Who is the founder of the doctrine of temperament. A Brief Overview of Temperament Teachings
10. General concept about temperament. Teachings about temperament. Psychological characteristics of the properties of temperament. Temperament and activity.
Temperament - an individual characteristic of a person, which consists in the dynamic features of his behavior and response.
The personality of each person is endowed only with its inherent combination of psychological traits and characteristics that form its individuality, constituting the originality of a person, his difference from other people. Individuality is manifested in the traits of temperament, character, habits, transformative interests, abilities, individual style of activity, etc.
Allocate three spheres of manifestation of temperament : general activity, features of the motor sphere and properties of emotionality.
General activity - is determined by the intensity and volume of human interaction with the environment - physical and social. According to this parameter, a person can be inert, passive, calm, proactive, active, impetuous.
V motor sphere manifestations of temperament can be considered as particular expressions of general activity. These include tempo, speed, rhythm, and total movement.
When talking about emotionality as a manifestation of temperament, they mean impressionability, sensitivity, impulsiveness, etc. Thus, temperament is a characteristic of an individual from the side of the dynamic features of his mental activity, i.e. the pace, speed, intensity of the mental processes and states that make up this activity
Teachings about temperament , about its types has a long history. Temperament has always been associated with the physiological characteristics of the body. This physiological branch of the doctrine of temperament has its roots in the ancient period.
humoral theory . Hippocrates (V century BC) described four types of temperament, based on the physiological concepts of that time. It was believed that in the human body there are four main fluids, or "juices": blood, mucus, yellow and black bile. Mixing in each person in certain proportions, they make up his temperament. Each temperament received a specific name from the name of the fluid that allegedly prevails in the body. Accordingly, the following types were distinguished: sanguine (from Latin sangius - blood), choleric (from Greek chole - bile), phlegmatic (from Greek phlegma - mucus), melancholic (from Greek melaniachole - black bile).
But over time, conclusions appeared about what mental properties a person should have in whose body blood, yellow bile, etc. predominate. From here psychological descriptions appeared - "portraits" of various temperaments. The first such attempt belongs to the ancient physician Galen (II century BC). He gave the first detailed classification of temperaments, based on humoral ideas about "krasis" (ratio of fluids). The development of anatomy and physiology during the Renaissance gave a new direction to the explanation of temperament types. They are increasingly associated with the structural features of the body.
Much later, at the end of the 18th century, I. Kant gave psychological portraits of the four temperaments. He divided them into two groups. Sanguine and melancholic he regarded as temperaments of feeling, and choleric and phlegmatic as temperaments of action. Kant's descriptions of temperament were later repeated in many sources.
Under the influence of anthropologists, who drew attention to differences in body structure, and psychiatrists, who emphasized individual differences in predisposition to mental illness, at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, a concept was formed according to which there is a connection between physique and temperament properties.
constitutional theory. One of the most famous typologies aimed at revealing the connection between the structure of the human body and its mental properties, its character belongs to the German psychiatrist E. Kretschmer. He singled out four constitutional body types using anthropometric measurements. 1. Leptosomatic (Greek - fragile body). Leptosomatics have narrow shoulders, a long face, and long thin legs. The term asthenics, which expresses the extreme degree of leptosomal physique, received more circulation than the term nititosomatism.
2. Picnic (Greek - thick, dense). Picnics include people with great fullness, belly, round head and small dense neck.
3. Athletic (Greek - wrestling, fight). Athletes are distinguished by strong muscles, broad shoulders. They seem to have descended from the classic description of the human figure by Leonardo da Vinci.
4. Dysplastic (Greek - poorly formed). Dysplastics, as if offended by nature, they have a shapeless irregular body structure.
E. Kretschmer singled out the types of temperaments corresponding to them.
Schizothymics have an asthenic physique. They have, as the name suggests, a predisposition to schizophrenia. Schizothymics are autistic, i.e., self-absorbed, closed, poorly adapted to the environment. The attitudes of their character are rigid and show a tendency to excessive abstraction. (schizophrenia)
Cyclothymics have a predominantly large physique. They are in temperament a contrast to Schizothymics. Sociable, realistically look at the world, have sharp mood swings. (manic depressive psychosis)
Ixotimics are characterized by an athletic physique, predisposed to epilepsy. They are a little impressionable, go in cycles in trifles; have restrained gestures. (epilepsy)
Later, the concept of temperament by W. Sheldon (1940) gained popularity in the United States. At the heart of Sheldon's views is the assumption that the structure of the body determines the temperament, which is its function. Sheldon came to the concept of samatotype, which is defined through the study of a combination of three parameters - endomorphism (viscerotonic) (active, cheerful, predominant development internal organs, weak baggy physique with excess adipose tissue), mesomorphism (somatotonic) (hardy, energetic, mentally stable, development of muscle tissue, strong strong body), ectomorphism (cerebrotonic) (slight excitability. Sensitivity, developed NS, fragile physique, weak muscles, long arms and legs).
W. Sheldon believes that each person has all three named groups of physical and mental properties. The differences between people are determined by the predominance of certain properties related to these groups.
I.P. Pavlov identified 3 main properties of the NS: strength, balance and mobility of the excitatory and inhibitory processes. Sanguine temperament correspond to a strong, balanced, fast type nervous system; phlegmatic temperament - a strong balanced slow type; choleric temperament - a strong unbalanced fast type of the nervous system; melancholic temperament - a weak type of nervous system.
Despite its simplicity and external harmony, Pavlov's classification concealed deep internal contradictions. The studies of Teplov and Nebylitsyn show that the very structure of NS properties as neurodynamic measurements of temperament is much more complicated than previously thought, and the number of basic combinations of these systems and their properties is much greater.
B.M. Teplov and V.D. Nebylitsyn, having studied in detail the properties of the nervous system according to Pavlov, identified some more properties - the “dynamism” of nervous processes and “lability”.
"Dynamism" is characterized by the rate of formation of positive and negative conditioned reflexes and differentiations. "Lability" is characterized by the speed of occurrence and termination of the nervous process.
Properties of temperament. (Wolf Solomonovich Merlin) Emotional excitability - the rate of occurrence of various emotional states. Emotional stability - the time during which an emotional state occurs in a person (long). Forces of emotion how strongly the emotional state of a person. Excitability of attention the speed of attracting attention to something. Activity - the degree of willpower exerted by a person to overcome difficulties. Reactivity - the rate of occurrence of the reaction, per k.-l. irritability. Rigidity - immutability, bone, stereotype. Resistance - resistance of organisms to unfavorable conditions. Extraversion - turning the psyche outwards. introversion- the turning of the psyche into oneself, inward. The pace of mental actions - the speed of mental processes (thinking, perception, imagination) Sensitivity - sensitivity to a stimulus of minimum strength. These properties can change during the life of a person, but their ratio always remains unchanged. This phenomenon is called an invariant. (Merlin and Pikhletsky)
Distinctive features of temperament properties .(Bass, Plamin, Rusalov) 1) heritability, innate properties of tempo. 2) early spinning. 3) St. temp. manifests itself both in humans and in animals 4) relates to the mouth in the course of life of people. 5) low-prone training training and replay. 6) in their connection with biological sv-mi people and sv-mi NS. 7) are practically independent of the purpose of the person and the content of the activity. 8) observed in many areas of behavior and activity (in psychomotor sf: speech, gait, movement, facial expressions; intel sf: speed and flexibility of thinking, resourcefulness, learning speed ; commun-I sf: the speed of communication, its intensity; emotion-I sf: the rate of occurrence of emotions, the depth of experience, duration)
Ways to adapt temperament to the requirements of activity . Since each activity imposes certain requirements on the human psyche and its dynamic features, there are no temperaments that are ideally suited for all types of activities.
The role of temperament in work and study lies in the fact that the influence on the activity of various mental states caused by an unpleasant environment, emotional factors, and pedagogical influences depends on it. The influence of various factors that determine the level of neuropsychic stress depends on temperament (for example, assessment of activity, expectation of activity control, acceleration of the pace of work, disciplinary influences, etc.).
There are 4 ways to adapt temperament to the requirements of activity.
1. professional selection, one of the tasks of which is to prevent persons who do not have the necessary temperament properties from this activity. This path is implemented only in the selection for professions that place high demands on personality traits.
2. Excluded in the individualization of requirements, conditions and methods of work for a person (individual approach).
3. overcoming the negative influence of temperament through the formation of a positive attitude towards activity and corresponding motives.
4. The main and most universal way of adapting temperament to the requirements of an activity is the formation of its individual style. An individual style of activity is understood as such an individual system of techniques and methods of action that is characteristic of a given person and is appropriate for achieving a successful result.
Choleric- this is a person whose nervous system is determined by the predominance of excitation over inhibition, as a result of which he reacts very quickly, often thoughtlessly, does not have time to slow down, restrain himself, shows impatience, impulsiveness, sharpness of movements, irascibility, unbridledness, incontinence. The imbalance of his nervous system predetermines the cyclicity in the change of his activity and vigor: being carried away by some business, he works passionately, with full dedication, but his strength is not enough for a short time, and as soon as they are exhausted, he is worked out to the point that everything is unbearable for him. There is an irritated state, a bad mood, a breakdown and lethargy (“everything falls out of hand”).
sanguine- a person with a strong, balanced, mobile n / s, has a quick reaction rate, his actions are deliberate, cheerful, due to which he is characterized by high resistance to the difficulties of life. The mobility of his nervous system determines the variability of feelings, attachments, interests, views, high adaptability to new conditions. This is a sociable person. Easily converges with new people and therefore he has a wide circle of acquaintances, although he is not distinguished by constancy in communication and affection. He is a productive figure, but only when there are many interesting things to do, that is, with constant excitement, otherwise he becomes boring, lethargic, distracted. In a stressful situation, he shows a "lion's reaction", that is, he actively, deliberately defends himself, fights for the normalization of the situation.
Phlegmatic person- a person with a strong, balanced, but inert n / s, as a result of which he reacts slowly, is taciturn, emotions appear slowly (it is difficult to anger, cheer); has a high capacity for work, well resists strong and prolonged stimuli, difficulties, but is not able to quickly respond to unexpected new situations. He firmly remembers everything he has learned, is not able to abandon the developed skills and stereotypes, does not like to change habits, life routines, work, new friends, it is difficult and slow to adapt to new conditions. The mood is stable, even. And in case of serious troubles, the phlegmatic remains outwardly calm.
melancholic- a person with a weak n / s, who has increased sensitivity even to weak stimuli, and a strong stimulus can already cause a “breakdown”, “stop”, confusion, “rabbit stress”, therefore, in stressful situations (exam, competition, danger, etc.) n.) the results of the melancholic's activities may worsen compared to a calm, familiar situation. Hypersensitivity leads to rapid fatigue and a drop in performance (longer rest is required). An insignificant occasion can cause resentment, tears. The mood is very changeable, but usually the melancholic tries to hide, not to show his feelings outwardly, does not talk about his experiences, although he is very inclined to give himself up to experiences, often sad, depressed, insecure, anxious, he may develop neurotic disorders. However, having a high sensitivity of n / s, melancholics often have pronounced artistic and intellectual abilities.
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The doctrine of temperament and its types has a long history. It was founded by Hippocrates, who, using a humoral approach, identified four types of "kra-sis" (translated from Greek - "mixing"), i.e. the ratio of four fluids (juices) in the body: blood, yellow and black bile and slime. Each liquid has its own properties (blood - heat, mucus - cold, yellow bile - dryness, black bile - moisture), and therefore the predominance of one of them determines the state of the body, its tendency to certain diseases.
The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle, who lived a little later than Hippocrates, saw the reason for the differences between people not in the predominance of this or that juice, but in the differences in the composition of the most important of them - blood. He noticed that blood coagulation in different animals is not the same. The faster one is due, in his opinion, to the predominance of solid or earthy particles, while the slower one is due to the predominance of water or liquid particles. Liquid blood is cold and predisposes to fear, while blood rich in dense substances is warm and gives rise to anger. The influence of Aristotelian theory persisted for a very long time.
