Parnyakov Sidorov clinical psychology 1 volume pdf. Sidorov P.I., Parnyakov A.V.

Full title essay by John Taylor Gatto — "Puppet Factory. Confessions of a school teacher ". John Taylor Gatto is an American who has worked in public schools for twenty-six years. In 1991, he was named New York Teacher of the Year. It has state awards for outstanding achievements in the field of education. Currently, John Gatto continues to work as a teacher and passionately advocates reforming the public school education. His essay won first prize in a competition held by Columbia University. It is, of course, only about the American education system, but the observations that the author shares, the conclusions that he comes to on the basis of these observations and personal experience - all this cannot help but make you think about our school. How much in common, unfortunately... The thoughts that occupy Gatto, at first glance, may seem unexpected, partly even shocking, but for someone, on the contrary, they will open their eyes to the true state of affairs. In any case, this work will leave few people indifferent, as it seems to me. This is especially true for parents. Something to think about in the beginning school year, in a word.

Coming to work at the school and getting to know the system better public education, John Gatto comes to the conclusion that the school teaches children not at all what it officially declares in various programs and curricula. According to Gatto, school teacher does not teach geography, for example, or English, but seven subjects.

The first subject is lack of system. School items little interconnected, each course goes its own way, not correlating with others in any way. In one school day, a child learns too many different things, and nothing is studied deeply enough. Strictly speaking, this is just a collection of various facts that no one teaches to analyze. Gatto compares it to a patchwork quilt. But each stage of learning, each fact should be considered as an integral part of the whole - otherwise, what kind of systematization and analysis can there be? And there can be no good education without these skills.

The subject of the second is separation, in other words, separation. Each child must remain in the class in which he fell (for the American school this is an important point, since the classes are divided into strong and weak). Each child is provided with a set of labels, on the basis of academic performance, for example. Thus, children are taught that people can and should be divided into groups. The result of separation, according to the author, is that "each child occupies a certain place in the pyramid and can break out of this circle only by chance." (Here and below, quotes are based on Yulia Kazantseva's translation.) I'll note again in brackets: for Americans who promote a democratic, classless society, this is a blow below the belt.

The third subject is indifference. On the one hand, the teacher wants and even demands that the children be passionate about the subject, on the other hand, when the bell rings, the children must quit everything, no matter how important and interesting, “turn off” and go to the next lesson, “turning on” again there. No job, it turns out, is worth it to finish.

Let me digress for a moment from America: remember the wonderful Soviet film “Spring on Zarechnaya Street”? It contains an illustration for this passage. The teacher tells the class: “In the year when Suvorov’s armies stormed the Alps, when he lived in his cold palace last days the cruel and cowardly emperor Pavel, in Moscow, in the house of the well-born, but impoverished nobles of the Pushkins, was born ... ”- the bell rings at the last word. The teacher shrugs her shoulders in confusion, the students leave the class, one of them smiles ironically: “But I wonder who was born after all? ..”. The episode is intended, I think, to show the first inexperienced steps of a young teacher, but the example is still indicative.

Let's get back to the essay. The fourth subject is emotional dependence. With the help of assessments, a system of other various rewards and punishments, the child is taught to obey the command system. The manifestation of individuality is the scourge of the school system, it is allowed only in rare, exceptional cases as a privilege.

The fifth subject is intellectual dependence. The students are waiting for the teacher to tell them what to do. One of the most important lessons that children learn at school is that “in life you can and should rely on the opinions of other people who are smarter, more experienced, more educated.” Successful children willingly follow the will of the teacher, unsuccessful ones try to resist, defend their right to decide when, how and what to learn. Gatto remarks here that it is not easy to deal with such "unsuccessful" children when their parents support them. But, unfortunately, this is extremely rare, despite the decline in the reputation of the school as such. Parents do not protect children, they do not want to admit that the school may be wrong, not their child. And in the future we get dependent, infantile adults who cannot make decisions and are not responsible for their actions.

Subject number six is ​​the dependence of self-esteem on the opinions of others. People need not only the instructions of specialists, but also their assessment of their activities and their personality as a result. The author writes: “If you have ever tried to rein in children whose parents told them that they would love them no matter what, you know how difficult it is to break the strong in spirit.” Impressive, isn't it?

And, finally, the seventh subject: complete accountability. It is impossible to hide from external control. Children spending at school most day, they have no personal space, personal time, they are constantly in the sight of fellow practitioners and teachers. And at home, school continues: you need to do homework ...

John Gatto is convinced that under the guise of beautiful words about education, about its necessity and extreme importance, these seven subjects have been taught at the school for twelve years. The result of this, he believes, is "physical, moral and intellectual paralysis." These items are aimed at educating a completely controlled personality, preventing it from developing its potential. In addition, school robs children of time that they could spend in a family where there is a lot to learn, and TV eats up the rest of their personal time. The essay was written almost twenty years ago, and during this time, as you know, the Internet has significantly pushed television to the side, taking its place.

School, according to Gatto, is only a source of bad habits. In addition to the seven subjects that are taught there, children learn to be indifferent to the world of adults, because they live in a world completely divorced from their lives. They are taught not to be inquisitive, they have a weak or perverted idea of ​​the future, associated only with the idea of ​​​​getting rich - the problem of the adult world too! After all, good grades will give a good education which leads, in turn, to a good, well-paid job. Is this not a substitution of vital values? Children have little idea of ​​the past, they avoid close, trusting relationships. Dependence on grades and teacher favors breeds unhealthy competition—the list of these bad habits could go on.

The author believes that the reform schooling should be such as to return to children their personal time, which they could spend on studying the world around them and on self-knowledge. That is, one should not spend more time at school, as some pseudo-reformers call for, but less. In addition, social work on a selfless basis should be included in the school curriculum so that children can be involved in real life society, so that morality is brought up in them, so that there is simply no time to watch TV ... And the family must be included as the main teaching component. By the way, the author mentions that, according to the educational press, children who study at home significantly outperform their peers in terms of the ability to think.

