Britain in the 1920s briefly. Sociocultural regional studies

13.03.2020

Mikhailova Ekaterina Mikhailovna
postgraduate student of the Department of Regional Studies
Faculty of Foreign Languages and Regional Studies
Moscow State University named after M.V. Lomonosov

British house of the 1920s - 1930s as a space of everyday life

The First World War marked the onset of a new era and led to fundamental changes in the culture of everyday life in most countries, including Great Britain. Changes have affected social structure society, the position of women, views on marriage, parenting and family values, etiquette, manners and lifestyle of people in general. The report examines the reflection of these phenomena in the interior of an English house, the atmosphere of which demonstrates the complex interweaving of traditional views and values with the trends of modern times.

Keywords: everyday culture, UK, english house, residential interior.

The First World War marked the beginning of a new epoch and resulted in fundamental changes in the culture of everyday life in most countries including the Great Britain. The changes in the social affected structure, women "s position in the society, views on marriage, children" s upbringing and family values, etiquette, manners, and the way of life in the whole. The article concerns the reflection of these events in the interior of the English house which setting demonstrates the complicated combination of traditional views and values as well as trends of the new age.

key words: culture of everyday life, the Great Britain, the English house, dwelling interior.

The space of the house in all cultures is one of the most stable and conservative phenomena. For many centuries, it has remained a place of existence of national, regional, local and family traditions. Ever since the second half of XIX century, which marked the era of technological progress, urbanization and the acceleration of life, the traditional attitude to living space is shaken by new social conditions, the development of mass production and mass culture in general. After the end of the First World War, a new, modern stage began in the history of the country and its culture, which is clearly reflected in Everyday life people and in the space of an English house.

Compared with the everyday culture of Victorian England, the British home of the 1920s-1930s is a little-studied problem, however, a number of researchers still touch on this topic in their works: D. Jeremiah, F. McCarthy, A. Massey, T.M. McBride and others.

One of the forms of representation of what the house was in its regional variants and historical forms was printed media. mass media which, having “penetrated” into the space of the house in the middle of the 19th century, not only reflected, but also largely influenced the formation of mass ideas, norms, and ideals. Literally from the first steps, mass magazines printed articles with advice, recommendations, instructions and were the conductors of brands, technologies, the psychology of prestigious consumption, thanks to which we can judge the ideas about the ideal home for each historical stage.

At the beginning of the 20th century, and especially during the First World War, magazines, like other mass media, received a strong impetus in development. In the 1920s, both professional and popular magazines are constantly increasing in number, they become more diverse and accessible, while people have more free time to read them. At this time, the readership of magazines is growing rapidly, which is associated with the expansion of the middle class due to the ever-increasing number of middle managers, office and government employees.

The image of the British house in the first half of the 20th century, presented on the pages of popular magazines, reflects both the general European situation of this period and the features traditional culture this country, for the first time subjected to such a strong shock under the influence of new social conditions.

For the first time, the consequences of the war affected civilians on such a large scale. Mobilization affected representatives of absolutely all classes. Numerous houses and private properties were damaged. The war led to the impoverishment of the masses, the spread of disease and unemployment and had a great impact on the estate system of society as a whole, accelerating the process of smoothing out the inequality between the most affluent representatives of society and the middle class, but this time towards the impoverishment of both estates, which led to the fact that that the theme of economy and simplicity in the design of the space at home becomes even more relevant at this time.

Nevertheless, despite the damage caused by the war, economic and material difficulties, the topic of acquiring and decorating a house in the culture of everyday life in Great Britain has not lost its relevance. On the contrary, the standard of living of people gradually increased, accelerated and cheaper housing construction allowed many to acquire their own housing, and actively developing mass production and design provided houses with everything necessary. As the editor of Our Homes and Gardens noted in 1919, “Everyone dreams of making his home both comfortable and elegant and as comfortable as means will allow; and the main task of the magazine will always be to help you in this intention.

However, compared to Victorian England appearance, the size and comfort of houses change markedly. The focus of the magazines is on affordable housing options available to the middle class. The main advantage of periodicals devoted to design and decoration is their focus on a person who is limited in funds, and therefore in need of advice on economical construction and decoration of housing.

The reduction in the size of houses and the number of rooms in them was the result of the need to save money, as well as the reduction in the number of members in the average family, not to mention the servants, mention of which at this time almost completely disappears from the pages of magazines.

The number of rooms in the average house decreases, but its various spaces turn out to be multifunctional. The living room plays an increasingly important role, gradually acquiring the significance of a medieval hall. Here they work, relax, read and have fun. Often this room is combined with the dining room and kitchen, which causes numerous discussions and disagreement of the British.

Another striking feature of the English attitude to the house is the fact that, even when it comes to small and inexpensive housing, it is not an apartment that will be preferable for an Englishman, but his own house in the suburbs, which at this time are continuously growing and gaining great popularity largely due to expanding system railways, which is especially true for representatives of the professions of office and government employees who could not afford to purchase a car. With the ever-increasing number of small, state-sponsored homes, decor magazines are not only giving them attention, but suggesting to the public that they are the ideal in terms of modern comfortable housing due to their compactness and economy in maintenance, while large houses are beginning to be associated with old ones. and unreasonably expensive, which does not correspond to common sense. Thus, if in the Victorian era, the middle class mimicked the aristocracy, striving to acquire large and luxurious housing, now they develop their own criteria for a “good” home, which should be compact, without “spatial excesses”, rationally organized and comfortable.

Another bright trend, reflecting the trends of the new time, is the significantly increased requirements for comfort compared to the Victorian era. This concept at this time becomes closely associated with the functional equipment of the house, which saves time and effort to create home comfort. Indeed, the technical innovations that are developing at this time are transforming the traditional space of the home and the life of society as a whole with incredible speed, introducing new, previously unseen opportunities for home activities and recreation. There is a technological and material improvement of the space of the house.

An increase in interest in the functional component of the situation is a striking characteristic of this period - it is no coincidence that the word “decor”, which is rather superficial in terms of decorating the space of a house, was replaced by the term “design” at that time, which carries the semantics of creating not only beautiful, but also functional, high-quality and not overpriced item. In addition to visual appeal, usability and hygiene, quality, functionality and cost-effectiveness are becoming key elements.