In popular literature and textbooks, Hippocrates is considered to be the founder of the doctrine of four types of temperament, which has survived to this day - sanguine, choleric, phlegmatic and melancholic. However, this is not entirely true. He really singled them out, but the names of these types themselves are associated with the names of Roman doctors who lived several centuries later and used Hippocrates' ideas about mixing liquids. They replaced the Greek word "krasis" with the Latin word temperamentum ("proper ratio of parts, proportionality"), from which the term "temperament" derives.
One of them, Galen (II century AD), gave the first detailed classification of temperaments, based on the same humoral ideas of Hippocrates about “redder”. It included 13 types, including those mentioned above. From his point of view, the predominance of yellow bile (lat. chole - "chole") indicates a choleric temperament, blood (sanguis - "sanguis") - about sanguine, black bile (melanos chole - "melanos hole") - about melancholic, and mucus (phlegma - “phlegm”) - about a phlegmatic temperament.
The concept of temperament in those days was significantly different from the present. Psychological characteristics were then almost absent. Basically, ancient doctors talked about the body and even about individual organs.
The development of anatomy and physiology during the Renaissance led to innovations in the explanation of temperament types. They are increasingly associated with the structural features of the body. A number of scientists, besides physical properties blood, laid the basis for the separation of the difference in tissues and the width of the lumen of the vessels. Light blood, loose tissues and moderately dilated vessels, according to these scientists, facilitate the course of life processes and give rise to a sanguine temperament. With a significant density in the tissues, blood is retained in the vessels
This theory was preserved in a somewhat modified form until the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. For example, P.F. Lesgaft (1910) believed that the latitude of the lumen and the thickness of the walls of the vessels play a very important role in the origin of temperaments: in choleric people, there is a small lumen and thick walls, which leads to a rapid and strong flow of blood; sanguine people have a small lumen and thin walls, which contributes to a fast and weak flow of blood, etc.
Another anatomical direction in explaining the types of temperament concerned the structure of the central nervous system, since it is the brain that is most closely associated with those mental characteristics that characterize various temperaments.
The ancient Greek physician Hippocrates (c. 460-377 BC) is considered the creator of the doctrine of temperament. He argued that people differ in the ratio of the four main "juices of the body" - blood, phlegm, yellow bile and black bile. The ratio of these "juices of the body" in Greek was denoted by the word "krasis", which was later replaced by the Latin word temperamentum - "proportionality", "correct measure". Based on the teachings of Hippocrates, another famous physician of antiquity, Claudius Galen (c. 130-c. 200), developed a typology of temperaments, which he outlined in the famous treatise De temperamentum. According to his teachings, their temperament depends on the predominance of one of the juices in the body. They were allocated 13 types of temperament, but then they were reduced to four. These four names of temperament types are well known to everyone: sanguine (from Latin sanguis - blood), phlegmatic (from Greek phlegma - mucus, phlegm), choleric (from Greek chole - bile) and melancholic (from Greek melas chole - black bile). This concept has had a huge impact on scientists for many centuries, confirmation of this is the fact that until now the names of temperament types proposed by Galen are the most common.
Immanuel Kant (06/22/1724-02/12/1804), said that from a physiological point of view, when we are talking about temperament, they mean the physical constitution (weak or strong physique) and complexion (liquid, naturally mobile in the body with the help of vital force, which also includes heat or cold during the processing of these juices.)
But from a psychological point of view, i.e. as the temperament of the soul (faculties of feeling and desire), these expressions concerning the properties of blood are determined only by analogy with the play of feelings and desire with bodily moving causes (of which blood is the most important).
The main division of the doctrine of temperaments is this: the temperaments of feeling and the temperaments of action are divided into two types, which together gives four temperaments.
Kant ranked as temperaments of feelings: A) sanguine and B) its opposite - melancholic. The first has the peculiarity that a quick and strong effect is exerted on the sensation, but the sensation does not penetrate deeply (it does not happen for a long time); in the second temperament, the sensation is less vivid, but takes deep roots. This should be seen as a difference in the temperaments of feelings, and not in a disposition to joy or sadness.
In subsequent centuries, researchers, observing a significant variety of behavior, coinciding with differences in physique and physiological functions, tried to streamline and somehow group these differences. As a result, numerous concepts and typologies of temperaments have arisen. These concepts were based on a variety of personality traits. In a number of concepts, the properties of temperament were understood as hereditary or innate and associated with individual differences in body features. Such typologies are called constitutional typologies. Among them, the most widespread was the typology proposed by E. Kretschmer, who in 1921 published his famous work “Body Structure and Character”. His main idea is that people with a certain body type have certain mental characteristics. E Kretschmer carried out many measurements of body parts, which allowed him to distinguish four constitutional types: leptosomatic, picnic, athletic, dysplastic.
The leptosomatic is characterized by a fragile physique, high growth, a flat chest, narrow shoulders, and long, thin lower limbs.
A picnic is a person with pronounced adipose tissue, excessively obese, characterized by small and medium stature, a swollen body with a large belly and a round head on a short neck.
Athletic - a person with well-developed muscles, a strong physique, characterized by high or medium height, broad shoulders, narrow hips.
Dysplastic - a person with a shapeless, irregular structure. Individuals of this type are characterized by various body deformities (for example, excessive growth, disproportionate physique).
With these types of body structure, Kretschmer correlates the three types of temperament he singled out, which he calls: schizothymic, ixothymic and cyclothymic. The schizothymic has an asthenic physique, he is closed, prone to mood swings, stubborn, not inclined to change attitudes and views, hardly adapts to the environment. In contrast, the ixothymic has an athletic physique. This is a calm, unimpressive person with restrained gestures and facial expressions, with low flexibility of thinking, often petty. The picnic physique is cyclothymic, his emotions fluctuate between joy and sadness, he easily contacts people and is realistic in his views.
Kretschmer's theory is most widespread in Europe. In the USA in the 40s. 20th century W. Sheldon's concept of temperament gained great popularity. His concept is based on the assumption that the body and temperament are two interrelated parameters of a person. According to the author, the structure of the body determines the temperament, which is its function. Sheldon proceeded from the hypothesis of the existence of basic body types, describing which he borrowed the terms of embryology.
He identified three types: 1) endomorphic (mostly internal organs are formed from the endoderm); 2) mesomorphic (muscle tissue is formed from the mesoderm); 3) ectomorphic (skin and nervous tissue develop from the ectoderm). People with the endomorphic type tend to have a weak physique with excess adipose tissue, the mesomorphic type is characterized by a slender and strong body, great physical strength, and the ectomorphic type is characterized by a fragile physique, a flat chest and long thin limbs with weak muscles. According to Sheldon, these body types correspond to certain types of temperaments, named by him depending on the functions of certain organs of the body: viscerotonia (from Latin viscera - insides), somatotonia (from Greek soma - body) and cerebrotonia (from Latin cerebrum - brain) . Sheldon calls persons with a predominance of a certain body type viscerotonics, somatotonics and cerebrotonics, respectively, and believes that each person has all of these groups of properties. However, the differences between people are determined by the predominance of certain properties.
In modern psychological science Most of the constitutional concepts are sharply criticized because they underestimate the role of the environment and social conditions in the formation of a person's mental properties. Concepts based on the consideration of the functioning of the nervous system, which performs the dominant and controlling role in the body, deserve more serious attention. The theory of the connection of some general properties of nervous processes with types of temperament was proposed by I.P. Pavlov and was further developed and experimental confirmation in the work of his followers. The studies conducted by Pavlov are deservedly regarded as the most significant for understanding the physiological foundations of temperament.
Thanks to Pavlov's research, domestic psychology developed ideas about temperament as a personality trait, largely due to the innate characteristics of a person. For example, B.G. Ananiev believed that the basic properties of a person as a representative of the species Homo sapiens are manifested not only in inclinations, but also in temperament.
The greatest contribution to the development of the theory of temperament in Russian psychology was made by B.M. Teplov. His works devoted to the study of the properties of temperament determined not only the modern view on the problem of temperament, but also became the basis for the development of further experimental studies of temperament. Teplov attributed to the properties of temperament stable mental properties that characterize the dynamics of mental activity. He explained the individual characteristics of temperament by different levels of development of certain properties of temperament. Among the most significant properties of temperament were the following:
Emotional excitability. This property was understood as the ability to respond to very weak external and internal influences.
Excitability of attention - this property of temperament determines the adaptive functions of the individual's psyche. It consists in the ability to notice an extremely small change in the intensity of the acting stimulus.
The power of emotions. main function Teplov saw this property in the "energization of activity" depending on the satisfaction or dissatisfaction of motives. (Modern psychologists call this property the intensity and modality of emotional manifestations.)
Anxiety. Teplov understood anxiety as emotional excitability in a threatening situation. Moreover, he fundamentally shared anxiety and emotional excitability in normal conditions. One of the reasons for this opinion is that emotional excitability does not depend on the strength of the stimulus, and anxiety, on the contrary, is directly dependent on it.
Reactivity of involuntary movements. The function of this property is to increase the intensity of adaptive reactions to situations and stimuli that are directly acting at the moment.
Activity of volitional purposefulness of activity. This property, according to Teplov, is manifested in an increase in the activity of the device by transforming the situation in accordance with the goal.
Plasticity - rigidity. The function of this property is to adapt to the changing requirements of the activity.
resistance. This property lies in the ability to resist all internal and external conditions that weaken or inhibit the activity begun.
Subjectivization. Teplov saw the function of this property in strengthening the degree of mediation of activity by subjective images and concepts.
From the above characteristics of the properties of temperament proposed by Teplov, we should draw two main conclusions. First, the properties of temperament are manifested in the dynamics of mental processes and the degree of activity of the individual. Secondly, temperament is closely related to activity. These provisions were developed in subsequent studies by domestic scientists.
The famous psychophysiologist V.M. Rusalov, based on the concept of the properties of the nervous system, proposed in the late 1980s. his interpretation of the properties of temperament. This concept deserves attention, since it took into account the achievements of modern physiology. Rusalov, based on the theory of the functional system P.K. Anokhin, which includes four blocks - storage, circulation and processing of information (block of afferent synthesis), programming (decision making), execution and feedback, identified four related properties of temperament, which are responsible for the breadth or narrowness of afferent synthesis (the degree of tension of the interaction of the body with the environment ), the ease of switching from one program of behavior to another, the speed of execution of the current program of behavior, and the sensitivity to the discrepancy between the real result of the action and its acceptor.
In accordance with this, the traditional psychophysiological assessment of temperament has changed and instead of two parameters - activity and sensitivity - four components have already been identified: ergicity (endurance), plasticity, speed and emotionality (sensitivity). All these components of temperament, according to Rusalov, are biologically and genetically determined. So, temperament depends on the properties of the nervous system, and they, in turn, should be understood as the main characteristics of functional systems that ensure the integrative, analytical and synthetic activity of the brain, the entire nervous system as a whole.
From the point of view of this concept, temperament is a psychobiological category in the sense that its properties are neither completely innate nor dependent on the environment. They, in the words of the author of this concept, represent a “systemic generalization” of genetically specified individual biological properties of a person, which, “being included in a variety of activities, gradually transform and form, regardless of the content of the activity itself, a generalized, qualitatively new individually stable system of invariant properties” .
In accordance with these two main types of human activity - objective activity and communication - each of the distinguished properties of temperament should be considered separately, since it is assumed that in these types of activity they manifest themselves in different ways. So, according to Rusalov, the psychological characteristics of temperament are not the properties of the nervous system per se or their combination, but the typical features of the course of mental processes and behavior that these properties generate. For example, activity, as a property of temperament, in cognitive mental processes is manifested in the extent to which a person is able to focus on a particular object or its aspect. In turn, the pace is manifested in how fast the corresponding mental processes proceed.
Excitability, inhibition and switchability characterize the speed of occurrence and termination of a particular cognitive process or its switching from one object to another. For example, some people are slow to engage in intellectual activity or switch from one topic to another. Others quickly memorize or recall information. It should also be borne in mind here that these features do not determine the abilities of people.