But the state is not interested in free-thinking citizens: it is puppets that it needs. Moreover, the content of the concept of "family" in last years is actively changing, instead of it, the institution, which Gatto conventionally calls the Organization, comes to the fore. It claims to be a family for members of society, a Community, but in reality it is not. Who is not familiar with the words “corporate spirit”, “team”, other terms that we are stuffed with by firms striving to ensure that the employee puts all of himself into his activities? Work is a second home... This saying was born not in vain. The catch is that the Family, the Community needs and cares about any of its members, and not just partially, but the whole, in its entirety, with all its pluses and minuses. The organization, on the other hand, takes from a person only those qualities that it needs, and does not give anything in return, except perhaps wages and some other bonuses. And a person, striving to meet these requirements, loses himself as an integral nature. After all, the goals of the Organization cannot be reconciled with the diversity of the human personality, it needs unification, the creation of those very screws that the American does not write about, but which we are well aware of. “We don’t have any irreplaceable”… The worst thing is when the Organization pretends to be the Community, the Family, and this, according to Gatto, happens to the school, that is, the disintegration of the personality into fragments begins from childhood. The organization must not take the place of the Family, otherwise we will completely lose the Family as an institution, and then the nation will cease.

As a way out, Gatto suggests wide, mass discussions of the current situation: you need to shout and shout until something changes. Children should have free time for self-knowledge, they should not be cut off from real life, from other generations. Children should have a choice, should have the right to experiment, to personal experience. Teaching should be allowed not only to licensed professionals: healthy competition will significantly improve the quality of educational services. Let each family independently find the answer to the question: “Why do we need education?”.

There is still quite a lot of reasoning in the work on topics that are fundamentally important specifically for Americans. In particular, about the quality of education, which not only did not rise, but even fell compared to the figures of two hundred years ago. The fact that American society, setting quite noble goals for itself, has deviated greatly from the ideal goal in recent years and is, in fact, in decline. I omit much more, because for our Russian realities this is not so important, although it is certainly interesting and instructive.

Despite the differences between our school system and the American one, we still have a lot in common. And this common, unfortunately, is becoming more and more. As luck would have it, we are borrowing exactly what “progressive” Americans are already crying from. The same USE - attempts to reduce all training to a set of standard tests. Program Simplification high school which have been scaring us for the past few years - all this leads to the fact that soon we will completely coincide with the sad picture that John Gatto paints. Even today, the seven items he listed are quite our reality. Unsystematic teaching, separation of children and unhealthy competition between them, lack of interest (read - motivation) in learning, emotional and intellectual dependence on school specialists, complete control - these subjects and our children study to the fullest.

Will the ways out of the educational crisis indicated by Gatto turn out to be correct for us? He is very sincere and persuasive, his judgments are based on years of experience. And it seems that he sees the main thing correctly: you need to return to your family, restore this institution, which was practically destroyed state system and in our country. But, to be honest, it seems to me rather an ideal solution than real, there is something so utopian in it, unattainable. The state machine will not just hand over such a wonderful business into the hands of the people, which brings considerable profits, and educates citizens such as they should, wonderful puppets ...

But, in order not to receive undeserved reproaches of pessimism, I will finish by saying that, as usual, there is sense to hope for changes for the better, and we are always free in our small cell to arrange everything as we see fit. At least we have the right guidelines, and this is already a lot.

P.I. Sidorov A.V. Parnyakov

INTRODUCTION TO CLINICAL

PSYCHOLOGY

AND BUILDING SECOND (ADDED)

The textbook contains a systematic presentation of the main sections of clinical psychology. More fully than in other similar manuals, the psychology of the treatment process, the psychological foundations of psychotherapy, suicidal behavior, and the psychology of dying are covered.

For the first time, a complex of medical and psychological knowledge is offered in organic unity with general, developmental and social psychology. Indexes of subject and personalities bring the publication closer to a full-fledged reference guide to all major sections of clinical psychology.

The textbook is addressed to students of all faculties of medical educational institutions as well as doctors, psychologists and social workers specializing in clinical psychology and psychotherapy.

FOREWORD

Clinical psychology is a border area between clinical medicine and psychology. This is reflected both in the name itself and in its content. Modern clinical practice requires the restoration of the patient not only somatic health, but also optimal psychological and social functioning; moreover, the psychological state of a person most actively affects his health, often determines the speed and quality of recovery from diseases. Therefore, in the preparation of a doctor, the amount of necessary knowledge, skills and abilities has significantly increased. After all, knowledge and skills in the field of psychology are as necessary for a modern doctor as knowledge and skills in the field of anatomy or physiology.

The future of modern domestic medicine lies in strengthening the role of humanitarian specialists in it. This was especially emphasized at a joint field meeting of the interdepartmental coordinating council in Clinical (Medical) Psychology at the Ministry of Health of Russia, vice-rectors for academic work and heads of departments of clinical psychology, which was held in Arkhangelsk in December 1999, and was devoted to the teaching of psychology in medical universities. Practical healthcare already today requires the involvement of clinical psychologists and social workers in the treatment process. Psychology is also necessary for every representative of the new profession in medicine - health managers.

This textbook is written for medical students and takes into account the requirements of psychology programs not only medical faculties(general medicine, pediatrics, dentistry and others), but also the faculties of clinical psychology, medical social work and medical managers. The textbook reflects the main provisions of the training system in clinical psychology and related fields, developed by the authors and tested for many years at the faculties of the Northern State medical university, where, in addition to traditional medical, in 1995 the faculty of medical and social work was opened, and since 1997 the faculty of medical management and the first in medical universities in Russia, the faculty of clinical psychology have been functioning.