In connection with this noticeable change in the idea of the ideal space at home is the emergence of such a concept as saving time and labor, which is determined by new social conditions, when most people have to give up servants, and women receive more rights and freedoms and begin to work on an equal basis with men. , which reduces the time they can devote to household chores. Nevertheless, it is obvious that the main concern for the house, including its construction, falls on the shoulders of the woman, as the authors of magazine articles often write about: “Probably nine-tenths of the changes in the house come from the face of his mistress. The husband either takes it indifferently—before the job is done, when he gets enthusiastic credit for the idea—or vetoes the project, concluding, "We can't afford it." Throughout the 20th century, women remain the main audience of magazines, and it is to them that articles are addressed, devoted to innovations that can save them time on housework.

Many rooms of the house, which were previously ignored by magazines, pretending that they do not exist, acquire a new meaning and a completely different status. We are talking primarily about the kitchen and bathroom.

As for the kitchen, from a utility room for servants, it becomes not only one of the most important, but also the most technically equipped room in the house. The forces of numerous manufacturers of kitchen furniture and constantly improving technology are directed specifically to kitchen equipment that can reduce the time spent by the hostess in this room and make it more enjoyable. Now the kitchen is not a remote servant's room, but the most important part of the home space.

Special attention is paid to the comfort and safety of children's rooms, which is associated with a change in attitude towards children and the problem of childhood in general. If earlier the brightest and most comfortable rooms were given over to the living room, now such rooms are becoming children's rooms. Despite the increased employment of women outside the walls, it is obvious that more attention is paid to children by parents. Childhood is no longer perceived as a disadvantage, but turns into an important period in a person's life.

As for the interior decoration of the premises, at this time the traditional approach to the design of living space is becoming a thing of the past. Periodicals advocate the need for a new, more modern design for the home that meets the requirements of modernity through both aesthetic and functional aspects.

However, the high role of the house in the culture of Great Britain leads to the fact that the English living space does not fit into the trends coming from Europe. So, responding to the need for inexpensive and fast housing construction, in European countries at this time the idea of standardized economical housing is born that can meet the needs modern man at a minimum cost. At the same time, the luxurious Art Deco style becomes a reaction to people's nostalgia for the past, when the beauty that surrounded a person, thanks to the approval of the Art Nouveau style and the expansion of opportunities for decoration, reflected a high standard of human life. The British undoubtedly saw examples of the use of new styles in public buildings, but none of them took root in Great Britain due to the foreignness of these ideas for this country. If Art Deco was economically inaccessible to the bulk of the British, requiring the use of expensive and exotic materials, then minimalism was contrary to English traditions that demanded individuality and comfort in every home. In the minds of the inhabitants of the UK, a house cannot be exclusively functional, but carries an important emotional load: “Rooms are inevitably a reflection of the people who live in them. Even in the most empty room, devoid of such personal details as flowers, photographs or favorite books - and such rooms, called rational, appear recently - show, to say the least, an expressionless and extremely unpleasant, pathetic soul. In the house where the happy and successful people, there will be no dark corridor or a gloomy and austere living room, but it will be filled with interesting things, old and new, harmoniously combined and self-sufficient symbols against their inherent background of light, color and comfort. Thus, the house, according to English traditions, continues to be endowed with human qualities and individuality, reflecting the soul of their owners.

Despite the new social conditions, the increased mobility of the population and changed values, the idea of an ideal home remains as the embodiment of stability and permanence, the stronghold of the family and family values. Such a house reflects the best that is in a person, and serves its owners throughout life: “By a family nest, we mean a house in which a man invests the best that he has, in the hope of making it his permanent home and place, where his children will grow up. This is very different from a house bought because it seemed pleasant to the future owners at the moment, from one they will leave if the mood leads them to move to another part of the country or turn to another architectural style, or if they are offered a good price.<…>It is essential that the family home continue to exist; the healthier the nation becomes, the more the need for family homes increases.

Thus, over the course of the 20th century, a new, more practical attitude towards the space of the home is emerging in Great Britain, most clearly manifested in the media, seeking to capture any changes in people's attitudes and habits and use these observations to interact more effectively with their readers and impose on them new ideas, products and services. Against the backdrop of serious social changes provoked by the First World War, democratic sentiments and a decrease in class inequality, the development of mass production and a gradual increase in the standard of living of most of the population by the 1930s, ideas about such concepts as comfort and design come to the fore among the mandatory ones. and economy. However, despite the penetration of numerous technical innovations into the homes of the British and the spread of the popular idea of modernity, the attitude of the British towards the house will remain quite traditional, conservative, which is due, on the one hand, to the loss of primacy by English design and the desire to meet the tastes of the majority of the population - with another. Traits such as a love of country life, home building and DIY decor, the individuality of the living space, and the influence of the Arts and Crafts movement will not only persist in English everyday culture, but will also influence further development design in this country.

Bibliography:

E.N. The family House and Garden – Home Entertainment // The Ideal Home. 1937 Vol. XXXVI(5).
Family House // The Ideal Home. 1937 Vol. XXXVI(5)
Ideal home. London: 1920, Vol. 1(1)
Jeremiah D. Architecture and Design for the Family in Britain, 1900-70. Manchester, NY, Manchester University Press, 2000.
MacCarthy F. All Things Bright & Beautiful. Design in Britain 1830 to Today. London, George Allen & Unwin LTD.
Massey A. Interior Design of the 20th Century. NY, Thames & Hudson, 1990
McBride T.M. The Domestic Revolution. The Modernization of Household Service in England and France 1820-1920. London: Croom Helm, 1976.
Prendergarde T.K. The Financial Side of the Question // The Ideal Home. 1937 Vol. XXXVI(1).

Domestic, foreign and colonial policy in the first post-war years.

First Labor government of MacDonald January-October 1924

Conservative government of Baldwin.