HUMORAL THEORIES OF TEMPERAMENT TYPES
The basis of the doctrine of the types of temperament was laid by Hippocrates, who, using a humoral approach, identified four types of “krasis” (translated from Greek - mixing), i.e. the ratio of four fluids (juices) in the body: blood, yellow and black bile and mucus . Each liquid has its own properties (blood - heat, mucus - cold, yellow bile - dryness, black bile - moisture), and therefore the predominance of one of them determines the state of the body, its tendency to certain diseases.
The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle, who lived a little later than Hippocrates, saw the reason for the differences between people not in the predominance of one or another juice, but in the differences in the composition of the most important of these juices - blood. He noticed that the ability to coagulate blood in different animals is not the same. The greater speed of coagulation is due, in his opinion, to the predominance of solid, or earthy, particles, the smaller one, to the predominance of water, or liquid, particles. Liquid blood is cold and predisposes to fear, while blood rich in dense substances is warm and predisposes to anger.
Galen, who lived in the 2nd century AD, gave the first detailed classification of temperaments, based on the same humoral ideas of Hippocrates about “krasis”. It included 13 types of temperament, including those discussed above. From his point of view, the predominance of yellow bile (in Latin chole - chole) indicates a choleric temperament, the predominance of blood (sanguis - sanguis) - a sanguine temperament, the predominance of black bile (melanos chole - melanos chole) - a melancholic temperament, and the predominance mucus (phlegma - phlegm) - about a phlegmatic temperament.
The psychological characteristics of temperament among the ancient doctors were almost absent; Basically, these characteristics concerned the body and even individual organs. For example, Galen spoke about the temperament of individual parts of the body: the heart, the liver; brain.
The development of anatomy and physiology during the Renaissance gave a new direction to the explanation of temperament types. They are increasingly associated with the structural features of the body.
For example, a number of scientists based the division of temperaments, in addition to the physical properties of blood, based on the difference in tissues and the width of the lumen of blood vessels. Light blood, loose tissues and moderately dilated vessels facilitate, according to these scientists, the course of life processes and give rise to a sanguine temperament. With a significant density in the tissues, the blood lingers in the vessels, the pulse becomes stronger and faster, the overall warmth of the body increases, which leads to the emergence of a choleric temperament. With dense blood and narrow vessels in the tissue, only the liquid, watery part of the blood appears, due to which a phlegmatic temperament arises, characterized by low warmth and pale skin color. Finally, dense, dark blood with narrow tissue pores and a wide lumen of the vessels leads to the formation of a melancholic temperament.
This theory, in a somewhat modified form, was preserved until the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century. So, P.F. Lesgaft believed that the latitude of the lumen and the thickness of the walls of the vessels play a very important role in the origin of temperaments: in choleric people - a small lumen and thick walls, which leads to a fast and strong flow of blood; sanguine people have a small lumen and thin walls, which contributes to a fast and weak flow of blood, etc.
Another anatomical direction connected the types of temperament with the structure of the central nervous system, since it is the brain that is most closely associated with those mental characteristics that characterize various temperaments. Some saw the main basis of temperament in the size of the brain and the thickness of the nerves, others in the features of their functioning.
So, Albrecht Haller, the founder of experimental physiology, who introduced the concepts of excitability and sensitivity, which are important for physiology and psychology, argued that the main factors in differences in temperament are the excitability of the blood vessels themselves through which blood passes.
The idea of a connection between the characteristics of temperament and certain anatomical and physiological characteristics of the nervous system in various forms appears in the teachings of many philosophers, anatomists and doctors of the 19th century.
Some scientists in our country adhered to the humoral-endocrine theory of the origin of temperament types.
P.P. Blonsky (1927) believed that the characteristics of human behavior depend on how balanced and coordinated the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system work. Vagotonics are slow and calm, not inclined to fantasize, they think soberly and realistically. Sympathicotonics, on the contrary, are impulsive, resolute, often carried away and detached from reality.
Attempts to build a classification of types of human behavior, based on the fact of increased or decreased activity of individual endocrine glands, were made by N.A. Belov (1924), B.M. Zavadovsky (1928) and others. So, according to B. .M. Zavadovsky, differences in temperaments determine the interaction of the thyroid and adrenal glands: a sanguine person is distinguished by a high activity of both glands, a phlegmatic person is characterized by weakness of both, a choleric person is characterized by weakness of the thyroid gland, but a strong activity of the adrenal glands, a melancholic person is characterized by a strong activity of the thyroid gland, but weak - adrenal glands.
ENERGY THEORIES OF TEMPERAMENT.
W. WUNDT'S NEW APPROACH
The properties of temperament are most clearly manifested in those forms of behavior that are directly related to the energy expenditure of the body - with the ways of accumulating and expending energy and quantitative characteristics these processes.
Therefore, most researchers paid attention to the emotional and motor reactions of the individual, especially emphasizing their strength (intensity) and flow in time.
An example of such an approach is the typology of temperaments by W. Wundt (1893). He understood temperament as a predisposition to affect, which was expressed in the following thesis: temperament for emotion is the same as excitability for sensation. Based on this understanding, W. Wundt singled out two bipolar properties of temperament - the strength and speed of change (stability-instability) of emotions (feelings), thereby emphasizing the importance of the individual's energy characteristics. Strong emotional reactions combined with emotional instability form a choleric temperament, a small strength of emotional reactions combined with their instability form a sanguine temperament, etc.
Classification of temperaments (according to W. Wundt)
The speed of change of feeling
The power of feelings
strong
weak
Fast
slow
Choleric
melancholic
sanguine
Phlegmatic person
Thus, W. Wundt moved away from a purely descriptive approach to temperament types, highlighting two characteristics that can be measured. He also expressed the important idea that each temperament has its positive and negative sides.
CONSTITUTIONAL THEORIES OF TEMPERAMENT
In a broad sense, the concept of the constitution covers all hereditary or congenital anatomical, physiological and mental properties of the individual.
This concept, spread primarily among Italian, French and German researchers, was most fully expressed by the French physician Claude Sigot (1904). He created a typology based on the idea that the human body and its disorders depend on the environment and innate predispositions.
Each system of the body corresponds to a certain external environment that affects this system. Thus, air is the source of respiratory reactions; food entering the digestive system forms a source of food reactions; motor reactions take place in the physical environment; the social environment causes various brain reactions.
Based on this, K. Seago distinguishes - depending on the predominance of one of the systems in the body - four main body types: respiratory, digestive, muscular and cerebral (brain).
The views of C. Seago, as well as some other concepts of that time, had a significant impact on the formation of modern constitutional theories that have become widespread in the psychology of temperament. Among them, those in which the properties of temperament, understood as hereditary or innate, were directly associated with individual differences in physique - growth, fullness or proportions, were especially widespread.
The constitutional theory of Ernest Kretschmer (1888-1964).
I noticed that each of the two types of diseases - manic-depressive (circular) psychosis and schizophrenia - corresponds to a certain type of physique. E. Kretschmer identified four constitutional types based on body proportions:
1. Leptosomatic. (Greek, leptos - fragile, smna - body). It has a cylindrical shape of the body, having a fragile physique, high growth, a flat chest, an elongated face, the head is egg-shaped. A long skinny nose and an undeveloped lower jaw form the so-called angular profile. The shoulders of a leptosomatic are narrow, the lower limbs are long, the bones and muscles are thin. E. Kretschmer called individuals with extreme severity of these features asthenics (Greek ostenos-weak).
2. Picnic (pyknos - thick, dense). He has a rich adipose tissue, excessive obesity, small or medium stature, a swollen torso, a large belly, a round head on a short neck. Relatively large body parameters (head, chest and abdomen) with narrow shoulders give the body a barrel-shaped shape. People of this type are prone to stoop.
3. Athletic (track athlon - wrestling, fight). It has good muscles, a strong physique, high or medium height, a wide shoulder girdle and narrow hips, which is why the front view of the body forms a trapezium. The fat layer is not expressed. The face has the shape of an elongated egg, the lower jaw is well developed.
4. Dysplastic (Greek dys - bad, ptaStos - formed). Its structure is shapeless, irregular. Individuals of this type are characterized by various body deformations (for example, excessive growth).
The selected types do not depend on the height of a person and his thinness. We are talking about proportions, and not about the absolute dimensions of the body. There can be fat leptosomatics, puny athletics, and skinny picnics.
Most patients with schizophrenia, according to E. Kretschmer, are leptosomatic, although there are also athletics. Picnics also form the largest group among patients with cyclophrenia (manic-depressive psychosis). Athletes, who are less prone to mental illness than others, show some tendency to epilepsy.
Constitutional typology of W. Sheldon.
Somewhat later in the United States, it became popular "the concept of W. Sheldon's temperament, formulated in the 1940s. Sheldon's typology is close to Kretschmer's concept, it is based on the assumption that the structure of the body determines the temperament, which is its function. But this dependence is masked by the great complexity of our organism and psyche, and therefore the disclosure of the connection between the physical and mental requires the selection of such physical and mental properties that reveal this dependence to the greatest extent.
W. Sheldon identifies the following body types:
1. Endomorphic type (7~1-1). The name of the type is given based on the fact that mainly internal organs are formed from the endoderm, and in people of this type their excessive development is just observed. The physique is relatively weak, with an excess of adipose tissue.
2. Mesomorphic, type (1-7-1). The mesomorphic type has a well-developed muscular system, which is formed from the mesoderm. A slender, strong body, which is the opposite of the baggy and flabby body of an endomorph, the Mesomorph type has great mental stability and strength.
3. Ectomorphic type (1-1-7). From the ectoderm develops the skin and nervous tissue. The body is fragile and thin, the chest is flattened. Relatively weak development of internal organs and physique. The limbs are long, thin, with weak muscles. The nervous system and feelings are relatively easily excitable.
These body types correspond to certain types of temperament.
However, critics pointed to too much static and neglect of development in the relationship between the psyche and body structure, emphasized the inconsistency in the division into types, and drew attention to the fact that these theories did not give a satisfactory explanation of the relationship between physique and temperament.
2. Representations by I.P. Pavlova about the types of temperament.
I.P. Pavlov considered temperament as a type of GNI, substantiating this by the presence in animals and humans of a certain severity of the properties of the nervous system.
Choleric type (unrestrained) - strong unbalanced NS
Sanguine type (balanced) - strong balanced mobile NS
Phlegmatic type (inert) - strong balanced inert NA
Melancholic type (weak, inhibitory) - weak NS.
Positive aspects of the approach:
1. A more modern physiological base began to be brought under the psychological categories of behavior (temperament) (taking the old names of temperament types, I.P. Pavlov based his explanation of the reasons for their appearance not on the fluids that make up the internal environment of the body, but on the patterns of flow nervous activity, including the higher brain departments);
2) behavior was associated with a set of typological features of the manifestation of the properties of the nervous system.
Despite the outward harmony and simplicity, the classification of temperament types created by IP Pavlov concealed in itself, as noted by B. M. Teplov (1959); deep internal contradictions.
First, combinations of typological features of the manifestation of the properties of the nervous system, as has now been revealed, are not so common. Obviously, I. P. Pavlov himself understood this when he spoke about intermediate types and considered that there were several dozen of them.
Secondly, it does not have a unified approach to type selection.
In one case, the type is associated with three typological features, in the other, with two, and in the third, even with one typological feature (weakness of the nervous system). But the weakness of the nervous system can give a variety of combinations with typological features - mobility and inertia of excitation and inhibition, balance or with the predominance of one of the processes.
Thirdly, data obtained in recent decades show that the choleric type of behavior is associated not with the strength of the nervous system, but with its weakness.
Fourthly, in fact, the psychological characteristics of a person (manifested in behavior, communication, activity) should have been derived directly from physiological phenomena - the features of the course of nervous processes, without any intermediate psychophysiological phenomena; motives, inclinations, abilities, etc.
Based on the ideas of IP Pavlov, the types of behavior should be strictly determined by the typological features of the manifestation of the properties of the nervous system that a person has. The impossibility of this, obviously, was understood by I.P. Pavlov.
So, in his laboratory, the fact was revealed that, depending on the conditions of education, the behavior of dogs with the same typological features of the properties of the nervous system can be different.
For example, a dog can be cowardly not only with a weak, but also with a strong nervous system, if it is brought up in adverse conditions. Therefore, I. P. Pavlov began to talk about the disguise of temperament traits with behavioral traits acquired during life.