The textbook contains a systematic summary of the main sections of general, developmental and social psychology, the features of using this knowledge in medical practice. The first section is built from introductory materials related to the subject of psychology and, in particular, clinical psychology. The second section is devoted to a systematic description of the main mental processes and states of the individual, their disorders and examination methods. The third and fourth sections are introduced into the range of problems studied in personology, describe the main theoretical directions and empirical

personality psychology research, the concept of personality disorders. The fifth section is devoted to developmental psychology and developmental clinical psychology. The sixth section introduces students to the basics of social psychology, in particular the patterns interpersonal relationships and communication, group psychology and the psychological foundations of group therapy. The seventh and eighth sections introduce the student to the range of problems on the topics: "Personality and disease", "Doctor and patient: psychology of the healing process." This also includes a description of the psychology of dying, suicidal behavior, as well as the psychological foundations of psychotherapy, psychocorrection, psychological counseling, psychohygiene and psychoprophylaxis.

The second edition (the first one was published in two volumes in 2000) was prepared taking into account the experience of using the textbook in universities. All chapters are additionally provided with a section " Summary and conclusions” with a list of questions for review, as well as new data and illustrations. Given the lack of special workshops on the discipline, a number of chapters contain materials that can be used by the teacher to organize practical exercises with students. The second edition also retains the basic principle of building a textbook - to ensure the possibility of its use by students of different faculties. For this purpose, sections that are of a reference nature have been expanded, and, in addition to the subject index, an index of personalities has also been introduced.

The materials of the publication are presented in the most accessible form for perception. This textbook will undoubtedly be useful for students studying clinical psychology, not only in medical schools, but also for all specialists receiving vocational training in the field of psychiatry, narcology and psychotherapy.

Head of the Department of Educational Medical Institutions and Personnel Policy of the Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences,

Professor N.N. Volodin

President of the European Association for Psychotherapy, President of the All-Russian Professional Psychotherapeutic League, Head of the Department of Psychotherapy and Medical Psychology of the RMAPE,

Professor V.V. Makarov

Wundt

William

(1832–1910)

Section 1 Introduction to Psychology

SUBJECT OF PSYCHOLOGY, ITS TASKS AND METHODS

AND HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF THE ORIGIN OF THE CONCEPT “PSYCHE”

Each specific science has its own characteristics that distinguish it from other disciplines. Phenomena studied by psychology have long been singled out and distinguished from other manifestations of life as special phenomena. Their special character was seen in their belonging to the inner world of a person, which differs significantly from external reality, from what surrounds a person. Gradually, all these phenomena were grouped under the names "perception", "memory", "thinking", "will", "emotions" and many others, together forming what is called the psyche, i.e. the inner world of man, his spiritual life. The study and description of the patterns of this inner world of a person belongs to the conduct of psychology as a scientific discipline. Psychology is the science of the human psyche, i.e. the science of the inner, spiritual world.

official registration scientific psychology received relatively recently - in 1879, when the German psychologist Wilhelm Wundt (Wundt) opened the first experimental psychology laboratory in Leipzig and began to publish a special psychological journal. Before that, which is almost 2.5 thousand years, psychological knowledge developed within the framework of the philosophical teachings of the soul.

The position put forward by philosophers about the possibility and necessity of studying the psyche of humans and animals, based on the methods of the natural sciences, could not be realized before production, technology, and, in connection with them, natural science had reached a certain level of development. In particular, by the middle of the XIX century

physiology has developed so much that its separate sections, and especially the physiology of the sense organs and neuromuscular physiology, have already come close to developing problems that have long been related to psychology. In addition to the successes of physiology, the penetration of scientific and experimental methods into psychology was also facilitated by such sciences as physical optics, acoustics, biology, psychiatry, and even astronomy. It was these sections of natural science and medicine that formed the main sources from which psychology grew as an independent experimental field of scientific knowledge.

Psychology owes its name to Greek mythology - the myth of the love of a simple mortal earthly woman Psyche and Eros, the son of the goddess Aphrodite. Psyche

gained immortality and became equal to the gods, steadfastly withstood all the trials that the angry Aphrodite brought upon her. For the Greeks, this myth was a model of true love, the highest realization of the human soul. Therefore, Psyche - a mortal man who has gained immortality - has become a symbol of the soul seeking its ideal.

Strictly speaking, the term “psyche” first appeared in the works of the Ephesian philosopher Heraclitus (530–470 BC), who believed that psyches are special transitional states of the “fiery” principle in the body. It should be emphasized that the name introduced by Heraclitus for the designation of psychic reality was also the first proper psychological term. On its basis, in 1590, Goklkenius proposed the term “psychology”, which, starting with the works of the German philosopher Christian Wolff “Empirical Psychology” (1732) and “Rational Psychology” (1734), will become commonly used to refer to the science that studies the human psyche.

Psychology arose at the intersection of the natural sciences and philosophy, therefore it is still not precisely defined whether to consider psychology natural or humanities. Even the branches of psychology are sometimes classified depending on whether they gravitate toward the biological sciences (animal psychology, psychophysiology, neuropsychology) or the social sciences (ethnopsychology, psycholinguistics, social psychology, psychology of art). In general, psychology belongs to the natural sciences, although many researchers believe that psychology should take special place in the system of sciences.

It is given a special place also because the psyche, as a property of the most highly organized matter - the brain, is the most complex thing that is known to mankind so far. In addition, in psychology, unlike other sciences, the object and subject of cognition seem to merge. The same mental functions and abilities that serve us for the knowledge and development of the external world turn to the knowledge of oneself, one's "I" and they themselves become the subject of awareness and comprehension. It should also be noted that by examining himself, a person not only knows himself, but also changes himself. It can even be said that psychology is not only a science of knowledge, but also a constructing, creating a person.

Etymologically, the term "psychology" comes from the Greek word "psyche" - soul and "logos" - teaching. However, elucidation of the specifics of the phenomena that psychology studies is very difficult, and their understanding largely depends on the worldview of researchers. For these reasons, there is no exhaustive and universally recognized definition of the concept of "psyche" until now.