The beginning of the economic crisis. Second Labor government 1929-1931

National government and appeasement policy 1931-1939

As a result of the First World War, England achieved its main goal: the defeat of Germany, obtaining its fleet, reparations and colonies. Strengthened its position in Africa and the Middle East. Great Britain's losses in the war amounted to: 750 thousand people were killed, 1 million 7 thousand were wounded, 40% of the merchant fleet was lost. Domestic debt has grown 10 times, taxes are increasing. Growing foreign debt to the United States. Trade and economic ties with the colonies are weakening. During the war years, the Labor Party gained more and more weight. In February 1918, the party charter was adopted, providing for individual membership. In the summer of 1918, the party program “Labor and the New Social Order” appeared. The nationalization of the land and some of the leading industries was envisaged; democratic control in enterprises with the participation of entrepreneurs and trade unions. Its program spoke of the establishment of a mandatory minimum wage and a reduction in the length of the working day. In February, a new electoral law was adopted. The voting age for men was lowered to 21. The right to vote was given to women over 30 years of age. The property qualification and the residency qualification were still in effect. As a result, the number of voters increased by 3 times. The government also introduced other reforms. The Ministry of Reconstruction was created. The reform of education, which introduced compulsory and free education for children from the age of 14, caused a great resonance in support. The election in late 1918 was won by the conservative-liberal coalition of David Lloyd George. Key posts went to the conservatives. Churchill is also part of the government. The Labor Party, which received 2 million votes in the elections, is nominated for the role of the official opposition. Lloyd George believed that it was possible to bring the country out of economic shock by stimulating private initiative and reducing government intervention. War factories still remained in the hands of the state. The 1919 law abolished the gold standard of pounds sterling, turning the state into the sole controller of money. Inflation is skyrocketing. In 1920, there were 10 times more paper money in circulation than in 1914. In 1921, state control over the railways was partially restored. Railway companies were united into 4 regional groups. The social functions of the state have expanded (expansion of the public education system, housing construction). The growth in production contributed to the instability of the economy. The volumes of imports and exports are significantly reduced, unemployment is growing. The government cuts social programs and increases taxes. In 1918-1921. the strike movement is gaining momentum. The Triple Alliance of miners, transport workers and railway workers becomes the leader of the workers. As a result, the wages of 6 million workers were raised and the working week shortened. At the beginning of 1919, the Hands Off Russia movement was active. In December, a national committee Hands off Russia was established. In July 1920, the British Communist Party was organized, but remained small. In October 1920, Parliament passed a law on emergency powers, which allowed in peacetime to introduce a state of siege and the use of troops to suppress the rebellion. Since 1921 there has been a decline in the labor movement. In 1923, an economic boom begins in England. The British did not like to invest in their own industry. As a result, production equipment is becoming obsolete, and the competitiveness of British goods is falling. New branches of industry are growing: automobile and aircraft building, electrical and chemical industries. 10% of the working-age population is permanently unemployed. In October 1922, the Conservatives broke the coalition with the Liberals and won the next parliamentary elections with Bonar Law. In May 1923 he retired. Stanley Baldwin became prime minister. On the eve of the 1923 elections, he put forward the slogan of introducing protectionist tariffs. The Labor Party came out under the slogan of free trade. None of the parties won a convincing victory. Baldwin's government could no longer rely on a majority in the Commons. In January, Baldwin receives a quota of no confidence. Lloyd George's foreign policy strategy was to create a stable externally legal system. But he managed to block the most radical ideas of the French to conclude peace with Germany. Great Britain received Togo, part of East Africa, part of Southwest Africa, Palestine, Iraq, Jordan. The Anglo-French struggle for the division of colonial possessions continued until 1922. Participation in the Washington conference was not so successful. Constant debate in parliament was caused by the attitude towards the USSR. England is sending 14,000 soldiers to the USSR. In the first months of 1920, trade negotiations began with the USSR, but they were interrupted due to the campaign of communist Russia in Poland. On August 3, 1920, Curzon's note appears demanding that the Reds advance on Poland be stopped, threatening armed intervention. In March 1921, a trade agreement was signed. In May 1923 Curzon gave an ultimatum demanding an end to propaganda by the Bolsheviks in Iran and Afghanistan. The requirements were partially met. Disagreements on colonial issues contributed to the split in the government coalition. Great Britain received significant colonial territories after the First World War. All of them were divided into three groups:

a) Jordan, Palestine, Iraq are independent nations. Great Britain gave them advice and assistance. These countries coordinated their foreign policy with England. Iraq retained royal power.

b) Toga, Cameroon - there were fewer restrictions for the UK. The opium trade was banned. It was impossible to create an army of natives.

c) South West Africa - the full power of Great Britain. The slave trade and arms trade were prohibited. Freedom of conscience and religious worship was proclaimed for the inhabitants.

Lloyd George advocated greater independence for the colonies. The conservatives insisted on the suppression of national liberation movements by force. At the Imperial Conference of 1917, Canada, Australia, and the Union of South Africa achieved the status of autonomous states within the empire. They signed an alliance with Germany and joined the League of Nations. Since 1923, they could independently conclude agreements with foreign states. First World War contributed to the growth of national consciousness in India. India contributed significant costs to the conduct of the war. In April 1919, a peaceful meeting of Indians was shot by colonial troops. A law is passed promising India the rights of dominions. In the spring of 1919, an anti-British uprising in Egypt. In December 1922, Egypt was recognized as an independent kingdom. In 1919, the British relinquished control of Afghanistan. The attempt by the British to establish a protectorate over Iran ended in failure. Soon Turkey refuses the terms of the Serbian Treaty. Representatives of Ireland had 103 permanent seats in the English Parliament. In the 1918 elections, supporters of the Independent Irish Republic won 73 seats. Some of these deputies (27 people) refused to leave for London. On December 21, 1919, they declared themselves an independent Irish parliament, and Ireland a sovereign and independent republic. Local authorities and the Irish Republican Army quickly emerge. Great Britain tried to suppress this movement by force. On December 6, 1921, the 26 counties of Ireland were declared Irish Free States. England continued to control the foreign policy of Ireland. Another 6 counties remained in the UK.