It is no accident that IP Pavlov came to the idea of the genotype and phenotype; he emphasized the need to distinguish the type of the nervous system as an innate feature of the nervous system, i.e. genotype, from character, i.e. phenotype, expressed in the way of human behavior and representing a fusion of congenital and acquired in the process of life.
However, these fair provisions of I.P. Pavlov still did not remove the sharpness of the contradictions, since temperament, having migrated to the system of physiological concepts, turned out to be divorced from the psychological mechanisms of human behavior.
Approach to classification of GND types P.V. Simonov (1970).
Even during the life of Pavlov, the attitude of the melancholic type to the reaction of fear was noticed, the choleric - to rage, the sanguine - to joy, the phlegmatic - not prone to violent emotional response.
These three emotions: fear, rage, pleasure have a clearer structural representation in the brain of higher mammals. It is likely that the type of NS of a given creature is largely determined by the relative strength of the cerebral systems of fear, ... rage., and joy. These three parameters seem to be the most essential for constructing a new classification of the types of higher nervous activity in animals, and possibly in humans” (p. 101).
From here came the formulas of temperament:
Anger > Joy > Fear - most close to choleric;
Joy > Anger > Fear - closer to sanguine;
Fear > Joy > Anger - closer to the melancholic.
3. PSYCHOLOGICAL (FACTOR) THEORIES OF TEMPERAMENT
Theories of temperament types have been criticized not only because
the authors of most of them, based on constitutional theory, were looking for direct and. simplified connections between body type and temperament type.
the assumption that natural phenomena, including mental characteristics, really exist in their extreme forms, has not been confirmed.
as follows from typological concepts, mental characteristics can be “sorted out” or divided into clearly distinct groups. However, it is known that almost all phenomena observed in nature are distributed along the so-called normal curve (Gaussian curve), according to which each property in most people appears in its average value, while extreme manifestations are rare; in the considered typologies, they are the focus of attention of researchers.
At the beginning of the 20th century, studies of temperament appeared, which boiled down to a “pure” psychological description (or characterization) of the properties of temperament, abstracting from the structure and function of the body.
1. One of the first was the theory of temperament, belonging to the Dutch psychologists G. Heymans and E. Wiersme (1906-1909).
The authors of this theory developed a special questionnaire containing 90 questions, and with its help examined almost 2500 persons (adults and children). Based on the data obtained, they identified three main, bipolar characteristics of temperament
1. Emotionality - the absence of emotionality is determined by measuring the frequency and strength of emotional reactions in relation to the situations that caused these reactions.
2. Activity - naccuity, Activity at work, at school or at home, a way of spending leisure time (active - passive), attitude to duties (performs tasks immediately - postpones them).
3. Primary function - secondary function.
People with a developed primary function react strongly and immediately to environmental stimuli, the effect of these reactions quickly fades. In individuals characterized by a secondary function, the initial reaction to the stimulus is weak, then it gradually intensifies and persists for a longer time, therefore persons of this type are often called perseverative (from the English pursfceimce - stamina, perseverance, perseverance).
Researchers sometimes draw attention to the analogy between primary function and eustraversion, secondary function and introversion.
As a result of the appropriate combination of these three characteristics, we get eight various types temperament.
emotionality activity function primary (P) or secondary (S) temperament
+ + P Sanguine
+ + V Phlegmatic
- + P Choleric
- + In Addictive
+ - P Amorphous
+ - B Apathetic
- - P Nervous
- - In Sentimental
Having carried out a statistical analysis that was difficult for its time, the authors came close to factor analysis - a statistical method, the use of which had a significant impact on further studies of temperament.
Typology of K. Jung.
Carl Jung (1875-1961) also divided people into types based on psychological differences, which, however, he considered innate.
K. Jung identified two general types - extroverted and introverted.
Extroverts are characterized by a focus on the object, so the opinions of other people, generally accepted norms, objective circumstances determine their actions to a much greater extent than their own attitude towards the surrounding reality. In an introvert, subjectivity prevails over objective. Experiencing some emotion, an introvert pays attention not to the events or people that caused this emotion, but to their own experiences. His own opinion is more important to him than the surrounding reality or the opinions of other people.
In addition to the conscious attitude, both types also have an unconscious attitude: the more the conscious attitude is exaggerated, the more primitive and infantile the unconscious attitude becomes. In extraverts, when the conscious attitude is suppressed, the unconscious attitude is introverted (subject-oriented) and dresses up in egocentric aspirations. In introverts, the unconscious attitude emphasizes the meaning of the object, the external situation. The stronger the introverted conscious attitude is expressed and, consequently, the more the unconscious extraverted one is suppressed, the more anxiety and mistrust the introvert is caused by new and unfamiliar objects, the more terrible it becomes for him to communicate with others. The ideal for such an introvert was a desert island, writes K. Jung.
Depending on the development of the four main mental functions - thinking, emotions, sensations and intuitions, K. Jung distinguishes four types of extroverts and four types of introverts:
Extraverted thinking is inherent in subjects who accept important decisions rationally, they create schemes of objective reality and are guided by them in their behavior, demanding the same from those who ship them; such people can be reformers and innovators. However, the narrower the scheme, the more likely it is that a representative of this type will turn into a grumbler, and their service to the ideal will not stop him from any moral laws: the end justifies the means. People of this type have emotional dullness: they rarely sympathize with others and do not value friendship, aesthetic experiences are alien to them, and therefore they are not interested in art.
Extroverted emotional. People of this type are prone to a “correct” emotional assessment of everything that surrounds them. They like partners who meet certain criteria (for example, occupying a certain social position). They go to the theater and experience there those emotions that should be experienced in the theater; From their feelings it always blows cold, so their behavior is perceived as a pretense.
Extraverted sensory type. Such people determine the value of objects by the strength of sensation; the stronger it is, the greater the value of the object. They seek enjoyment and pleasure, impress those around them as people enjoying life, aesthetes, if sensations do not dominate over OTHER functions. Otherwise, they become unpleasant for others,
Extroverted intuitive type. Such a person has an unusually developed sense of smell for everything new and unusual. He is easily and violently carried away by a new object, can infect with his enthusiasm and inspire others, but as soon as the object of his affection exhausts his possibilities for development, he forgets about it without regret and switches to a new one. At the same time, moral principles never bother him, therefore, those around him consider him frivolous and even an adventurer. K. Jung writes about people of this type that they “spread” around them full of life, but they do not live, but others.
Introverted thinker. A person of this type is characterized by thinking that does not recreate the real reality, but brings its vague image to an understandable and clearly formulated idea. Because of this, he tends to adjust the facts to the idea or ignore them altogether. He creates theories for the sake of theories. Unlike the extroverted thinking type, it seeks not to expand knowledge about the world, but to deepen it, does not seek to captivate others with its ideas and win their support - When convinced of the correctness of its ideas, it resents a society that refuses to accept them. He is a bad teacher. People around him are perceived as arrogant and domineering. However, for those who know him closely, he looks naive and unadapted.
Introverted emotional type. A representative of this type looks outwardly calm, even indifferent. His emotions are often imperceptible to others, although inside he can boil everything. His emotional restraint is perceived negatively by others, as a manifestation of coldness.
The introverted sensory type, in contrast to the extraverted sensory type, focuses not on objects that cause intense sensations, but on the intensity of sensations caused by objects. Therefore, as soon as a sensation arises, the object loses its value for such a person. Representatives of this type are incomprehensible and unattractive to others.
According to K. Jung, the introverted intuitive type gives rise to science fiction writers and artists, and in case of deviation from the norm, mystics. The products of their creativity are incomprehensible to others.
It is impossible not to pay attention to the fact that when describing these types in K, Jung, a tilt towards their negative characteristics is clearly visible. This is due to the fact that the source of this typology was the clinical experience of its author.
Ideas about the temperament of G. Eysenck.
The English psychologist Hans Eysenck (1957) proposed to consider the typologies of Kretschmer and Jung as a system of four coordinates.
The first coordinate is formed by the object-subject orientation (from maximum extraversion to maximum introversion):
The second coordinate is the Norm-Pathology Scale. Average values of pathology (mental deviations) form neuroses, strong - psychoses.
The third coordinate is the scale “manic-depressive psychosis - schizophrenia”. The middle of this scale is represented by normal mental states. For one type of temperament, the normal states are synthonia (minimal cyclothymia) and cyclothymia proper, for the other, dystonia and schizothymia. The average values of mental deviations form, respectively: hysteria and psychasthenia, and the maximum - manic-depressive psychosis and schizophrenia.
The fourth coordinate is formed by three body types: picnic, athletic and leptosomal.
The advantages of these ideas of G. Eysenck are
firstly, summing up the physiological basis for the purely psychological types of K. Jung;
secondly, that all psychological manifestations - normal and pathological - are considered as continuums of meanings, and not as extreme groups. But even in this case, one of the coordinates related to body types remains discrete.
Based on the description of the behavior of extroverts in introverts - on the one hand, and individuals with high and low neuroticism - on the other hand, G. Eysenck built his own model of temperament types. The type of temperament, according to this author, is one US of four quadrants at the intersection of two orthogonal scales: 1) extraversion-introversion and 2) emotional stability-lability. The first scale characterizes the individual from the side of "openness" to the outside world, the second - from the side of emotional stability. The combination of emotional stability with extraversion G, Eysenck identifies with the type of sanguine person; emotional lability and extraversion - with the type of choleric; emotional stability with introversion - with the type of phlegmatic, and emotional lability with introversion - with the type of melancholic.
4. APPROACH TO THE STUDY OF TEMPERAMENT IN THE PERM PSYCHO-PHYSIOLOGICAL SCHOOL V.S. MERLIN AND THE PSYCHO-PHYSIOLOGICAL SCHOOL B.M. TEPLOV
Wolf Solomonovich Merlin believed that the type of temperament depends on the general type of the nervous system, and attributed it to the constitutional type. However, he considered such a characteristic of temperament to be insufficient and put forward a number of other signs.
The first main sign of the temperament of V.S. Merlin considered the conditionality of his properties of the nervous system.
Further, he called the following features that can be attributed to the properties (characteristics) of temperament:
regulate the dynamics of mental activity in general;
characterize the features of the dynamics of individual mental processes;
have a stable character for a long time;
are in a strictly regular ratio characterizing the type of temperament.
In other words, the signs of temperament are its innateness, stability of manifestation, influence on the dynamics of human mental activity, the presence of a certain set of properties (krasis) that determines one or another type of temperament. In addition, he attributed the features of the emotional-volitional sphere to the properties of temperament.
However, in practice, everything came down to the study of individual temperamental properties, to which V.S. Merlin referred:
sensitivity, reactivity, activity, the ratio of reactivity and activity, the rate of reactions, plasticity-rigidity, extraversion-introversion.
V.S. Merlin believed that the methods used to study the types of the nervous system cannot be considered sufficient. In his opinion, at best, they establish the actually existing set of typological features observed in a given person or a stochastic relationship (when using statistical methods on a group of people). The psychological functional interdependence of the properties of the nervous system cannot be established in this way. Therefore, according to V. S. Merlin, the existing typologies of the nervous system should be considered only preliminary.
Indeed, the presence of certain typological features in a person still. does not mean that all of them: are included in the same typological complex. There may be features that are neutral in relation to the typological complex. Therefore, it is necessary to know what and how this typological feature influences and how its influence is consistent with the influence of other typological features that a given person has. Only then can one make a judgment about whether he has any typological complex, i.e., a combination of typological features that determine the degree of manifestation of one or another psycho-physiological phenomenon (inclination, ability, volitional quality, etc.).
From the point of view of V. S. Merlin, a type should be understood not simply as a combination of typological features, but as a combination, accompanied by regular connections between them.
Wolf Solomonovich Merlin was born on January 22, 1898. In 1923 he graduated from the Petrograd Pedagogical Institute. He worked at the Leningrad, Saratov and Sverdlovsk Pedagogical Institutes, at Kazan University, from 1.054 the head of the Department of Psychology of the Perm Pedagogical Institute, where he created his own school of differential psychophysiology. His main works are devoted to the psychological problems of temperament and personality. Author of the integral theory of personality. Died in 1982.