The idea of ​​the independence of the soul from the body and its non-material origin arose in ancient times. Even our ancestors assumed that another invisible being (“shadow”) is enclosed in the human body, busy deciphering what enters the senses. This “shadow”, or “soul”, was endowed with the ability to go free and live its own life during sleep, as well as after the death of a person.

Past civilizations have come up with gods and goddesses who interfere in people's lives, making them fall in love, get angry or be brave. Endowed with soul and the world- animism (from lat. anima - “soul”). In the sixth century BC. the Greek philosophers were already aware that all these ideas were based on myths. Nevertheless, they were convinced that in every person there is something that allows him to think, to worry ..

Animism is the belief in the existence of countless spiritual entities involved in human affairs and capable of helping or hindering a person from achieving his goals. The concept of "animism" does not mean any scientific or religious doctrine, but is considered as a certain historical type of outlook. It took place in primitive society and manifested itself in the current practice of ancient people, was reflected in their religious beliefs, as well as in mythology.

Animistic ideas about the soul preceded the first scientific views to her nature. Basically, they boiled down to understanding the soul as something

supernatural, “like an animal in an animal, like a person inside a person…”. Death was understood by people as the absence of a soul, and you can protect yourself from it if you close the exit of the soul from the body. If the soul has already left the body, then we must try to force it to return back. Only the soul allows the bodies of plants, animals and humans to live and develop. The defenselessness of a person in front of natural phenomena inspired confidence in the spirituality of not only the elements, but also everything that surrounded a person.

Since the era of the great geographical discoveries, information about life “ wild peoples”, discovered in America, Africa, Asia and Oceania, began to penetrate into Christian Europe. These peoples, as it turned out, believed in the universal spirituality of the world around them. Some missionaries in the 19th century became interested in the scientific side of these "savage superstitions". Subsequent interest in them crystallized in Tylor's Primitive Culture, where he advanced the position that animism was the first form of religion. Religion itself, as he believes, "grew out of the doctrine of the soul," and the latter, in turn, was formed on the basis of elemental reflections on death, dreams and visions. The images of dead ancestors that appeared in a dream were perceived by people as indisputable proof of the existence of souls and their special life after the death of the body.

The actual scientific idea of ​​the soul first appears in ancient philosophy. Scientific representation, unlike beliefs, is aimed at explaining the soul and its functions. The doctrine of the soul of the ancient philosophers of antiquity is the first form of knowledge, in the system of which the first psychological ideas also begin. In the philosophical solution of the problem of the relationship between matter and spirit, three points of view were gradually determined: materialistic, idealistic and idealistic.

Materialistic views on the psyche. Materialistic views on the psyche go back to ancient philosophy. The first leading centers of ancient Greek culture and science, along with others, historians call the cities of Miletus and Ephesus. Usually the beginning of the scientific worldview is associated with the Miletus school, which existed in 7–6 centuries BC. Its representatives were Thales, Anaximander and Anaximenes. They are the first to be credited with isolating the psyche or "soul" from material phenomena. They also put forward the position that all the diversity of the world, including the soul, are different states of a single material principle, fundamental principle or primary matter. The difference between them consisted only in what kind of concrete matter they took as the fundamental principle of the universe. Thales considered water to be the fundamental principle, Anaximander - “apeiron” (the state of the first matter, which has no qualitative certainty), and Anaximenes - air. Ephesian philosopher Heraclitus(530–470 gg. BC) recognized fire as the fundamental principle of the world. According to Heraclitus, the soul is a special transitional state of the fiery principle in the body, which he called “psyche”. All these philosophers are often called the firstnatural philosophers, because for them “nature”, i.e. nature underlies everything in the world. They also overcome the animism of the ancients, creating a fundamentally new teaching - hylozoism . Here, all matter also has a soul, but the soul is no longer an independent counterpart of matter, but an integral part of it.

Among the contemporaries of the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates (460-377 BC), Democritus (460-370 BC) stands out among the major philosophers of the ancient era. He argued that everything that exists, including the soul, consists of atoms, which seemed to him in the form of the smallest and indivisible particles. Following Empedocles (5th century BC), Democritus actually recognized as real inner world as consisting of real micro-duplicates of external objects.

In its most complete form, the atomistic doctrine is presented by Aristotle (384-322 BC), but he denied the view of the soul as a substance. At the same time, he did not consider it possible to consider the soul in isolation from living bodies, i.e. matter, as did the idealist philosophers. The psychological concept of Aristotle was closely connected and followed from his general philosophical doctrine of matter and form. The world and its development was understood by him as the result of constant interpenetration of two principles - passive (matter) and active (form). Aristotle believed that matter cannot exist without taking shape. The form of living matter is the soul. The soul is an active, active principle in the material body, its form, but not the substance or body itself. In man, the center of the soul is the heart, where impressions from the senses flow. Impressions form the source of ideas, which, as a result of rational thinking, subordinate human behavior to themselves.

To explain the nature of the soul, Aristotle used a complex philosophical category, which he called "entelechy", which means the existence of something that has a purpose in itself. Explaining his thought, he gives the following example: “If the eye were a living being, then sight would be its soul.” So, the soul is the essence (entelechy) of a living being, just as vision is the essence of the eye as an organ of vision. Thus, Aristotle put forward the concept of the soul as a function of the body, and not some external phenomenon in relation to it. This point of view of the ancient philosopher can no longer be considered consistently materialistic. Here it is already dualistic, since, establishing the unity of soul and body, Aristotle at the very starting point accepts them (soul and body, form and matter) as two completely independent principles.

In fact, Aristotle tried to combine materialistic and idealistic views on the nature and origin of the soul. This is probably no coincidence, since he was a student of Plato, the most prominent representative of idealist philosophers. However, here it is important for us to note that in the philosophical and psychological views of Aristotle, thinking, knowledge and wisdom come to the fore, and his idea that main function the soul is the realization of the biological existence of the organism, which was later assigned to the concept of “psyche”. And in modern materialistic natural science, the psyche is recognized as one of the main factors in the evolution of the animal world.