On January 24, 1924, the first Labor government of MacDonald was formed. He also took the post of Minister of Foreign Affairs. Demands were put forward for a struggle for peace, the introduction of taxes on capital, the elimination of unemployment, the solution of the housing problem, the nationalization of mines and railways, as well as an alliance with Russia. Without having a majority in Parliament, the Laborites could not do something serious in domestic politics. Benefits were increased, the unemployment insurance system was changed. In the colonies, the policy of suppressing national movements was continued. Great Britain played a significant role in settling the Franco-German conflict. Supported by pacifism. In February 1924, diplomatic relations were established with the USSR. A trade agreement has been signed. But it was never ratified. On October 9, 1924, MacDonald resigned.

In the elections of October 1924, the Conservatives won a landslide victory. The new party program "Goals and Principles" included some of the ideas of the liberals. The conservatives relied on the development of private business. Baldwin himself consistently reconstructed for himself the image of a simple and sincere person. In the field of economic regulation, the government focused on strengthening financial and stimulating industrial production. Churchill was the finance minister. He proposed cutting military spending and returning to the gold standard. The budget was accepted. This meant a significant increase in the income of British financiers. The other side was the decline in the competitiveness of British products on the world market. John Keynes predicted an increase in commodity prices of about 12%, as well as a decrease in wages by 12%. In mid-1925, the coal mine owners demanded that the federation of miners agree to wage cuts, longer working hours, and the introduction of a regional system of collective agreements. In case of refusal, the entrepreneurs threatened to announce a lockout. The miners were supported by the General Council of the British Trade Unions and some left-wing parties. The miners had an alliance agreement with other trade unions. On July 31, the government announced the provision of subsidies to mine owners. On April 30, a lockout was announced. The miners go on strike, and the government declares a state of emergency in the country. On May 4, a general strike began with the participation of 4 million people. Economic demands were put forward, the nationalization of the mines, the introduction of workers' control, the resignation of Baldwin and the creation of a Labor government. On November 30, the conditions of the entrepreneurs were accepted. Most unions agreed to a reduction in wages and an increase in the working day. In the middle of 1927, the law on industrial conflicts prohibited the organization and conduct of general strikes, picketing was limited. Unemployment benefits were paid only if a person provides evidence that he is really looking for a job. The payment of allowances for the poor was transferred locally. The income tax and some other types of taxes are reduced. The heavy currency prevented British firms from competing with foreign goods, even in the domestic market. The process of rationalization in production also contributed to the growth of unemployment. In the run-up to the 1929 elections, Labor developed a new "Labor and the Nation" program, reducing the number of Marxist provisions. The conservatives failed to offer something new. As a result, for the first time in Parliament, the Laborites won the majority of seats. The government was again headed by Mac Donald. The crisis began only in 1930. The smelting of iron and steel decreased by 2 times. Falling prices for agricultural products. England depended on the import of raw materials and food, which led to a huge deficit in the foreign trade balance. In 1931 budget expenditures exceeded income by £110 million. 25% of the workers ended up on the street. The total number of unemployed is 3 million people. Things were even worse in the old industries. In the spring of 1930, a "hunger campaign" against London took place. A working charter was developed that talked about a nationwide minimum wage, a 7-hour working day, and an increase in unemployment benefits. Prior to the crisis, the Laborites created a ministry to combat unemployment. But his measures did not give tangible results. Little money was spent on creating new jobs. In February 1930, the age of persons receiving benefits was reduced to 15 years. These measures caused dissatisfaction of entrepreneurs. In August 1931, a law was passed "on the abnormal issue of sums insured." A number of the unemployed were deprived of the right to benefits: seasonal workers; people who do not have continuous experience; married women. The crisis forced the British to intensify relations with the USSR. A new trade agreement has been signed. The Empire is trying to adapt to the new times. In 1931, the Statute of Westminster. The laws made in England were no longer binding on the dominions; laws passed by the dominions were not subject to confirmation in the English Parliament. V political vocabulary the term British Empire was increasingly replaced by the term British Commonwealth of Nations. In the spring of 1931, the “flight from the pound” began. Britain's gold reserves have dwindled. On August 23, 1931, while discussing the issue of reducing unemployment benefits by 10%, the cabinet split. 11 of its members voted "for" and 10 - "against". This provoked the resignation of the government. Labor failed to develop an effective policy to deal with the crisis.

After the resignation of the cabinet, for the first time in peaceful conditions, a national government was formed. Mac Donald retained his post. Conservatives now played a key role. The leadership of the Labor Party declared MacDonald and his supporters to be traitors. In the October 1931 elections, Labor lost 1,900,000 votes. The Labor faction was led by Attlee. In October 1931, unemployment benefits were still cut by 10%. The means test law comes into force. In October 1932 and January 1934, the second and third hunger campaigns against London took place under the slogan "equality of victims". The salaries of civil servants were cut. The gold reserve of pounds sterling has been cancelled. The fall in the standard had a positive effect on the economy. Some of the smaller countries of Europe have formed a "sterling bloc" by setting their gold currencies in line with the pound sterling. All imported goods in the UK were subject to a 10% duty. The Ministry of Commerce could set a duty of up to 100% of the value of the goods. However, the British failed to maintain a free trade system within the empire. The Dominions agreed only to a small mutual reduction in customs tariffs on goods. By 1934, the British economy was out of crisis and entered a period of depression. Only new industries developed dynamically: aviation, chemical, automotive. The main stream of state investments was directed to housing and road construction. From 1934 to 1939, the share of military spending increased from 13% to 43%. In 1934, a program for a qualitative renewal of the Air Force and an increase in the number of combat aircraft. Orientation of private investments to the domestic market was promoted by the state policy of cheap credit. In the second half of the 1930s, guaranteed prices were established for British agricultural products. In 1937, a new economic crisis begins. 2 million people remain unemployed. By the beginning of World War II, the economy reaches pre-crisis levels. Socio-political life was characterized by the growth of right and left movements. Relatively not a deep crisis, democratic traditions did not allow radical forces to declare their claims to power. In 1932, under the leadership of Mosley, the British Union of Fascists was created. The British fascists copied the methods of the German National Socialists. In 1937, the fascist movement is on the decline. The number of the Communist Party of Britain increases by the beginning of the Second World War and is approximately 18 thousand people. The national government pursued a tough domestic policy. The sedition law comes into force. In 1937, the “public order law” allowed the police to restrict freedom of speech, assembly, and rallies. In 1935 new parliamentary elections were held. This parliament existed until 1945. George V dies in 1935. Edward VIII was to become the new monarch. There is a dynastic crisis. Edward VIII wanted to be crowned only after his marriage, but the candidacy of the bride did not build many. Because she was a divorced American. Edward nevertheless married and abdicated, leaving England. In May 1937 George VI was crowned. Baldwin resigns. His place is taken by Neville Chamberlain. The national government implements limited social reforms. In 1938, paid leave appeared. Chamberlain's foreign policy is to appease the aggressors. In September 1938, the Munich Agreement was signed. 30-40 Conservatives and Labor voted against its signing. Chamberlain dreamed of pushing Hitler and Stalin. But some politicians understood that the Third Reich would not necessarily strike east first. In April 1939, universal military service was introduced. English guarantees are given to Poland, Rumania and Greece.

