding events coexist in it. On the one side. The Kulikovo victory is regarded as a reward for the Christian virtues characteristic of Russians; with another - real look on things: the author of the "Tale" is well versed in the political situation of that time, highly appreciates the heroism and patriotism of the Russian people, the foresight of the Grand Duke, understands the significance of unity between princes. In the "Tale" the idea of a close union of the church and princely power finds justification (description of the relationship between Dmitry Donskoy and Sergius of Radonezh) (4, p. 189).
Only in connection with the biography of Dmitry Donskoy is the Battle of Kulikovo mentioned in the "Sermon on the Life and Repose of Grand Duke Dmitry Ivanovich, Tsar of Russia". This is a solemn panegyric to the deceased prince, in which his deeds are praised and their significance for the present and future of Russia is determined. The image of Dmitry Ivanovich combines the features of an ideal hagiographic hero and an ideal statesman, emphasizes the Christian virtues of the prince. This reflected the desire of the clergy for an alliance with the grand duke's power.
The events of 1382, when Tokhtamysh attacked Moscow, formed the basis of the story "On the Capture of Moscow from Tsar Tokhtamysh and the Captivity of the Russian Land." The story is inherent in such a feature as democracy, so it takes special place in the literature of the XIV - XV centuries, covering events from the standpoint of the broad masses, in this case the population of Moscow. It has no individual hero. Ordinary citizens who took over the defense of Moscow after the princes and boyars fled from it - that's true hero stories (9, p.53-54).
During the period under review, hagiographic literature developed greatly, a number of works of which are permeated with topical journalistic ideas. Church preaching in them was combined with the development of the idea of the dominant role of Moscow and the close union of the princely power and the church (and the church power was given priority) as the main condition for the strengthening of Russia. In hagiographic literature, specific ecclesiastical interests were also reflected, which by no means always coincided with the interests of the grand duke's power. The Life of Metropolitan Peter, written by Metropolitan Cyprian, was of a journalistic nature, and he saw the common fate of Metropolitan Peter, who was not recognized as a prince of Tver in his time, with his own and with his complex relationship with the Moscow prince Dmitry Ivanovich.
In hagiographic literature, the rhetorical-panegyric style (or expressive-emotional style) has become widespread. The text included lengthy and ornate speeches-monologues, author's rhetorical digressions, reasoning of a moral and theological nature. Much attention was paid to describing the feelings of the hero, his state of mind, psychological motivations for actions appeared. actors. The expressive-emotional style reached the pinnacle of its development in the work of Epiphanius the Wise and Pachomius Logothetes.

From the 14th century the revival of Russian culture begins, due to the liberation of Russian lands from the Horde yoke, the formation of the Russian centralized state and the success of economic development. Gradually, a common Russian culture begins to take shape.

Literature

In the XIV-XV centuries. most of the chronicles are compiled in Moscow monasteries, the Gospels, the lives of the saints, and teachings are copied. The development and strengthening of the Russian state was accompanied by the strengthening of the positions of the church in all spheres of spiritual life. In the XVI century. the ideological activity of the church acquired a wide scope. The Church launched a struggle against all kinds of dissent, established a strict regulation of all spiritual life. The Church followed the correct understanding of the teachings of Christ, severely punished freethinkers-heretics.

Painting

Russian painting in the XIV-XV centuries. reached unprecedented heights. Man and his spiritual world is the central theme of Russian painting.

Was a great artist Theophanes the Greek, who arrived from Byzantium in the 70s of the XIV century. to Novgorod. Only the “Deesis” icons in the Annunciation Cathedral have survived to our time.

Andrey Rublev- the most famous and revered master of the Moscow school of icon painting, book and monumental painting of the XV century. Rublev created his masterpiece - the icon "The Life-Giving Trinity" (Tretyakov Gallery).

Dionysius- the leading Moscow icon painter of the late XV - early XVI centuries. It is considered the successor of the traditions of Andrei Rublev. The most famous works of Dionysius are the wall paintings and the iconostasis of the Cathedral of the Nativity of the Mother of God of the Ferapontov Monastery, made by the master together with his sons Theodosius and Vladimir.

Also XIV-XV became a period of development of book miniatures.

book business

Centers of literacy and education in the XVI century. there were monasteries, churches where schools were created, there were libraries of handwritten and printed books. Until the middle of the XVI century. All books in Russia were written by hand. WITH 1553 Russian printing begins. V April 1564 clerk Ivan Fedorov published the first Russian dated printed book "Apostle" (on the activities of the disciples of Christ). This was followed by The Book of Hours and other books that differed high level polygraphy.