Idealistic views on the psyche. Idealistic views on the psyche also go back to ancient philosophy. Their representatives (Socrates, Plato) recognize the existence of a special spiritual principle, independent of matter. They consider mental activity as a manifestation of the immaterial, incorporeal and immortal soul.

The main position of Plato (427-347 BC) is to recognize as true being not the material world, but the world of ideas. The philosopher came to this conclusion when clarifying the essence of a number of ethical and aesthetic categories. For example, he wonders what beauty is. All single beautiful things grow old, losing their beauty, and they are replaced by new ones. But what makes all these things beautiful? Therefore, there must be something that unites all these individual things. They are all united not by a material, but by a spiritual essence - this is the idea of ​​​​beauty. There is something similar for everything visible in the world. This something is called by Plato an idea, which is an ideal, universally valid form of a particular body. These general ideas are opposed by the philosopher to the material world and

turned into an independent entity, independent of both material objects and man himself.

Thus, it is the idea that is declared the root cause of everything that exists, and material things are just its embodiment. Everything that we see around us exists only in our sensations and ideas as a peculiar and mysterious manifestation of the “absolute spirit” or the main, “universal idea”. Otherwise, the original existence of an ideal world is postulated here, i.e. the world of ideas about the essences of the objects of the external world. For example, there is a universal idea of ​​beauty, justice or virtue, and what happens on earth, in Everyday life people, is only a reflection or “shadow” of these universal ideas. To join the world of ideas, the human soul must be freed from the influence of the mortal body and not blindly trust the senses. It is necessary to take care of the health of the soul much more than the health of the body, since after death the soul leaves the guilty world - the world of spiritual, ideal entities.

Plato, in turn, was a student of Socrates (469-399 BC), and the latter preached his views orally, in the form of conversations. Subsequently, all the works of Plato were written in the form of dialogues, where the main actor Socrates. In the texts of Plato, his own philosophical concept is organically connected with the views of his teacher, Socrates.

Socrates was born in the capital of Greece - Athens. He took an active part in cultural and political life Athens, where at that time the school of sophists was a popular philosophical school, with representatives of which he argued. In the popular assembly of the city, Socrates did not always agree with the opinion of the majority, which required considerable courage, especially during the reign of the “thirty tyrants”. In 399 BC he was accused of "not honoring the gods and corrupting the youth," for which he was sentenced to death. He courageously accepted the verdict by drinking poison. The behavior of Socrates at the trial, as well as his death, contributed to the wide dissemination of his views, as they proved that the life of Socrates is inseparable from his theoretical ethical views.

One of the most important provisions of Socrates was the idea that there is absolute knowledge or absolute truth that a person can discover in himself, know only in his reflection. Proving that such absolute knowledge not only exists, but can also be transferred from one person to another, Socrates turns to speech, arguing that truth is fixed in general concepts, in words. In this form, truths are passed on from generation to generation. Here, for the first time, he connected the thought process with the word. Later, this position was developed by his student Plato, who identified thinking and inner speech.

Socrates is the author of the famous method Socratic conversation. It is based on the method of so-called "suggestive reflections". It is important here not to give ready knowledge to the interlocutor, but to bring him to the independent discovery of the truth. Socrates forced the interlocutor to think by asking specially selected leading questions. Introducing the concept of a hypothesis, he showed him that an incorrect assumption leads to contradictions. This required the development of another hypothesis. In this way, the conversation led the interlocutor of Socrates to a gradual and independent discovery of the truth. In fact, the Socratic dialogue was the first attempt to develop a problem-based learning technology. The method of Socratic conversation is also widely used in modern psychotherapeutic practice.

If you look at the teachings of Socrates and Plato from modern positions and approach them as vivid and accurate artistic metaphors, you can find, as Yu.B. Gippenreiter (1996), that the “world of ideas”, which opposes the individual consciousness of a particular person, exists before his birth and to which each of us joins from childhood is the world of the spiritual culture of mankind, fixed in its material carriers, primarily in language, in scientific and literary texts. This is the human world

values ​​and ideals. If a child develops outside this world (and such stories are known - these are children fed by animals), then his psyche does not develop and does not become human.

Ideas about the soul as a guiding, moral beginning of a person's life were not accepted by "experimental psychology" for a long time. Only in recent decades, the spiritual aspects of human life have been intensively discussed in psychology in connection with such concepts as the maturity of the individual, the health of the individual, personal growth, as well as many other things that are now being discovered and echo the ethical consequences of the doctrine of the soul of ancient philosophers.

Middle Ages. 1st–2nd centuries new era - the beginning of the expansion of the slave society. Political clashes, slave uprisings, civil wars, i.e. everything that accompanied the collapse of the Roman Empire could not but cause significant shifts in the minds of people. The difficulties of life and the impossibility of changing the conditions prompted a person to withdraw into his inner world, to seek solace in himself. The nascent church was not slow to take advantage of these sentiments. By supporting the emperors in suppressing the masses, the church strengthened its position and increased its influence in Rome. As you know, in the 1st century. Christianity is recognized as the state religion, and by the 4th c. the boundaries of the influence of the church go far beyond Rome.

In the Middle Ages, the doctrine of the soul completely passed into the possession of religion, which imposed a ban on attempts scientific research human soul. The soul was declared to be a divine principle, which is a mystery for mortals, therefore the essence of a person should be comprehended not through reason, but through ignorance and belief in dogmas. During the 11 centuries of the intellectual Middle Ages, many philosophical schools arose that actively supported theology, considering natural Sciences limiting the divine power over the human mind.