At the same time, he considered it most likely that the type does not depend on a combination of typological features, but, on the contrary, the properties, the features of their manifestation depend on the type.
Therefore, the main direction of studying the properties of the nervous system and temperament was to establish a connection between some typological features of the properties of the nervous system and individual characteristics(properties) of temperament.
REFUSAL TO STUDY TYPES OF TEMPERAMENT IN THE PSYCHO-PHYSIOLOGICAL SCHOOL B. M. TEPLOVA
A more consistent position was taken by BM Teplov (1956). He noted the danger of mixing two concepts: type of behavior and type as a complex of properties of the nervous system (more precisely, a complex of typological features of the manifestation of these properties).
It should be emphasized that when they talk about type, they mean an integral characteristic that reflects a complex (combination) of several properties.
In the laboratory of V. M. Teplov, a certain methodology for studying the properties of the nervous system was developed, a clear presentation of which was given by V. D. Nebylitsyn (1966).
One of the fundamental provisions of this methodology is the requirement to study the properties of the nervous system, and not the types of higher nervous activity.
Too often it was just a matter of dividing the contingent of subjects into four “types” and only, at best, isolating a few more intermediate ones.
Orientation to only four types of higher nervous activity (which, by the way, still exists in the textbooks of physiology, psychology, and pedagogy) began to hamper the development of differential psychophysiology. Such combinations of typological features were revealed (strong, unbalanced with a predominance of inhibition over excitation; weak with a predominance of inhibition, etc.), which could not be attributed to any of the variations of the Pavlovian classification of types.
The problem became even more complicated when, in the laboratory of B. M. Teplov, they began to postulate new properties of the nervous system: lability, dynamism, concentration. Therefore, B.M. Teplov believed that at this stage of studying the problem, the identification of typological features of the manifestation of the properties of the nervous system has more scientific meaning than the definition of “types”. He rightly believed that no scientifically substantiated classification of types is possible until the questions relating to the basis of this classification ~ ~ properties of the nervous system are studied in detail.
5. CORRELATION OF TEMPERAMENT AND CHARACTER
Along with the concept of "temperaments of psychology", the concept of "character" is also widely used (from the Greek. charakter - trait, sign, seal, chasing). Character is understood as a set of stable individual characteristics of a person that develops and manifests itself in activity and communication, causing typical behaviors for her.
Among the many character traits, some act as leading, others as secondary, while they can either be in harmony (and then they speak of the integrity of the character), or contrast with the leading features (and then they speak of a contradictory character). Among character traits, along with truthfulness and deceit, tact and rudeness, and other personality traits acquired in the process of human socialization, extraversion-introversion, which are considered properties of temperament, are also called. This raises the question: what is the relationship between temperament and character?
As noted by A. G. Kovalev and V. N. Myasishchev (1957), the question of the relationship between temperament and character was raised by many psychologists. The authors identified four groups of opinions:
I) identification of temperament and character;
The exponent of the first point of view is Kretschmer; which, deriving temperament from the characteristics of the bodily constitution, essentially implements it with the character of the personality. This point of view is quite common in Western psychology, where temperament is not distinguished as an independent concept, but acts as a synonym for the concepts of “personality” and “character” (R. Cattell, G. Eysenck, S. Eysenck 1969).
In domestic psychology, similar views were shared by A. F. Lazursky. He identified temperament and character and attributed them to the endopsyche, which characterizes the innate supply of physical and spiritual forces. He believed that endo-manifestations express internal, subjective relationships between the psycho-physiological elements of a given personality, and at the same time they are always associated with the individual characteristics of the central nervous system.
2) opposition to the temperament of the character, the establishment of antagonistic relations between them;
Proponents of the second point of view note that temperament is an innate primary reaction of the personality, and character is a manifestation of a secondary reaction acquired in experience (P. Viktorov, 1887). Antagonism arises between the primary reaction, which constitutes the "primary individuality," and the secondary reaction, or "secondary individuality." The second slows down the first.
The same point of view is shared by N. D. Levitov (1969), who believes that temperament is not part of the character and that the latter is in antagonistic relations with the first. In his opinion, personality development takes place along the path of overcoming temperament by character, transforming temperament under influence of character. The personality is, as it were, bifurcated, its individual properties are opposed to each other. In this case, the character may come into conflict with temperament.
3) recognition of temperament as an element of character;
supporters of the third point of view (L. S. Vygotsky, S. L. Rubinshtein, B. G. Ananiev, V. M. Rusalov and others) consider temperament as an innate basis of character, as a dynamic side of character and personality. According to L. S. Vygotsky, for example, temperament is a prerequisite, and character is the end result of the educational process. Scientists who adhere to this point of view consider temperament as the core of character, as its unchanging part, in contrast to the character itself, which changes throughout life.
According to V.M. Rusalov, the development of temperament occurs for two reasons:
1) following biological age development and
2) as a result of successive socially organized types of activity (play, study, work, etc.), that is, in the process of education and training” (1885, p. 31).
However, V. M. Rusalov does not have a clear distinction between temperament and character.
There are, however, character traits that can be with any type of temperament. This is honesty, kindness, politeness, or, conversely, deceit, greed, rudeness. Depending on the temperament, these traits can manifest themselves in different ways.
6. SPECIAL TYPES OF HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY ACCORDING TO I.P. PAVLOV
IP Pavlov, along with the “general” types (temperament) inherent in Man; and animals, postulated - and "special", types inherent in the same man; because they reflect the correlation between the first (figurative) and the second (speech-cogitative) signal systems.
He identified three such types;
artistic, in which the activity of the first system is especially pronounced,
mental, in which the activity of the second signal system noticeably predominates;
mixed, in which the activity of both systems is expressed equally.
The artistic type is distinguished by a pronounced inclination towards figurative-emotional thinking. This does not mean that his second signaling system is not developed (that is, verbal-logical thinking is not developed). This only means that people of this type perceive reality with an unusually acute, vivid, complete and direct perception (for example, they are able to clearly, sometimes to the point of hallucination, imagine objects and phenomena), they have a highly developed imagination, and hence the ability to reproduce is well expressed. reality in artistic images, picturesqueness of speech (which distinguishes many artists, artists, musicians).
The mental type is distinguished by an increased ability and inclination to verbal-logical (abstract) thinking. It is characterized by the ability to analyze and systematize, a tendency to abstract reflection, responding not so much to specific phenomena as to their generalization. But at the same time, it is not at all necessary that the first signal system is poorly developed in him. Just abstract thinking it prevails over figurative. Therefore, we can say that this is not only a style of perception of reality, but also a style of thinking: the artistic type prefers to translate what is perceived into images of reality, and the thinking type prefers to translate it into abstract, abstract symbols.
I. P. Pavlov spoke in the spirit that the artistic type is not inferior to the mental type in the development of speech and logical capabilities: The main thing that distinguishes “artists” is a synthetic strategy for receiving and processing information, thanks to which they grasp reality as a whole, her. “Thinkers”, however, are distinguished mainly by the analytical strategy of perception and development of reality. Hence, there is a desire to compare these types with the functional asymmetry of the brain, since the synthetic strategy is inherent in the right hemisphere, and the analytical one in the left. The dominance of the right hemisphere can lead to the appearance of "artists" (dominance of the first signaling system), and the dominance of the left hemisphere - "thinkers" (dominance of the second signaling system).
These types of thinking are closely related to the characteristics of perception, so you can distinguish types of people on this basis. It is shown that vivid emotional-figurative perception and understanding works of art characteristic of people of an artistic type (G. V. Bystrova, 1968; V. S. Merlin, 1938; V. P. Yagunkova, 1966). However, the connections of these types with the “general” types and properties of the nervous system remain unclear. I. P. Pavlov suggested that “thinkers” should correspond to melancholic, and “artists” - to choleric. Some studies (B. N. Brike, 196i; G. V. Bystrova, 1976; V. V. Pechenkov, 1997) show the existence of such connections. For example, L.P. Kalininsky (1971) showed that a more successful use of the expressive means of a language depends both on the development of the second signaling system and on the presence of a weak nervous system in the subject.
In a study by N. E. Vysotskaya (1976), conducted on students of a choreographic school, a connection was found between artistic abilities (emotional expressiveness, artistry and plasticity, danceability) and the properties of the nervous system. Students with pronounced artistic abilities more often had a weak nervous system, mobility of excitation and inhibition, and the predominance of excitation in terms of “external” and internal balance. A strong nervous system, as found in this study, interferes with emotional expressiveness. If we take into account that, according to N. E. Vysotskaya, students with well-pronounced artistic abilities also had a predominance of the first signal system, then it can be assumed with a high degree of probability that the “artistic type” is characterized by precisely those typological features of the manifestation of the properties of the nervous system that are listed above.
In the laboratory of E.A. Golubeva shows that the predominance of one of the signaling systems is accompanied by peculiar complexes of typological features.
The figurative and effective style of perception, thinking and memory, the lability of the nervous system and the dominance of the right hemisphere are associated with the first signaling system.
The verbal-logical style of cognitive activity, the inertia of the nervous system, and the dominance of the left hemisphere are associated with the second signaling system.
It does not at all follow from this that every great artist (in the broad sense of the word: artist, writer, painter, musician) has a weak nervous system, high mobility of nervous processes and a predominance of excitation over inhibition (in one work, the author, on the basis that Leo Tolstoy is a great artist of the word, claims that he had a weak nervous system). Such a vulgar interpretation of a special type through the properties of the nervous system has little in common with the scientific solution of this question.
For example, even in choreography, one of the most emotional types of art, the emotionality of perception associated with the properties of the nervous system mentioned above is not always the foundation on which the skill of ballet dancers is built. Many achieve mastery through technique, the latter is associated with the inertia of the nervous processes, which provides a good motor memory.
Questions for independent work
1. What characterizes the formal-dynamic and structural-content features of the individual psyche?
2. What approaches to understanding temperament do you know?
3. List the main types of temperament. What are these classifications based on?
4. Outline the role of temperament in human behavior and life. What is its adaptive function?
5. Give literary and historical examples of different temperaments.
6. Try to practice establishing hypothetical relationships between the characteristics of temperament and a) the sex of a person, b) personality traits, c) personality orientation.
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Course work
The doctrine of temperament
Performed
Bezrukova Lyudmila
Introduction
Psychology is a very broad science that includes different areas. In my work, I decided to only touch this topic, touching on only a very small part of it. Theme of my term paper: "The doctrine of temperaments, their comparative characteristics."
The problem that will be discussed has occupied mankind for more than 25 centuries. It is called a beautiful and sonorous word - temperament. People begin to get acquainted with the concept of "temperament" very early. Even from childhood, we notice that there are mobile, cheerful, persistent children, while others are slow, shy, unhurried in words and deeds. It is in these features that temperament is manifested.
The famous psychologist Merlin wrote: “Imagine two rivers - one is calm, flat, the other is swift, mountainous. The course of the first is barely noticeable, it smoothly carries its waters, it does not have bright splashes, stormy waterfalls and splashes. The second one is the complete opposite. The river rushes quickly, the water in it rumbles, boils and, hitting the stones, turns into shreds of foam ... Something similar can be observed in the behavior of people.
Observations have shown that all people are different not only in appearance, but also in behavior and movements. For example, if you follow the behavior of students in the classroom, you can immediately notice the difference in the behavior, movements of each. Some have slow, correct movements, a noticeable calmness in their eyes, while others have sharp movements, fussiness in their eyes, but most of them show similar developmental results. What explains this difference in behavior? First of all, temperament, which manifests itself in any kind of activity (playing, working, educational, creative), in gait, gestures, in all behavior. Individual psychological characteristics of a person's personality, his temperament give a peculiar coloring to all activities and behavior.
Temperament is easy to determine by the speed of a person’s movements, by the pace of his speech, by the ability to quickly and easily get involved in work, by responsiveness to the feelings of other people, by the ability to get involved in business, while showing great perseverance and passion, by fussiness, by desire to communicate with comrades , by the speed of changing moods, by courage, and even by facial expression and voice timbre. The above examples lead to an understanding that temperament is a dynamic characteristic of a person and that the mental pace and rhythm, the speed of the emergence of feelings, their duration and stability, ingenuity, focus on certain contacts with objects and people, on a person’s interest in himself or herself depend on temperament. others.