Great Britain in the 1920s and 30s

The period between the First and Second World Wars was the heyday of the British colonial empire and at the same time the beginning of a long economic crisis in Britain.

background

Great Britain, together with the Allies, won the First World War and, as a victor, took an active part in the post-war order of the world. She received part of the former possessions of Germany and the Ottoman Empire in control.

At the same time, the war had taken a heavy toll on the British economy. Great Britain ended the war with a large external debt; in the first post-war years, a significant part of the state budget was spent on covering debts.

Events

1922 - Ireland secedes from the UK. In the post-war period, the anti-colonial movement grows in the territory of the British Empire (primarily in India). However, Great Britain managed to keep all its possessions with the exception of Ireland.

1926 UK general strike. About 5 million workers took part in it (about 3 million - only on the night of May 4), the strikers' demands (maintenance of wages) were not satisfied. In many ways, this strike was the cause of the break in diplomatic relations with the USSR, which Britain accused of supporting the British strike movement.

1928 - Nearly universal suffrage introduced in Great Britain; Married women over 30 also get the right to vote.

1929-1933 - the global economic crisis (or the Great Depression) that affected the UK, causing a rapid increase in unemployment, the depreciation of the pound and, as a result, rising prices. It is worth noting that its impact on the domestic economy was less noticeable than in the United States, for example.

Foreign policy

In the 1930s, the so-called policy of appeasement (for more details: The price of "appeasement"), which the United Kingdom pursued in relation to Nazi Germany, is largely due to the fact that the British authorities saw Germany as a counterbalance to the communist threat.

Conclusion

Insufficiently tough British policy towards Germany allowed the latter to significantly strengthen, which contributed to its success in the early years of World War II. The Second World War will be a cruel test for Britain and hasten the decline of British colonialism.

Abstract

Having emerged victorious from the world war, Great Britain began to play a significant role in political life Europe and the World. The domestic political line of the government was entirely aimed at restoring the domestic economy, burdened by the world war. Compared to other victorious countries, Great Britain was not able to get ahead in terms of its economic development, but only restored its pre-war level. However, as in other countries Western Europe, in the UK, the standard of living of the so-called. middle class.

Rice. 1. Representatives of the middle class ()

The capitalist model of the British economy allowed the industry to quickly free itself from under the military-state tutelage and expand significantly. As in other Western countries, the UK saw an increase in business activity and trade. The development of the commercial and industrial base made it possible to "draw" large sections of English society into the orbit of entrepreneurship. The "economic boom", the accelerated pace of development and, as it seemed to many, the era of prosperity ended abruptly with the advent of World economic crisis of 1929-1933. The sharp collapse in prices, the closure and bankruptcy of companies and, as a consequence of all this, unemployment, led to mass protests, which were often suppressed by force.

Rice. 2. Consequences of the World economic crisis ()

Only after the end of the crisis, Great Britain began to recover and recover, but it could not overcome the collapse of industry that occurred during the years of the crisis to the end. Gradually, this country from the first player in Europe began to fade into the background and third plans. This departure finally took shape after the Second World War, when Great Britain was included in the orbit of the most powerful country - the United States.

In the 1920-1930s. important role in the life of English society began to play unions. These organizations, which defended the rights of workers, in specified period time became quite a powerful force of influence in the UK. In 1925, when the government cut state funding for the coal industry, mine owners began to cut miners' salaries, close unprofitable (inefficient, unprofitable) mines, and massively lay off miners. In response, the unions in Great Britain called a general strike in May 1926. The forceful measures of the government directed against the workers almost led to a social explosion and revolution. In fact, only a concession on the part of the trade unions did not lead English society into a protracted conflict. Individual workers went on strike until 1927, never getting any concessions from the capitalists.

Despite this, the ruling Conservative Party was defeated in the 1929 parliamentary elections. Society supported Labor (labor) party, speaking from the positions of social democracy, so popular in the lower classes of English society. The outbreak of the economic crisis did not contribute to the success of the Laborites. In the next election, they lost 1st place to the Conservatives, who were the leading party until the 1945 elections.

Rice. 3. Army trucks move to suppress the workers' strike ()

The foreign policy of Great Britain was aimed at the inadmissibility of a repetition of the horrors of the First World War. At the same time, remaining the leading colonial power, in the 1930s it ruthlessly suppressed national liberation movements and uprisings in its colonies - in India, Burma, the island of Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and a number of others.

In European politics, Great Britain, together with its ally - France, during the 1920s. tried to dominate Europe and set itself the goal of fighting Bolshevism, being the most consistent in this. The Anglo-Soviet crisis of 1927, associated with the alleged support of the strike movement through the International, almost led to a war between Great Britain and the USSR. The parties severed diplomatic relations and were in an extremely tense state with each other until 1939.