The Christian religion preached detachment from the outside world, called for humility and humility, solitude with immersion in one's own inner world. This general attitude and orientation of a person to his inner personal world received a theological, theological interpretation in the philosophical and psychological views of the ideologist of early Christianity, Plotinus (205-270). He believed that the activity of the soul is not only in turning to God; but also in addressing one's sense world; in relation to itself. Thanks to inner eye the soul has knowledge of all its past and non-present actions. Not a single state of the soul can pass by the inner eye, whether it be from the cognitive or motivating sphere. This doctrine of the existence of a universal capacity of the soul for self-observation marked the first step introspective psychology(Yakunin V.A., 1998).

The next step in the development of the introspective direction in psychology was made by Augustine (354-430). New in his psychology is the recognition of the will as a universal principle that organizes the activity of the soul. However, voluntarism in his teaching was theological in nature. He believed that all human actions are predetermined by God. Therefore, any speech against faith in it is a speech against this divine predestination, which leads to eternal torment in the afterlife. For the partial release of apostates from future torment in afterlife, Augustine proposes to introduce on earth death penalty through burning. Thus, in the teachings of Augustine, the first sparks lit up, from which the future bonfires of the Inquisition and the unsurpassed cruelty of the medieval church would grow.

The views of Plotinus and Augustine for many centuries will become a guiding star for medieval scholasticism. Traces of their ideas can be seen in modern times. Suffice it to say that the doctrine of the soul of Plotinus and Augustine became the starting point for R. Descartes, who, having come out with his theory of consciousness, will finally formalize and approve introspective direction in European psychology of the XVII-XIX centuries.

Of the other philosophical teachings of that time, the most famous was the scholastic teaching. It reached its heyday in the 13th century thanks to Thomas (Tomos) Aquinas(1228-1274). He was the first who tried and most subtly managed to introduce the teachings of Aristotle into theological dogma. Theological doctrine, put forward by

UDC 159.9.07 BBK56.14 ■ C 34

Scientific consultant of the series - A.B. Khavin

Sidorov P.I., Parnikov A.V.

С34 Introduction to Clinical Psychology: Vol. II.: Textbook for medical students. - M.: Academic Project, Yekaterinburg: Business book, 2000. - 381s. - (Library of psychology, psychoanalysis, psychotherapy)

ISBN 5-8291-0057-3 ("Academic Project") ISBN 5-88687-086-5 ("Business Book") ISBN 5-8291-0058-4 ("Academic Project", vol. II) ISBN 5-88687 -080-6 ("Business book", vol. II)

The textbook contains a systematic presentation of the main sections of clinical psychology. More fully than in other similar manuals, the psychology of the treatment process, the psychological foundations of psychotherapy, suicidal behavior, and the psychology of dying are covered. For the first time, a complex of medical and psychological knowledge is offered in organic unity with general, developmental and social psychology.

The textbook is addressed to students of all faculties of medical schools, as well as doctors and psychologists specializing in clinical psychology and psychotherapy.

UDC 159.9.07 LBC 56.14

Section 4 THEORIES OF PERSONALITY

Chapter 15 MAIN DIRECTIONS IN STUDY

PSYCHOLOGIES OF THE PERSON

To date, the number of personality theories in foreign personology (from the English personality-personality, individuality) is in the hundreds, and all of them significantly depend on the theoretical orientation of their authors. Personality theories in foreign psychology for the most part reflect the content of the most common

in the West of the psychodynamic, existential-humanistic and behavioral directions in psychology. Such a variety

zie concepts of personality is a consequence of the inadequacy of the methodological foundations of psychology, the lack of unity of opinion of psychologists on the issue of understanding the subject, methods and tasks of psychology as a science.

V domestic psychology, which has developed independently over a significant historical period of time, several theories of personality have also been formed, which, although they solve this problem in different ways, but proceed from the main position of Marxist philosophy that a person’s personality is conditioned by social, social conditions, and personality is not simple projection of these conditions, she herself creates and creates them.

The beginning of psychology as an independent science is associated with the book "Fundamentals of Physiological Psychology" published in 1874 by the German physiologist and psychologist Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920). He believed that the object of psychology are those processes that are available simultaneously to both external (physiological side) and internal (psychological side) observation. The only such direct method of studying consciousness is introspection (self-observation), which makes it possible to identify and describe the simplest mental components of consciousness, its "atoms" or structures (structuralist approach). The physiological experiment in psychology, although it made self-observation more accurate, but its effect, according to Wundt himself, limits

was focused only on the area of ​​the simplest material of consciousness - sensations, ideas and feelings.

As you know, W. Wundt believed that the higher mental processes (memory, imagination, thinking and will) cannot be revealed by self-observation. The study of higher mental functions and mental development requires other methods. To study them, it is necessary to go beyond the framework of physiological psychology into the field psychology of peoples, where through the study of their spiritual life - language, myths and legends, customs and mores, one could shed light on the patterns of flow higher forms individual consciousness. It was this part of psychology that he opposed to individual experimental psychology. With the introduction of two psychologies by Wundt, differing in content, methods and differently oriented - on natural science and the science of the spiritual, a split in a single science was already laid, which was one of the reasons and feature open crisis of the methodological foundations of psychology that erupted at the beginning of the second decade of the 20th century.

Although the structuralists believed that experimental introspection was precisely the method that distinguished psychology from other sciences, introspection was not without significant shortcomings. From a methodological point of view, here the “tool” for studying the consciousness of the subject is his own consciousness, which introduces subjectivity into the methodology. You cannot first introduce consciousness into the foundations of the scientific method, and then use this method to study consciousness itself. Indeed, each subject in Wundt's experiments described his impressions or experiences in such a way that they rarely coincided with those of the next subject: what was pleasant to one, seemed unpleasant to another, one person perceived the sound too loud, and to another this sound seemed average in strength. . Worse, the feelings of the same person vary from day to day: what seemed pleasant to him today may become boring tomorrow and frankly unpleasant the day after tomorrow.