Temperament is one of those psychological concepts that "everyone knows". Giving a description to our acquaintances, we now and then use the names of various temperaments - we say about one: "typical choleric", another we call "sanguine", the third - "phlegmatic", the fourth - "melancholic". Yes, and we usually refer to one of four categories.
It turns out that most people consider themselves choleric or sanguine. Phlegmatic people come across less often, and even in melancholy, as if ashamed, rarely anyone agrees to confess. Meanwhile, people of very different temperaments can achieve high achievements in the same kind of activity. If we take the largest writers, then A.I. Herzen was a typical sanguine person, I.A. Krylov - phlegmatic, A.S. Pushkin is a choleric, and N.V. Gogol is a melancholic. At about the same time, outstanding Russian commanders glorified themselves in the military field - choleric (according to the version, p. 417 - sanguine) A.V. Suvorov and phlegmatic M.I. Kutuzov. It is easy to attribute to one of the classical temperaments and literary heroes - the musketeers from the novels of A. Dumas père. (, p.207).
Acquaintance with the concept and typology of temperaments allows not only to satisfy cognitive interest. Knowledge in this area is necessary for the professional activities of a teacher when choosing an individual approach to the learning process, for managers at all levels when building tactics for business relationships with subordinates, when choosing a profession, as well as in professional selection, when people communicate with each other, in developing professional skills etc.
1. From the history of teachings about temperament
temperament psychological personality
The doctrine of temperament arose in antiquity. The word "temperament" in Latin means "proper ratio of parts"; the Greek word “krasis”, equal in meaning, was introduced by the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates (Y-IY centuries AD). He first defined the concept of "temperament" and described temperaments in more or less detail. By temperament, he understood the anatomical, physiological and psychological individual characteristics of a person. He, and then Galen, observing the individual characteristics of people's behavior, made an attempt to explain these features. According to the Hippocratic theory, the differences between people are determined by the ratio of the main types of fluids in their body. If they are mixed correctly, a person is healthy, if they are mixed incorrectly, they are sick. One of the fluids predominates, which determines the temperament of a person. According to Hippocrates, there are four such fluids: blood, two types of bile and mucus (or lymph). In sanguine people, blood predominates (lat. sanguis), in choleric people - yellow bile (lat. chole), in phlegmatic people - mucus (lat. pegma). And, finally, melancholics are people with an excess of black bile (Latin melanos chole). The names of temperaments have survived to this day.
Further development of the doctrine of temperament took place in the following directions.
The psychological characteristics of temperament expanded more and more. The Roman physician Galen (II century), unlike Hippocrates, characterizes the types of temperament along with physiological, psychological and even moral properties.
German philosopher I. Kant at the end of the 18th century. considers temperament only as mental properties. Until recently, the characteristic of temperament remained predominantly psychological. In this regard, the concept of types of temperament is changing. They are characterized by a proportion of not physiological, but mental properties. For Kant, this is the ratio of different feelings and different degrees of activity. He argued that in a sanguine person the main desire is the desire for pleasure, combined with a slight excitability of feelings and their short duration. He is fond of everything that pleases him. His inclinations are fickle, and one cannot rely too much on them. Trusting and gullible, he enjoys building projects but soon abandons them.
In the melancholic, the dominant inclination is the inclination towards sadness. Trifle offends him, everything seems to him that he is neglected. His desires are sad, his suffering seems unbearable and beyond all consolation.
The choleric temperament exhibits remarkable strength in action, energy and perseverance when under the influence of some passion. His passions instantly ignite from the slightest obstacle, and his pride, revenge, ambition, the strength of his feelings know no limits when his soul is under the influence of passion. He thinks little and acts quickly, because that is his will.
And, finally, according to Kant, feelings do not take hold of the phlegmatic quickly. He does not need to make great efforts on himself in order to maintain his composure. It is easier for him than for others to refrain from a quick decision in order to think it over before. He is difficult to be irritated, rarely complains, endures his sufferings patiently and is little indignant at the sufferings of others. (, p.208)
At Wundt ( late XIX c.) temperament is the ratio of speed and strength of “spiritual movements”. In the process of developing the doctrine of temperament, the characteristics of the four main types of temperament change. The idea of their number is being revised. Starting with Kant, they began to distinguish the properties of temperament from other individual mental properties (the nature of the personality), although strict criteria for such a distinction were not proposed.
In the history of teachings about temperament, the understanding of the physiological foundations of temperament has changed. There were two main directions: explanation of temperament types by the ratio of the activity of the endocrine glands (German psychologist Kretschmer, American Sheldon), or by the ratio of the properties of the nervous system (I.P. Pavlov) (, pp. 407-408).
Since ancient times, researchers, observing a significant variety of behavior, coinciding with differences in physique and physiological functions, have tried to streamline them, somehow group them. Thus, a variety of typologies of temperaments arose. Of greatest interest are those in which the properties of temperament, understood as hereditary or innate, were associated with individual differences in physique. These typologies are called constitutional typologies. So the typology proposed by E. Kretschmer, who in 1921 published his famous work “Body Structure and Character”, was most widely used. His main idea was that people with a certain type of constitution have certain mental characteristics. He carried out many measurements of body parts, which allowed him to distinguish 4 constitutional types (,,):
Leptosomatic (asthenic type) - characterized by a fragile physique, high growth, flat chest. The shoulders are narrow, the lower limbs are long and thin.
Picnic - a person with pronounced adipose tissue, excessively obese. characterized by small or medium stature, a spreading body with a large belly and a round head on a short neck.
Athletic - a person with well-developed muscles, a strong physique, characterized by high or medium height, broad shoulders, narrow hips.
Dysplastic - people with a shapeless, irregular structure. Individuals of this type are characterized by various body deformities (for example, excessive growth, disproportionate physique).
With these types of body structure, Kretschmer correlates 3 selected types of temperament, which he calls: schizothymic, ixothymic and cyclothymic. The schizothymic has an asthenic physique, he is closed, prone to fluctuations in emotions, stubborn, little susceptible to changes in attitudes and views, hardly adapts to the environment. In contrast, the ixothymic has an athletic physique. This is a calm, little impressionable person with restrained gestures and facial expressions, with low flexibility of thinking, often petty. The picnic physique is cyclothymic, his emotions fluctuate between joy and sadness, he easily contacts people and is realistic in his views,.
The theory of E. Kretschmer was very common in Europe, and in the USA the concept of temperament by W. Sheldon, formulated in the 40s of the last century, gained popularity. Sheldon's views are also based on the assumption that the body and temperament are 2 human parameters related to each other. The structure of the body determines the temperament, which is its function. W. Sheldon proceeded from the hypothesis of the existence of basic body types, describing which he borrowed terms from embryology. They distinguished 3 types (, , ):
Endomorphic (mainly internal organs are formed from the endoderm);
Mesomorphic (muscle tissue is formed from the mesoderm);
Ectomorphic (skin and nervous tissue develop from the ectoderm).
At the same time, people with an endomorphic type are characterized by a relatively weak physique with an excess of adipose tissue; the mesomorphic type tends to have a slender and strong body, great physical stability and strength; and ectomorphic - a fragile body, a flat chest, long thin limbs with weak muscles.
According to W. Sheldon, these types of physiques correspond to certain types of temperaments, named by him depending on the functions of certain organs of the body: viscerotonia (lat. viscera- “insides”), somatotonia (Greek soma - “body”) and cerebrotonia (lat. cerebrum - "brain").
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Types of temperament (according to W. Sheldon) |
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Viscerotonia |
Somatotonia |
Cerebrotonia |
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Relaxation in posture and movement. Love for comfort. Slow response. Passion for food. Socialization of food needs. Pleasure from the process of digestion. Love for companies, friendly outpourings Sociophilia (love for public life). Kindness to everyone. Thirst for love and approval of others. Orientation to others. Emotional balance. Tolerance. Serene contentment. Good dream. Lack of explosive emotions and actions. Softness, ease of handling and outward expression of feelings. Sociability and relaxation under the influence of alcohol. The need for people in difficult times. Focused on children and families. |
Confidence in posture and movement. Propensity for physical activity. Energy. Need for movement and pleasure from it. The need for dominance. Risk appetite in the game of chance. Decisive manner. Bravery. Strong aggressiveness. Psychological insensitivity. Claustrophobia (fear of closed spaces). Lack of compassion. Spartan pain endurance. Noisy behavior. Appearance corresponds to older age. Objective and broad thinking, directed outward. Self-confidence, aggressiveness under the influence of alcohol. The need for action in difficult times. Orientation towards youth activities. |
Inhibition in movements, stiffness in posture. Excessive physiological reactivity. Increased rate of reactions. A tendency to seclusion. Disposition to reasoning, exclusive attention. secret feelings, emotional retardation. Self-control of facial expressions. Social phobia (fear of social contacts). Inhibition in communication. Avoidance of standard actions. Agrophobia (fear of open space). Unpredictability of attitudes (behavior). Excessive sensitivity to pain. Poor sleep, chronic fatigue. Youthful vivacity and subjective thinking. Concentrated, hidden and subjective thinking. Resistance to the action of alcohol and other repressants. The need for solitude in difficult times. Orientation towards old age. |
In psychological science, most constitutional concepts have become the object of sharp criticism. The main drawback of such theories is that they underestimate, and sometimes simply openly ignore, the role of the environment and social conditions in the formation of the individual's mental properties.
Characteristics of temperament, such as the socialization of food needs, love of company and friendly outpourings, tolerance and lack of compassion, cannot be considered hereditary properties of the same order as physique. It is known that such properties, arising on the basis of certain anatomical and physiological characteristics of the individual, are formed under the influence of education and the social environment (,,).
Hormonal theories of temperament one-sidedly exaggerate the role of the endocrine glands and are unable to explain the adaptation of temperament to the requirements of activity (, p. 409).
In fact, the dependence of the course of mental processes and human behavior on the functioning of the nervous system, which performs a dominant and controlling role in the body, has long been known. The theory of the connection of some general properties of nervous processes with types of temperament was proposed by I.P. Pavlov and was developed and experimentally confirmed in the works of his followers.
The most successful attempt to connect temperament with the characteristics of the human body was made by the Russian physiologist I.P. Pavlov, who discovered the properties of higher nervous activity. In Pavlov's laboratories, where conditioned reflexes were studied on dogs, it was found that in different animals conditioned reflexes are formed in different ways: in some they are formed quickly and persist for a long time, while in others, on the contrary, slowly and fade quickly; Some animals can endure heavy loads under strong stimuli, while others fall into a state of inhibition under the same conditions. (, p.208-209)
Based on the results of research, Pavlov showed that each of the four temperaments is based on one or another ratio of basic properties, which was called the type of higher nervous activity. Unlike his predecessors, he took for research not external structure the body, as the German psychiatrist Kretschmer did, and not the structure of the vessels (P.F. Lesgaft), but the body as a whole and singled out the brain in it (, p. 307).
The teachings of I.P. Pavlova. They identified three main properties of the nervous system:
1) the strength of the process of excitation and inhibition, depending on the performance of nerve cells;
2) the balance of the nervous system, i.e. the degree of compliance of the excitation force with the braking force (or their balance);
3) mobility of nervous processes, i.e. the rate of change of excitation by inhibition and vice versa.
The strength of excitation reflects the performance of the nerve cell. It manifests itself in functional endurance, i.e. in the ability to withstand prolonged or short-term, but strong excitation, without passing into the opposite state of inhibition.
The strength of inhibition is understood as the functional performance of the nerve cell in the implementation of inhibition and is manifested in the ability to form various inhibitory conditioned reactions, such as extinction and differentiation.
Speaking about the balance of nervous processes, I.P. Pavlov had in mind the balance of the processes of excitation and inhibition. The ratio of the strength of both processes decides whether a given individual is balanced or unbalanced when the strength of one process exceeds that of the other.