Another party in the policy of Great Britain was the so-called. appeasement policy, i.e. "flirting" with Nazi Germany. The British government, seeking to develop Germany's plans of conquest from West to East, assisted Hitler in every possible way. It turned a blind eye to open non-compliance with the points of the Treaty of Versailles and to increased military spending. All this led to another redistribution of Europe, and then to a new conflict - the Second World War of 1939-1945.

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Shubin A.V. General history. recent history. Grade 9: textbook. for general education institutions. - M.: Moscow textbooks, 2010.
Soroko-Tsyupa O.S., Soroko-Tsyupa A.O. General history. Recent history, 9th grade. - M.: Education, 2010.
Sergeev E.Yu. General history. Recent history. Grade 9 M.: - Enlightenment, 2011.

Homework

Read §5 of A.V. Shubin's textbook. pp. 45-49 and 51-52 and answer question 1 on p. 57.
What were the causes of the global economic crisis?
Why do you think the UK trade unions decided to curtail the protest movement?

Academician ().
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Student scientific forum ().

Abstract plan:

2. Economic downturn

1. The form of government and the state structure of Great Britain

Great Britain is a parliamentary monarchy headed by a queen. The legislature is a bicameral parliament (Monarch + House of Commons and House of Lords - the so-called King (Queen) in Parliament system). Parliament is the highest authority throughout the territory, despite the fact that Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have their own administrative administrative structures. The Government is headed by the Monarch and directly administered by the Prime Minister, appointed by the Monarch, who is thus the President of His Majesty's Government.

Distinctive characteristic is the absence of any single document that could be called the fundamental law of the country, there is no written Constitution, moreover, there is not even an exact list of documents that would relate to the Constitution. Relations between the people and the government are regulated by legislative acts, unwritten laws and conventions, and British imperialism was one of the main culprits of the First World War.

In this war, the British bourgeoisie hoped to find a way out of the deepest social and political crisis in which England, like other imperialist states, found itself in the second decade of the 20th century. During the First World War, British imperialism sought to strengthen the class positions of the bourgeoisie in Great Britain itself and strengthen the British colonial empire, expand its possessions by capturing new territories.

2. Economic downturn

The war of 1914-1918 started by the imperialists of all countries led to the most unexpected results for them. The war further intensified the class struggle between the proletariat and the bourgeoisie in each of the countries participating in the war and created the prerequisites for the maturation of a revolutionary situation in a number of countries. Since the first imperialist world war and the Great October Socialist Revolution, the capitalist world has entered a period of general crisis capitalism.

The split of the world into two camps and the falling out of one-sixth of the globe from the capitalist system, the revolutionary impact of the Great October Socialist Revolution on the peoples oppressed by capitalism, significantly weakened the position of British imperialism. The general crisis of capitalism manifested itself in a particularly acute form in England, which was a classic example of a country of decaying capitalism.

True, England continued to be one of the largest colonial powers. She captured most of the German colonies and territories of the former Ottoman Empire. But the English bourgeoisie has irretrievably lost its former monopoly in the world industrial and financial markets. The center of the financial exploitation of the capitalist world has shifted from England to the United States of America, which had become enormously enriched by the war.

England entered the war with a public debt of £650 million, and in 1919 her national debt reached the enormous sum of £7,829 million. After the war, England's external debt to the United States alone rose to $5.5 billion.

The material and human losses suffered by England (together with the colonies and dominions) in the First World War were very significant. Great Britain lost about 3 million people in the war (875 thousand were killed, more than 2 million were wounded). During the war, 70 percent were sunk. merchant marine of England.

Compared with other social classes, the proletariat of England suffered the greatest number of victims, since the English army consisted mainly of workers. But even after the end of the war, the British bourgeoisie sought to shift the entire burden of military spending onto the working masses. The war debts were paid, first of all, by the working class, forcibly drawn into the war and most of all suffered from this war.

At the same time, the bourgeoisie, having greatly profited during the war, continued to enrich itself in the post-war period. The loans made by the British government during the war became one of the main sources of enrichment for the British and American financial oligarchy. The British government borrowed from American and British bankers on very unfavorable terms for England. The interest paid by the British government on war debt was 2-3 times higher than on the international stock exchange.

Subsequently, over the years, the British government annually spent 40 percent. expenditure budget (about £350 million) to pay interest on war loans. The process of concentration of capital, the merging of banking and industrial capital, and the merging of monopolies with the state apparatus has intensified. Stockbrokers, bankers and big industrialists occupied high government positions and exerted a decisive influence on the policy of the British government. The robbery of the working masses of Great Britain and its colonies could not save the British capitalist economy from a severe economic and chronic financial crisis, which took place on the basis of the general crisis of capitalism. After the First World War, the British economy is characterized by an ever-increasing decline in the main industries (coal, textile, metallurgical), chronic underutilization of enterprises and the presence of millions of unemployed armies, which have turned from reserve into permanent armies of the unemployed. The clearest expression of the crisis in the English economy was the situation in industry.

During the 20 years after the war (from 1918 to 1938), British industry hardly exceeded the level of 1913. During this period, the industry of England as a whole was trampling around the level of 1913. Only in the last years before the Second World War was there a certain upswing in British industry, but this upswing was connected with the revival of the military situation and the preparation of the imperialist countries for a new war.

The state finances of capitalist England also found themselves in an extremely difficult state. The pound sterling has lost stability forever on the international stock exchange. If in 1913 the British pound sterling was equal to almost 5 dollars, then in 1920 - a little more than 3 dollars. The hardships of the war and the October Revolution in Russia led to the scope of the mass labor movement. The short-term economic recovery in England was replaced in the second half of 1920 by an economic crisis. The index of industrial production has fallen, unemployment has grown. Parliament adopted the Law on the introduction of a state of emergency in the country. To suppress the movement of workers, the government could use the police and the army. An attempt to maintain British influence in the Middle East by concluding an agreement with Iran also failed. The Greek-English invasion of Turkey was defeated. On October 19, 1922, the King of Great Britain for the first time entrusted the formation of a government to Labor leader Ramsay MacDonald. The Labor government had to carry out a number of measures in the interests of the working people. Among them was a plan to increase the appropriations for housing construction. The insurance system for the unemployed was somewhat improved, and pensions for old people with disabilities were increased. Considering the mood of the masses, the government of R. MacDonald on February 2, 1924 established diplomatic relations with the USSR.