While Wundt and his collaborators were trying to study the structure of consciousness, another direction of consciousness research appeared in other countries - functionalism. It has its origins in the psychology of William James (1842-1910) and his main work, Fundamentals of Psychology (1890). From the point of view of James and his followers, the problem is not to know what consciousness is made of, but to understand its function and role in the survival of the individual. They saw the role of consciousness in its ability to give a person ways to adapt in various life situations - either repeating previously developed forms of behavior, or adapting them to new situations, or, finally, mastering new behavioral methods of adaptation. True, in studying the functions of consciousness they also preferred the method of introspection.

lecture, which allowed them to learn how the individual develops awareness of the activity in which he indulges. Instead of analyzing consciousness according to the “what” type, they carried out an analysis according to the “how” and “why” types of certain mental operations, through which consciousness solves certain tasks in one or another adaptive act.

The followers of functionalism have also been criticized for this approach to the study of consciousness. According to critics, the subject of scientific research should be only that which is accessible to direct observation. It is impossible to directly observe thoughts or feelings, introspection is extremely subjective and is not able to overcome these difficulties. Only behavior observed from the outside lends itself to an objective description.

The struggle of opinions in the field of theory, new facts obtained during the period of intensive development of empirical and applied research in the first 50 years of the existence of psychology as an independent science, more and more revealed the inconsistency of the existing unified psychological theory, and above all, the insufficiency of its foundation - the subjective-introspectionist representation. about the psyche. In the early 1910s, psychology entered a period of open crisis that lasted until the mid-1930s. It was crisis of the methodological foundations of psychology, and its positive content consisted in the fact that work was underway to create a new psychological theory. If before late XIX century psychology was essentially an introspective psychology of consciousness, then as a result of the crisis in psychology, two main trends emerged.

Representatives of the first trend defended the opportunity to give strictly scientific explanation behavior person. Moreover, if some of them saw the main causes of actions and behavior of a person in the external situation, i.e. action of the environment - sociodynamic theories, then others considered the main determinants of human behavior to be internal factors and personality traits - psychodynamic theories.

The intermediate point of view is based on the principle of the interaction of internal and external factors in the management of actual human behavior. (interactionist theories). The well-known researcher of personality psychology G. Allport symbolically expressed this point of view on behavior (R) in the form of a formula: R = F (B, C), where B is the internal, subjective-psychological properties of the personality; C - social environment, and F - a sign of functional dependence. Then, in sociodynamic theories, behavior is described by the formula R=F(C), and in psychodynamic theories, by the formula R=F(B).

Representatives of the second trend were of the opinion that

explain human behavior by methods adopted in the classical

what science, it is impossible. Human behavior can only be externally (phenomenologically) described and "understood". This trend of "understanding-descriptive" psychology is gradually taking shape in modern existentialism.

First trend received its extreme expression in the works of behaviorists and psychoanalysis.

Adherents of behaviorism (behavioral direction in psychology) believe that psychology should not differ from other classical sciences (such as biology or physics), so they almost completely eliminated everything "subjective" in it, abandoning the study of consciousness. Watson's stimulus-»response (S-»R) scheme can be used to explain any human activity. Expressions like "this child is afraid of dogs" or "I'm in love with this woman", from the point of view of behaviorism, in scientifically mean nothing. In contrast, objective descriptions such as "a child's tears and trembling intensify when a dog approaches him" or "my heart beats faster and my pupils dilate when I meet this woman" provide a way to quantify and measure feelings of fear or degree of attraction.

In psychoanalysis (Freud 3. and his followers), the causes of human behavior are seen in himself, or rather, in his subconscious drives based on instincts. According to Freud, human instinctive sexual urges are "forbidden" at the level of consciousness by various social restrictions. Meanwhile, it is they who induce people to act, and thanks to their "energy" (libido) there is a gradual development of the personality and the achievement of maturity. Freud believed that the exact sciences would eventually provide a strictly scientific explanation for all psychoanalytic phenomena. He considered the separation of psychoanalysis from the exact sciences to be temporary and tried to preserve its "scientific character".

In second trend("understanding-descriptive psychology") it is believed that psychology should be a special science, the subject of which is exactly what is inaccessible to the study of traditional sciences with their methods, and the methods of psychology themselves should fundamentally different from the methods of exact sciences. Since human consciousness is not available for objective study, it can only be comprehended intuitively, through a kind of "feeling" - in a special way, the so-called. "understanding introspection", based on

confidential self-report of the subject in the process of empathic dialogue between him and the researcher. It is this thesis that underlies the existence

potential psychology(Heideger M., 1927; Sartre Jean-Paul, 1946; Camus A., 1942; Jaspers K., 1935; and others).

The very term "existence" (from Latin existentio - "existence") was first used by the religious Danish philosopher Soren Kierkegoron (1843), understanding by it the world of individual human experience, his true, genuine inner existence - "being". This inner world for each person is unique, inimitable and can only be understood from his own and direct description of it by the person himself.

There are no two in the world the same people, each person creates and creates his own inner world. For each of us, our inner and outer worlds exist as their gradual disclosure during life. True, in everyday life a person does not always think about the meaning of his life and is aware of his existence, being as an existence. To do this, it is necessary that he be in the border, extreme situation like in the face of death. Only then will he most clearly understand and realize the meaning of his being - his existence. In order to live and act actively, a person must believe in the meaning of his actions, the meaning of his life. The desire to search for and realize the meaning of life by a person can even be considered as an innate motivational tendency inherent in all people and being the main engine of behavior and personality development.

Humanistic psychology(Rogers K., Maslow A. and others)

originated in the 1930s. and was most developed in the 1950s and 1960s. It occupies a special place in the presented classification.

In the works of psychologists of this direction, as opposed to psychoanalysis, the idea is put forward that a person initially has humanoid, altruistic needs, that they are the sources of human behavior, and not animal instincts. Recognition of the dominant role in human behavior of his desire for self-improvement and self-expression (self-actualization) is a single link in all humanistic concepts of personality. Thus, just as in psychoanalysis, here intrapersonal factors are recognized as the explanatory principle of behavior, which makes it possible to attribute humanistic psychology to the group of psychodynamic theories of personality.