The mobility of nervous processes is manifested in the rapidity of the transition of one nervous process to another. The mobility of nervous processes is manifested in the ability to change behavior in accordance with changing living conditions. The measure of this property of the nervous system is the speed of transition from one action to another, from a passive state to an active state, and vice versa. The opposite of mobility is the inertness of nervous processes. The nervous system is the more inert the more time or effort is required to move from one process to another (, p.384).
I.P. Pavlov found that the temperament of each animal does not depend on one of the properties, but on their combination. Such a combination of the properties of the nervous system, which determines both the individual characteristics of conditioned reflex activity and temperament, he called the type of the nervous system, or the type of nervous activity. (, c. 408).
I.P. Pavlov distinguished 4 main types of the nervous system (,,):
1) strong, balanced, mobile (“alive” according to I.P. Pavlov - sanguine temperament);
2) strong, balanced, inert ("calm" according to I.P. Pavlov - phlegmatic temperament);
3) a strong, unbalanced type with a predominance of the excitation process (“unrestrained” type, according to I.P. Pavlov - choleric temperament);
4) weak type (“weak”, according to I.P. Pavlov - melancholic temperament).
Identified I.P. Pavlov, the main combinations of properties and types of the nervous system on which temperament depends are common in humans and animals. Therefore, they received the name of general types. Thus, the physiological basis of temperament is the general type of the nervous system (, p. 408). Pavlov connected the general types of the nervous system with the traditional types of temperament (choleric, sanguine, phlegmatic and melancholic), although he understood that there must be other properties of the nervous system, and other combinations of them, and, consequently, other types of temperament.
So, I.P. Pavlov understood the type of the nervous system as innate, relatively weakly subject to changes under the influence of the environment and upbringing (, p. 386).
The type of nervous system is a concept used by a physiologist, while a psychologist uses the term temperament. In essence, these are aspects of the same phenomenon. It is in this sense that, following I.P. Pavlov to say that the temperament of a person is nothing but a mental manifestation of the type of the higher nervous system.
In the 1950s, there were laboratory research behavior of adults. In the works of B.M. Teplova and V.D. Nebylitsyn's ideas about the properties of the nervous system were expanded, two new properties of nervous processes were discovered: lability and dynamism. The dynamism of nervous processes is a property that determines the dynamism of excitation or the dynamism of inhibition (the ease and speed of the formation of positive and inhibitory conditioned reflexes), the lability of nervous processes is a property that determines the rate of occurrence and termination of nervous processes (excitatory or inhibitory process) ,,.
The role of Pavlov's research in development modern science extremely large. However, his discovery of the properties of the nervous system and the typology of the nervous system developed on this basis served as the basis for his assertion that all human behavior, like animal behavior, can be explained from the position of physiology. This point of view is strong in our time and is often found among physiologists and doctors, but it is not true. Human behavior is very complex and is determined not only by innate characteristics, but also by the conditions of the social situation, as well as by the characteristics of education.
Unlike I.P. Pavlov found other combinations of properties of the nervous system. For example, in addition to the unbalanced type with a predominance of excitation, there is an unbalanced type with a predominance of inhibition, etc.
The mental properties of temperament and the physiological properties of the nervous system are closely interrelated. The biological meaning of this relationship lies in the fact that with its help the most subtle, clear and timely adaptation to the environment is achieved. Where the adaptive function of any property of the nervous system cannot be carried out with the help of one property of temperament inherent in it, it is carried out with the help of another property of temperament inherent in it, which compensates for the first. For example, low performance of a weak type can sometimes be compensated for by a long absence of emotional satiety.
The origin of the types of the nervous system and temperament and its change. I.P. Pavlov called the general type of the nervous system the genotype, that is, the hereditary type. This is confirmed in experiments on animal selection and in the study of identical and fraternal twins in humans brought up in different families. Despite this, certain properties of temperament change within certain limits due to the conditions of life and upbringing (especially in early childhood), due to illnesses, under the influence of living conditions and (in adolescence and even adulthood) depending on the psychological conflicts experienced. For example, under parental overprotection, a child can grow up to be a cowardly, indecisive, insecure person, touchy to the extreme and vulnerable to an extreme degree.
The maturation of temperament should be distinguished from such changes in the properties of temperament. The type of temperament is not formed immediately, with all its characteristic properties. The general patterns of the maturation of the nervous system leave their mark on the maturation of the type of temperament. For example, a feature of the nervous system in preschool and school age is its weakness and imbalance, which leaves an imprint on the properties of temperament. Some properties of temperament, depending on the type of nervous system, are not yet sufficiently manifested at this age, they appear somewhat later, in fact already at senior school age.
The main properties of a certain type of temperament appear gradually, with age, depending on the maturation of the nervous system. This process is called maturation of temperament,.
The concept of temperament
In nature, there are no absolutely identical human personalities. ost - the personality of each person is unique. However, a person is not born as an already established personality. He becomes it gradually. But even before a person becomes a person, he has individual characteristics of the psyche. The latter are very conservative and stable. Changing much more slowly than the personality traits known to us, they form in each person a kind of psychological soil, on which personality traits inherent only to this person subsequently grow. This means that the child's psyche is not like a smooth board where you can write any patterns, and that in the process of raising and teaching a child, one must rely on the properties that he has from birth. Such stable and inherent in a person from birth properties are the properties of temperament (, p. 405). The properties of temperament include, first of all, innate and individually peculiar mental properties. The properties of temperament are those natural properties that determine the dynamic side of mental activity (, p. 406). The nature of the course of mental activity depends on temperament, namely:
1) the speed of occurrence of mental processes and their stability (for example, the speed of perception, the speed of the mind, the duration of concentration of attention);
2) mental tempo and rhythm;
3) the intensity of mental processes (for example, the strength of emotions, the activity of the will);
4) the orientation of mental activity towards some specific objects (for example, a person’s constant desire for contacts with new people, for new impressions of reality, or a person’s appeal to himself, to his ideas and images).
The dynamics of mental activity also depends on motives and mental states. Any person, regardless of the characteristics of his temperament, with interest, works more energetically and faster than without it. For any person, a joyful event causes a rise in mental and physical strength, and misfortune causes their fall.
But the properties of temperament, in contrast to motives and mental states, manifest themselves in him in the same way. For example, if there is high anxiety as a property of temperament, the student is worried before passing the exam, shows anxiety before the lesson during teaching practice, is in anxious anticipation of starting at competitions, etc. Temperament manifests itself in a person in various situations: in how he communicates with people, how he rejoices and is upset, how he works and rests. The properties of temperament are the most stable and constant in comparison with other mental characteristics of a person (, p. 406). The specificity of temperament also lies in the fact that the various properties of the temperament of a given person are not accidentally combined with each other, but are naturally interconnected, forming a certain organization that characterizes the type of temperament.
Thus, temperament should be understood as individually peculiar properties of the psyche that determine the dynamics of a person’s mental activity, which are equally manifested in a variety of activities, regardless of its content, goals, motives, remain constant in adulthood and in their mutual connection characterize the type of temperament. (, c. 407; . p. 387). V this definition the central place is occupied by the properties of temperament, their constancy throughout life and under various circumstances, while the dynamics of mental activity, determined by these properties, recede somewhat into the background. The definition does not contain indications of the origin of temperament (congenital or acquired properties of the psyche).
There are several other definitions of temperament and its properties.
Temperament is a set of properties that characterize the dynamic features of the course of mental processes and human behavior, their strength, speed, occurrence, cessation and change (, P. 394). In this definition, the main emphasis is placed on the dynamic features of the course of mental processes and behavior, it contains an indication of these features (strength, speed, etc.), but does not indicate what significance these features have for a person.
Temperament is a mental property of a person, characterized by the dynamics of the course of mental processes (p. 167). In this source, in the definition of temperament, emphasis is placed on temperament as a mental property of a person, and then a transition is made to the dynamics of the course of mental processes as the main characteristic of temperament.
Temperament is the innate characteristics of a person that determine the dynamic characteristics of the intensity and speed of response, the degree of emotional excitability and balance, the features of adaptation to environment(, C.287). This definition draws attention to the genetically determined nature of temperament, the relationship of temperament with the characteristics of adaptation to the environment. The definition does not contain the terms “dynamics of mental processes”, “mental properties”, it refers to the characteristics of the response and its properties (intensity, speed) without specifying the nature of this response. that we are talking about mental processes.
Temperament is nothing but the most general characteristics the impulse-dynamic side of human behavior, expressed mainly by the properties of nervous activity.
In this definition, the main emphasis is shifted to human behavior and its characteristics, due to the properties of nervous activity.
When considering Nemov R.S. temperament as a psychobiological category with reference to the works of V.M. Rusalov, he expresses the point of view that the properties of temperament are not completely either innate or dependent on the environment. He believes that the genetically predetermined properties of temperament are transformed in the process of interaction with the environment, acquiring a new quality.
3. Temperament properties that determine psychological x a characterization of temperament types
Temperament as a dynamic characteristic of a person's mental activity has its own properties that positively or negatively affect its manifestations.
There are such basic properties of temperament as sensitivity, reactivity, plasticity, rigidity, resistance, extraversion and introversion,.
Sensitivity is a measure of sensitivity to the phenomena of reality to which a person is related. It is determined by what is the strength of the smallest impacts necessary for the occurrence of any mental reaction of a person, and what is the rate of occurrence of this reaction.
The famous psychologist B.G. Ananiev believed that sensitivity is associated with orienting reflex activity and is part of the structure of temperament. There is reason to believe that there are not only separate varieties of sensitivity as potential properties of individual analyzers, but also a general way of sensitivity for a particular person, which is a property of the sensory organization of a person as a whole.
Sensitivity, in his opinion, is a general, relatively stable personality trait in which the type of the nervous system is expressed and which plays its role in a person's abilities for various types of activity.
Reactivity is a feature of a person's reaction to a variety of stimuli, which manifests itself in the pace, strength and form of the response, and most clearly in emotional susceptibility, and is reflected in a person's attitude to the surrounding reality and to himself. It is determined by the degree of involuntary reactions to external or internal influences of the same strength (critical remark, offensive word, threat, sharp and unexpected sound),.
Activity. It is determined by the degree of activity (energy) with which a person influences the outside world and overcomes obstacles in the implementation of goals. This includes purposefulness and perseverance in achieving the goal, concentration of attention in long-term work, etc.
The ratio of reactivity and activity. It is determined by what a person’s activity depends to a greater extent: on random external or internal circumstances (on mood, desire, random events) or on the goals, intentions, aspirations, beliefs of a person.
Rate of reactions. They are determined by the speed of various mental reactions and processes: the speed of movements, the pace of speech, resourcefulness, the speed of memorization, the speed of the mind.
Plasticity and its opposite quality - rigidity. We judge this property by how easily and flexibly a person adapts to external influences (plasticity) or, conversely, how inert and inert his behavior, habits, judgments (rigidity).
Plasticity is manifested in the rapid adaptation to circumstances that change. Due to the plasticity of mental activity, the features of higher nervous activity are rebuilt or compensated. Weakness, imbalance or lack of mobility of the type of the nervous system under appropriate conditions of life and upbringing can acquire positive qualities.
Rigidity - the difficulty or inability to rebuild when performing tasks, depending on the circumstances. In cognitive activity, rigidity is manifested in a slow change in ideas about life and activity. In emotional life - in stiffness, lethargy, immobility of feelings. In behavior - in inflexibility, inertia of motives for behavior and moral and ethical actions, with all the evidence of their inexpediency,,.
Extraversion and its opposite quality - introversion. They are determined by what the reactions and activities of a person mainly depend on - from external impressions that arise at the moment (extroversion) or from images, ideas, thoughts related to the past and future (introversion). It is believed that extraversion and introversion as properties of temperament are a manifestation of the dynamic, and not the content, aspects of the personality.
Extroverts are characterized by the strength and mobility of nervous processes and, in connection with this, impulsiveness, flexibility of behavior, and initiative. An introvert is dominated by weakness and inertia of nervous processes, isolation, a tendency to introspection, and therefore difficulties in social adaptation may arise ,,.
Emotional excitability. It is determined by how weak the impact is necessary for the occurrence of an emotional reaction and at what speed it occurs.