Architecture

V 1485 The construction of new Kremlin walls and towers began. Civil construction is being developed, a number of buildings are being built in the Kremlin - chambers, the most famous of which is the Faceted Chamber (1487-1496). The most famous architectural monument of this period is St. Basil's Cathedral, the construction of which continued in 1554-1560.

thirteen. " Time of Troubles at the beginning of the 17th century.

Time of Troubles (1598-1613) in the history of the Fatherland is characterized by the weakness of state power and non-subordination of the outskirts to the center, imposture, civil war and intervention, "the great devastation of the Muscovite state."

Causes of unrest: 1. interrupted the family of Rurikovich 2. early 17th century was a disaster for Russia (hunger, general discontent, people begin to leave their native villages to travel around the country) 3. oprichnina, who showed the people their lack of rights before the arbitrariness of power

After the death of Ivan IV the Terrible (1584) throne inherited his son Fedor (1584-1598)- A person incapable of ruling. All power was in the hands of his brother-in-law, Boris Godunov.

The beginning of the turmoil was laid by the death of the son of Ivan the Terrible Dmitry. After the death of Fyodor, Boris Godunov was elected tsar by the Zemsky Sobor. With his death, the Rurik dynasty on the Moscow throne ended.

V 1601 - an impostor is announced in Poland False Dmitry (Grigory Otrepiev) posing as the son of Ivan the Terrible.

V 1605 Having betrayed Boris (his death), the boyars swore allegiance to False Dmitry, who began to reign.

V 1606 during the uprising, False Dmitry was killed. On the throne Vasily Shuisky. The strengthening of serfdom, the instability and arbitrariness of the feudal lords caused an uprising of peasants, serfs.

1606 -First Peasants' War. The main reasons: the process of enslavement, instability and unrest in power structures. Ivan Bolotnikov-the head of the uprising of peasants and serfs from Putivl moved to Moscow.

Summer 1607., when the army of Ivan Bolotnikov besieged Tula, a second impostor appeared in Starodub, posing as Tsarevich Dmitry ( False Dmitry II). False Dmitry II achieved some success.

V June 1608 False Dmitry II approached Moscow, many nobles and government officials who were dissatisfied with Shuisky's rule moved to Tushino. A dual power was established in the country. In fact, there were two tsars in Russia, two Boyar Dumas, two systems of orders. There was a palace coup in Moscow.

Tsar Vasily July 17, 1610 was dethroned. After the overthrow of Shuisky, an interregnum began in Moscow. Power passed into the hands of the boyars, who soon swore allegiance to the Polish prince Vladislav, in September 1610 The Poles entered the capital.

Part of the Russian cities did not support the Poles, the country split into two camps. Period from 1610 to 1613 went down in history as "seven boyars"- by the number of boyars who led the "Russian" party.

A powerful popular anti-Polish movement is rising in the country and in 1611 a people's militia is formed, besieging Moscow. The militia was led by the Ryazan governor Prokopiy Lyapunov. Due to a contradiction in the government of I, the militia disintegrated, but the very next year a second militia was formed in Nizhny Novgorod. His headman Kuzma Minin v September 1611 urged fellow citizens to help the Muscovite state. The head of the zemstvo militia invited the stolnik and voivode prince Dmitry Mikhailovich Pozharsky. V October the militias stormed Moscow and the Poles capitulated.

V January 1613 The Zemsky Sobor was convened at which a new tsar was elected. Largely thanks to Patriarch Filaret, they put him in the kingdom Mikhail Romanov who was 16 at the time. The power of the new tsar was significantly limited by the boyars and the Zemsky Sobor, without whose blessing the tsar could not make the most important decisions.

CONSEQUENCES OF THE GREAT TROUBLE:

It is very difficult to assess the significance of the Time of Troubles for the fate of our state. The immediate events of this period led to global economic ruin and impoverishment of the country. The consequence of the turmoil was that Russia lost part of its lands, which were to be returned from heavy losses: Smolensk, western Ukraine, Kola Peninsula. For an indefinite period, one could forget about access to the sea, and hence about trade with Western Europe. severely weakened Russian state was surrounded by strong enemies in the face of Poland and Sweden, revived Crimean Tatars. On the other hand, the role of the people in the expulsion of the Polish-Swedish interventionists, the accession of the new Romanov dynasty (1613-1917) - rallied society, the self-consciousness of the Russian people rose to a qualitatively new level.