However, humanistic psychologists prefer to describe the phenomenology of the personality, they are primarily interested in how a person perceives and understands the real actual events of his life (the "here and now" principle). Seeing the meaning of life and at the same time striving for worthy goals for a person (self-actualization) is the essence of the psycho-correctional doctrine of the humanistic direction. It is easy to see in this the closeness of humanistic psychology with the views of representatives of "understanding psychology", i.e. existentialism.

Chapter 16 THEORIES OF PERSONALITY IN RUSSIAN PSYCHOLOGY

CONCEPT OF PERSONALITY FROM THE POSITION OF PSYCHOLOGY OF ACTIVITY

Within the framework of domestic psychology, the crisis of the methodological foundations of psychology was overcome by applying an activity approach to the study of the psyche. It is based on the category of objective activity developed by K. Marx. As an explanatory principle of the psyche and consciousness activity category used in the study of various areas of psychic reality. It is in concrete human activity and its products objective manifestation find not only the psyche and individual consciousness of a person, but also the collective, social consciousness.

The main task that was set before all psychological schools was to study the dependence of the elements of consciousness on the parameters of the stimuli that cause them: the impact on the receptive systems -* emerging response (objective and subjective) phenomena. Later this two-term scheme found its expression in the famous formula S->R. However, this formula excludes from the field of vision the meaningful process that makes real connections of the subject with the objective world. Learning theories do not consider anything that could be called consciousness, feeling, imagination, will. The processes that carry out the real life of a person in the world around him, his social being in all the diversity of its forms, are activities.

In the theory of activity of Aleksey Nikolaevich Leontiev (1903-1979), who developed the ideas of Lev Semenovich Vygotsky (1896-1934) and Sergei Leonidovich Rubinshtein (1889-1960), the personality is considered as a product of social and social development; its real basis is the totality of human social relations realized by his activity.

In activity, the object passes into its subjective form, into an image; At the same time, in activity there is also a transition of activity into its objective results, into its products. That is, activity acts as a process in which mutual transitions between the "subject-object" poles are carried out. Through activity, a person influences nature, things, other people. At the same time, in relation to things, he acts as a subject, and in relation to other people - as a person.

internal, mental activity man originated from external practical activity through the process of internalization. External and internal activities have close interaction, there is also a reverse process of generating external activity on the basis of compiling it in the internal plan - this is the process of exteriorization. These transitions themselves are possible only because external and internal activities have the same structure.

Activity is not a reaction and not a set of reactions, but a system that has a structure, its own internal transitions and pre-

rotation, its development. Activity is a specifically human activity regulated by consciousness, generated by needs and aimed at the knowledge and transformation of the external world and the person himself.

The activity of each specific person depends on his place in society, on the conditions of his life and unique individual circumstances. The main characteristic of activity is its objectivity. The main thing that distinguishes one activity from another is the distinction between their subjects. It is the object of activity that gives it a certain direction. At the same time, the object of activity acts in two ways: primarily - in its independent existence - as subordinating and transforming the activity of the subject; secondarily - as an image of an object, as a product of mental reflection of its properties, which is carried out as a result of the activity of the subject.

It is clear that human activity follows from his needs, and outside of activity, the realization of any need is impossible. At the same time, the core of personality, its core are motives and goals of activity. A motive is an object of need or, in other words, a motive is an objectified need. Motives, inducing and directing activity, give rise to actions, i.e. lead to the formation of conscious goals.

Along with the class of conscious motives, there are motives that may not actually be realized. However, they are also represented in consciousness, but in a special form - these are personal meanings and emotions. Personal meaning is defined as the experience of an increased subjective significance of an object or phenomenon that finds itself in the field of action of the leading motive. This concept is historically connected with Vygotsky's ideas about the dynamic semantic systems of the individual consciousness of a person, expressing the unity of affective and intellectual processes. According to its function personal meaning makes available to consciousness the subjective

the meaning of certain circumstances or actions, but this "informing" is more often carried out in an emotional-sensory form. Then the subject faces the task of reflection, the task of finding meaning. And sometimes the subject unconsciously sets another task - to hide the meaning, and above all from himself. It is this concealment that lies behind the defense mechanisms described by Freud, so there is no need to invoke concepts of conflict between ego instances or innate drives to explain them. Manifestations of personality that are found in projective tests can also be understood in terms of personal meanings and the corresponding activity of a person in search or concealment of these meanings. Similarly, emotions arise only about such events or results of actions that are associated with motives. If a person is worried about something, then this “something” somehow affects his motive. Emotions are relevant to activity, and not to the actions and operations that realize it. Therefore, the same operations that carry out different activities can acquire the opposite emotional coloring.

Polymotivation of human activity is a typical phenomenon. Some motives, inducing to activity, give it a personal meaning (sense-forming motives), others (motive-stimuli), coexisting with the first, play the role of motivating factors (positive or negative). The distribution of the functions of meaning formation and motivation between the motives of one activity makes it possible to understand the main relations that characterize the motivational sphere of the personality, the relations of the hierarchy of motives.

It should be noted that in the course of the activity itself, new motives may be formed. In the theory of activity, the mechanism of the formation of motives is studied, which is called the mechanism of shifting a motive to a goal (the mechanism for turning a goal into a motive). The essence of this mechanism lies in the fact that the goal, previously impelled to its implementation by some motive, eventually acquires an independent motivating force, i.e. becomes a motive. It is important to emphasize that this happens only with the accumulation of positive emotions associated with the achievement of this goal. Only then the new motive enters the system of motives as one of them (Gippenreiter Yu.B., 1988).

The personality is characterized by the formation of the hierarchy of motives, their breadth, dynamics, as well as the content of the leading activity. Changes in the motivational sphere in diseases and personality disorders may consist in a violation of both the incentive (reducing the range of interests) and semantic function motive (lower-