4. Temperament types
Sanguine temperament characterizes a person of a very cheerful disposition. He appears as an optimist, full of hope, a humorist, a joker, a joker. A sanguine person is a person with increased reactivity, but at the same time his activity and reactivity are balanced. He vividly, excitedly responds to everything that attracts his attention, has a lively facial expression and expressive movements. For an insignificant reason, he laughs, and an insignificant fact can make him angry. It is easy to guess his mood, attitude to an object or person by his face. He has a high threshold of sensitivity, so he does not notice very weak sounds and light stimuli. He quickly ignites, but cools down just as quickly, loses interest in what, until recently, he was very worried about and attracted to himself. The sanguine is able to quickly concentrate, disciplined, if desired, can restrain the manifestation of his feelings and involuntary reactions. Intense mental or physical work quickly tires him,.
He is characterized by quick movements, flexibility of mind, resourcefulness, a fast pace of speech, a quick inclusion in new job. High plasticity is manifested in the variability of feelings, moods, interests and aspirations. Sanguine easily converges with new people, quickly gets used to new requirements and environment. Effortlessly not only switches from one job to another, but also retrains, mastering new skills. As a rule, he responds more to external impressions than to subjective images and ideas about the past and future, an extrovert.
Sanguine promises a lot, but does not always keep his promises. He easily and with pleasure comes into contact with strangers, is a good conversationalist, all people are his friends. He is distinguished by kindness, willingness to help. With proper upbringing, a sanguine person is distinguished by a highly developed sense of collectivism, responsiveness, an active attitude towards academic work, work and social life. Under adverse conditions, when there is no systematic, purposeful education, a sanguine person may show a frivolous, carefree and careless attitude to business, scattered, inability and unwillingness to bring things to the end, a frivolous attitude to learning, work, other people, overestimation of oneself and one's capabilities. .
The choleric temperament of activity characterizes a quick-tempered person. They say about such a person that he is too hot, unrestrained. At the same time, such an individual quickly cools down and calms down if they give way to him, go towards him. His movements are jerky, but short.
Like the sanguine, the choleric is characterized by low sensitivity, high reactivity and activity. But in a choleric person, reactivity clearly prevails over activity, so he is unbridled, unrestrained, impatient, quick-tempered. He is less plastic and more inert than the sanguine. Hence - greater stability of aspirations and interests, greater perseverance, difficulties in switching attention are possible, he is rather an extrovert,.
The phlegmatic temperament of activity refers to a cold-blooded person. It expresses rather a tendency to inactivity than to intense, active work. Such a person slowly comes into a state of excitement, but for a long time. This replaces the slowness of his entry into work. He has a strong, balanced, but inert nervous system.
The phlegmatic person has a high activity, significantly prevailing over low reactivity, low sensitivity and emotionality. It is difficult to make him laugh and sad - when they laugh loudly around him, he can remain unperturbed. When in big trouble, he stays calm. Usually he has poor facial expressions, movements are inexpressive and slow, just like speech. He is unresourceful, with difficulty shifting attention and adapting to a new environment, slowly rebuilding skills and habits. At the same time, he is energetic and efficient. Differs in patience, endurance, self-control. As a rule, he finds it difficult to meet new people, weakly responds to external impressions, an introvert.
With proper upbringing, a phlegmatic person easily develops such traits as perseverance, efficiency, perseverance. But in adverse circumstances, he may develop lethargy, inertia, passivity, laziness. Sometimes a person of this temperament can develop an indifferent, indifferent attitude towards work, the surrounding life, people and even himself.
The melancholy temperament of activity, according to Kant, is characteristic of a person of the opposite, mostly gloomy mood. Such a person usually lives a difficult and stressful life. inner life, attaches great importance everything that concerns him, has increased anxiety and a vulnerable soul. Such a person is often restrained and especially controls himself when making promises. He never promises what he is unable to do, he suffers greatly from the fact that he cannot fulfill this promise, even if his fulfillment directly depends little on himself.
Melancholic - a person with high sensitivity and low reactivity. Increased sensitivity with great inertia leads to the fact that an insignificant occasion can cause tears in him, he is overly touchy, painfully sensitive. His facial expressions and movements are inexpressive, his voice is quiet, his movements are poor. Usually he is insecure, timid, the slightest difficulty makes him give up. The melancholic is not energetic, unpersistent, gets tired easily and has little work capacity. It has an inherent easily distracted and unstable attention and a slow pace of all mental processes. Most melancholics are introverts.
In favorable conditions, with proper education, the most valuable qualities of a melancholic personality are revealed. His impressionability, subtle emotional sensitivity, acute susceptibility to the world around him allow him to achieve great success in art - music, drawing, poetry. Melancholics are often distinguished by softness, tact, delicacy and responsiveness: whoever is vulnerable himself usually subtly feels the pain that he causes to other people,. Each of the presented types of temperament in itself is neither good nor bad (if you do not connect temperament and character). Manifested in the dynamic features of the psyche and human behavior, each type of temperament can have advantages and disadvantages. People of sanguine temperament have a quick reaction, easily and quickly adapt to changing conditions of life, have increased efficiency, especially in the initial period of work, but at the end they reduce efficiency due to rapid fatigue and a drop in interest. On the contrary, those who are characterized by a temperament of the melancholic type are distinguished by a slow entry into work, but also a greater endurance. Their performance is usually higher in the middle or towards the end of work, and not at the beginning. In general, the productivity and quality of work for sanguine and melancholic people are approximately the same, and the differences mainly relate only to the dynamics of work in its different periods.
The choleric temperament has the merit of concentrating considerable efforts in a short space of time. But during long-term work, a person with such a temperament does not always have enough endurance. Phlegmatic people, on the contrary, are not able to quickly assemble and concentrate their efforts, but instead they have the valuable ability to work long and hard to achieve their goal. The type of human temperament must be taken into account where the work makes special demands on the specified dynamic features of activity.
"Strong" and "weak" sides of each type of temperament in terms of properties are shown in the table.
|
temperament type |
"Strengths" |
"Weaknesses. |
|
|
sanguine |
energetic; workable; actively gets down to business; easily switches from one type of activity to another; quickly focuses disciplined; if necessary, restrains the manifestation of their feelings and involuntary reactions; easily retrained; mental flexibility; resourcefulness; actively contacts easy to get along with people. |
with long and monotonous work loses interest in the case; in some situations, feelings may be inadequately manifested. |
|
|
Phlegmatic person |
balanced; imperturbable; remains calm in case of big troubles; it is difficult to piss off, hurt emotionally; possesses endurance and self-control; in activity is thorough, persistent, thought out; brings the work started to the end; energetic; workable; patient; |
slow; unresourceful with difficulty switches attention and adapts to a new environment; inert; hard to get along with people. |
|
|
energetic; enthusiastically gets down to business; works with enthusiasm, overcoming difficulties. |
unbridled; impatient; unrestrained; hot-tempered; inert; unbalanced; in relation to people allows harshness, irritability, emotional restraint; conflict; a sharp change of mood, including in activity. |
||
|
melancholic |
familiar and calm environment works very productively. |
not energetic; passive; fickle; easily tired; little efficient; indecisive; not self-confident; avoids communication with unfamiliar, new people; shows awkwardness in a new environment; everything new, unusual causes a state of inhibition; overly touchy; painfully sensitive; easily vulnerable; hard to endure grief, resentment; Prolonged and intense stress causes slow activity. |
E.I. Rogov concludes that the type of temperament in a person is innate, and it has not yet been fully clarified on what properties of his innate organization it depends. However, it follows from Krutetsky's comments that raising a person (or his mistakes) with the same temperament can lead to different consequences in shaping him as a person.
4. The role of temperament in labor and learning activities human
Temperament and activity
The dynamic traits of a person's personality appear not only outside our manner of behavior, not only in movements - they are also manifested in the mental sphere, in the sphere of motivation, in general performance. Naturally, the peculiarities of temperament affect in training sessions and in work activities. But the main thing is that differences in temperaments are differences not in the level of the possibility of the psyche, but in the originality of its manifestations.
The absence of correlation between the level of achievements was established, i.e. the end result of actions, and the characteristics of temperament, if the activity takes place in conditions that can be defined as normal. Thus, regardless of the degree of mobility or reactivity of the individual in a normal, non-stressful situation, the results of activity will in principle be the same, since the level of achievement will depend mainly on other factors, in particular on the level of motivation and abilities. At the same time, studies that establish this pattern show that, depending on temperament, the way the activity itself is carried out changes.
Depending on the characteristics of temperament, people differ not in the end result of actions, but in the way they achieve results. Studies have been conducted in order to establish the relationship between the way of performing actions and the characteristics of temperament. In these studies, an individual style of activity was considered as a way to achieve results or a way to solve a certain problem, mainly due to the type of nervous system. The results of studies by the vast majority of authors, regardless of the characteristics of the groups under study and experimental situations in which the typical way of performing actions for these individuals was studied, show that it is the type of nervous processes that has a significant impact on the formation of a certain style of activity.
A sanguine person should be constantly assigned new, if possible, interesting tasks that require concentration and tension from him. It is necessary to constantly include his active activity and systematically encourage his efforts.
The phlegmatic person needs to be involved in vigorous activity and interested. It requires systematic attention. It cannot be switched from one task to another. In relation to the melancholic, not only harshness, rudeness, but also simply an elevated tone, irony are unacceptable. He demands special attention, you should praise him in time for his successes, determination and ox. A negative assessment should be used as carefully as possible, mitigating its negative effect in every possible way. Melancholic - the most sensitive and vulnerable type with him, you must be extremely soft and friendly.
It depends on temperament how a person implements his actions, but their content does not depend on it. Temperament is manifested in the features of the course of mental processes. Influencing the speed of recollection and the strength of memorization, the fluency of mental operations, the stability and switchability of attention.
Temperament and individual style of activity
Activity - labor, educational, gaming - puts forward requirements not only for knowledge and the level of mental and emotional-volitional development of a person, but also for typological features nervous system, and consequently, to his temperament. A certain combination of temperament properties, manifested in the cognitive processes, actions and communication of a person, determines his individual style of activity. It is a system of temperament-dependent dynamic features of activity, which contains work methods typical for a given person,.
The individual style of activity can be considered as the result of the adaptation of the innate properties of the nervous system and the characteristics of the human body to the conditions of the activity performed. This device should provide the best results in the activity at the lowest cost.
What we, when observing a person, perceive as signs of his temperament (various movements, reactions, forms of behavior) is often a reflection not so much of temperament as of an individual style of activity, the features of which may coincide and diverge from temperament.
The core of the individual style of activity determines the complex of properties of the nervous system that a person has. Among those features that relate to the very individual style of activity, two groups can be distinguished:
1. Acquired in experience and having a compensatory nature in relation to the shortcomings of the individual properties of the human nervous system.
2. Facilitating the maximum use of human inclinations and abilities, including the beneficial properties of the nervous system.
Temperament and personality
Personality and temperament are interconnected in such a way that temperament acts as common ground many other personal properties, especially character. However, it determines only the dynamic manifestations of the corresponding personal properties.
Such personality traits as impressionability, emotionality, impulsiveness and anxiety depend on temperament. Impressibility is the strength of the impact on a person of various stimuli, the time they are stored in memory and the strength of the reaction to them. The same stimuli have a greater effect on an impressionable person than on an insufficiently impressionable one. An impressionable person, in addition, remembers the corresponding impacts longer and retains a reaction to them longer. Yes, and the strength of the corresponding reaction is much greater than that of a less impressionable individual.
Emotionality is the speed and depth of a person's emotional reaction to certain events. An emotional person attaches great importance to what is happening to him and around him. Much more than an unemotional person, he has developed all kinds of bodily reactions associated with emotions. An emotional individual is one who is almost never calm, constantly in the grip of any emotions, in a state of increased excitement or, conversely, depression.
Impulsivity is manifested in the incontinence of reactions, in their spontaneity and appearance even before a person has time to think about the current situation and make a reasonable decision about how to act in it. An impulsive person first reacts, and then thinks if he did the right thing; often regrets premature and wrong reactions.
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