3. Military-political dominance

After the signing of the Mudros Truce, almost all Middle Eastern territories came under British control. Many problems of the post-war world order, which the powers of the Entente faced, postponed the adoption of practical decisions about the future of the Middle Eastern territories for quite a long time. However, in the minds of many British politicians, the Middle East was a region of paramount importance. Because of this, discussions around the Middle East problems in the first post-war years were an important component of the coalition cabinet of D. Lloyd George, first formed at the end of 1916. During the war, the traditional system of relations between parliament and government in Great Britain underwent certain changes. In a wartime environment that required prompt decision-making, the prime minister and members of the cabinet were given considerable freedom in their actions. This fact did not exclude, however, the existence of coordinating mechanisms that ensured the cooperation of the two branches of power and the support of the government's actions from the parliamentary majority. Particularly important, in this regard, was the existence of constant interaction between the Prime Minister and the leader of the Conservative Party and the head of the parliamentary majority, Bonar Law. Nevertheless, the “intervention” of the parliament in the sphere foreign policy was very limited during the war years. All inter-allied agreements on the Middle East of this period, in which Great Britain participated, were of a secret nature and their full content was not known not only to broad public opinion, but also to many British parliamentarians. The end of the war caused lively discussions among British politicians about the future of the world order, and, in particular, the prospects for British policy in the Middle East. With regard to the Levant, the subjects of discussion were the degree of possible concessions to the French side and the nature of the relationship with the "government" of Faisal. The main difficulty for British diplomacy was, in this case, the need to follow the obligations given during the war and which were of a very contradictory nature. The absence of a clear political line caused the deterioration of Britain's relations with both the Hashemites and France, the main ally in the Entente. With regard to the Iraqi territories, the discussions were of a different nature. The British presence in this former part of the Ottoman Empire was practically not in dispute, the subjects of discussion were only specific forms and mechanisms for the future administration of Iraq. The situation was aggravated by the collision in the Middle East of the interests of several British departments. The overall coordination of policy towards the Levant was carried out by the Foreign Office. Iraq was in the sphere of competence of the Anglo-Indian government, although the degree of its influence on the situation in the region decreased compared to the pre-war period. An important factor that influenced the mindset of many British politicians in the first post-war months was the state of victorious euphoria, as well as the desire to receive maximum dividends and compensate for the losses incurred. With regard to the Middle East, Great Britain sought to fully use the factor of its military and political dominance in the territories of Mesopotamia, Palestine and the Levant, as well as the moral and psychological argument of its decisive contribution to the defeat of the Ottoman Empire. Representatives of the British leadership, primarily associated with the Anglo-Indian authorities, or who had experience in India, hoped to achieve the maximum possible guarantees for the security of Indian possessions. Discussions around the Middle East took place against the backdrop of a number of difficulties that Britain faced after the end of World War I. The financial crisis, mass demobilization, the growth of the national liberation movement in many parts of the British Empire prompted the cabinet of D. Lloyd George to search for more effective and economical methods of implementing his policy in various regions of the world, including the Middle East. The expansion of the British sphere of influence through the former Middle Eastern provinces of the Ottoman Empire, as well as the reform of the system of government in India and Egypt, required significant financial expenditures. Many British politicians, in view of the complexity of the internal political situation in the metropolis, criticized the government's Middle East course. Parliament became the center of this criticism. One of the important issues discussed by parliamentarians in late 1918 and early 1919 was the reduction of the scale of the British military presence in the Near and Middle East. Control over these vast territories was possible only under the conditions of universal conscription introduced in Great Britain during the war years. Since 1916, the question of the volume and forms of reduction of the country's armed forces after the end of hostilities has been actively discussed in the British Parliament. At the same time, according to estimates made by the War Department, control over the territories occupied during the war required maintaining the strength of the British armed forces at the level of at least a million people. According to the memoirs of W. Churchill, even Bonar Law did not dare to discuss the issue of maintaining such a number of armed forces in Parliament. An important factor influencing the policy of the British Cabinet on the issue of reducing the size of the army was the position of industrial circles and trade unions, who were categorically against the extension of the laws on military service adopted during the war years. Many parliamentarians and ministers saw this as one of the main sources of reducing budget expenditures and improving the financial situation of the government. The economic difficulties faced by the mother country after the end of World War I remained a fundamental factor that determined the evolution of the British Middle East course in 1919-1920. The problems of mass demobilization were combined with ever-increasing pressure from parliament to bring military spending in line with peacetime norms. Public opinion in the UK, after four years of military tension, negatively perceived the preservation of a fairly high level the cost of maintaining the armed forces, due to the difficult situation in India, Egypt, Iraq and several other parts of the British Empire. The total number of British and Indian troops in the Middle East, Iraq and Transcaucasia, by August 1919, was 225 thousand people. In addition, another 95 thousand British troops were stationed in Egypt. ;. On the territory of Iraq there was a 60,000th contingent, the cost of maintaining which amounted to about 18 million pounds in the financial year 1919-1920. Thus, an acute contradiction arose between the potential tasks of Great Britain in the Near and Middle East and its real financial and economic resources. In August 1919, the head of the military department, W. Churchill, who was at the center of parliamentary and public criticism, was forced to cancel military conscription from March 1920 and reduce the size of the armed forces to 10% of the previous level. Having abandoned the principle of compulsory military service, the British government decided, in the end, to return to the principle of recruiting arias with volunteers who entered into long-term contracts. However, the prospect of such a rapid reduction in the size of the army caused a negative reaction from politicians and the military associated with the Middle East region and defended the need to maintain a long-term military presence in this strategically significant region for the UK. All this prompted the government to constantly maneuver and search for compromise solutions. In January 1920, the cabinet of D. Lloyd George was forced to approve the state budget with a deficit of 473 million pounds. Based on the indicators approved by Parliament, the weekly expenses for the maintenance of British troops stationed in the occupied territories of the Ottoman Empire were not to exceed £750,000. at the same time, the War Department had to complete the process of demobilizing four million people. Most of the concerned British officials agreed on the desirability of organizing a system of government over the controlled Middle Eastern territories according to the Egyptian model, which assumed a sufficiently high degree of self-government of the local population. In this regard, the project of T.E. Lawrence, who proposed to create three Arab monarchies on the territory of Syria, as well as South and Central Mesopotamia, headed by the sons of the sheriff of Mecca - Faisal, Abdallah and Zeid. The controversy around the Middle East, in which high-ranking British politicians participated, was primarily due to the global changes that took place in the world after the end of World War I and the need to find new guidelines for British foreign policy. A direct consequence of these changes was the growth of the national liberation struggle in a number of British colonies and protectorates. In the context of a serious aggravation of the political situation, the head of the Ministry of Indian Affairs, E. Montague and Viceroy Lord Chelmsford, developed a draft constitutional reform designed to alleviate anti-British sentiment among the upper strata of Indian society. The difficulties associated with its implementation prompted the Anglo-Indian government to be especially receptive to the mood of the Muslim community. Despite the fact that the Muslims of India did not actively respond to the call for a "holy war", slogans in defense of the Turkish Sultan in 1918-1919. were an important component of their political demands. In this regard, in favor of a speedy settlement of Middle East problems and the conclusion of a peace treaty with Turkey, the Anglo-Indian authorities opposed the Middle East policy of the leadership of the Foreign Office, considering its geopolitical views outdated. At the beginning of 1920, in a polemic with the leadership of the Foreign Office, W. Churchill achieved a decision on the withdrawal of British troops from the territory of Iran and Transcaucasia. In this regard, some stabilization of the position of Great Britain in the region, which was outlined, was, however, soon disrupted due to the uprising in Iraq, which clearly demonstrated the crisis of traditional imperial methods of government and the need to form new approaches to control the situation in the Middle Eastern possessions, taking into account new trends and historical specifics. region. A significant increase in financial costs caused a new wave of criticism of the cabinet's Middle East policy. The editorial in The Times of 6 November 1920 emphasized: "... if the Government ... believes that policy in Mesopotamia during last year contributed to the prosperity of the Empire - it is the only one who thinks so. Even earlier, The Times criticized the policy of "Indianization" pursued by the administration of A. Wilson, and actively supported plans to create Arab state and reducing the scale of the British presence in Mesopotamia. The parliamentary opposition to the Cabinet's Middle East policy was led by former Prime Minister H. Asquith. Speaking at a meeting of the House of Commons on June 23, he demanded that the government abandon a course that "... imposes unbearable duties on Great Britain." The debate over the situation in Mesopotamia reached its peak in December 1920, when Winston Churchill, with great difficulty, managed to obtain parliamentary approval for the allocation of an additional 39 million 750 thousand f.s. to stabilize the situation in Iraq and Iran. On the eve of the discussion this issue D. Lloyd-George made a special statement. Its essence boiled down to the fact that Great Britain bears moral responsibility for the future of Iraq and cannot leave the Iraqi people in a state of anarchy and chaos at the present moment. As well as financial problems, the British leadership, with all obviousness, was faced with the task of forming new system management of mandates in the Middle East. On May 1, W. Churchill addressed the head of the Cabinet with a memorandum “Budget Expenditure in Mesopotamia”, which specifically emphasized that significant progress in reducing the financial costs of Great Britain could be achieved only if the following provisions were implemented: “1. Transfer of Mesopotamia and possibly other mandated territories to the Colonial Office. 2. A clear definition of the amount of financial costs through a separate agreement between the Treasury and the Colonial Office. 3. The speedy transfer of functions to maintain order in Mesopotamia to the command of the Air Force. 4. Immediate reduction of the occupied territory and the concentration of the efforts of British troops on the protection of railway communications. According to W. Churchill, the management of Mesopotamia should be transferred "to that department that has real knowledge and experience in the administration and economic development of wild countries, which is capable of improvising in search of the most appropriate methods of control, taking into account the available forces and means." The document noted that the Colonial Office was known for its successful and very economical methods of administration in East Africa. At the same time, as W. Churchill believed, the specifics of the Foreign Office's activities, which consisted in the implementation of relations with independent states, prevented it from managing the mandated territories as effectively. On December 7, 1920, General P. Radcliffe, responsible for directing military operations in Mesopotamia, presented a report to the cabinet on the situation in the country. According to his estimates, in order to maintain stable control over the Iraqi territories, within the framework of the existing administrative system, 17,000 British and 85,000 Indian troops were required. The annual expenses for these needs were estimated by the speaker at 30 million f.s., which is 6 million f.s. exceeded the entire Iraqi budget. Based on this information, W. Churchill proposed in mid-December a project for a radical reduction in the scale of the British presence in Iraq, according to which the UK was to retain control only over southern part country (i.e. the territory of the former Ottoman vilayet of Basra - A.S.). Such a measure would allow the military to cut its monthly spending in Iraq from £30 million to £8 million. On December 17, the Cabinet instructed P. Cox on the preparation of a plan for the evacuation of British troops and personnel from Baghdad to Basra. The debate over the Iraqi problem, largely connected with parliamentary criticism, in December 1920 brought the cabinet to the brink of crisis. Winston Churchill's proposal was criticized by E. Montague and Lord Curzon, who believed that the Kemalists would not fail to take advantage of the political vacuum that would inevitably arise as a result of the withdrawal of British troops. The situation required immediate resolution. At a cabinet meeting held on December 31, with the direct participation of D. Lloyd George, policy decisions were made regarding Mesopotamia and the entire system of managing mandated possessions in the Middle East. It was envisaged, in particular, the creation, within the Ministry of Colonial Affairs, of a separate Eastern Department, coordinating policy in relation to mandated possessions and having a separate budget. The choice in favor of this department was due to its rather effective and economical policy in the African colonies, which contrasted with the expensive actions of the Foreign Office in Transcaucasia, Persia and Egypt. In this regard, Lord Curzon's proposal to transfer the department being created to the Foreign Office was finally rejected. The leadership of the Ministry of the Colonies, which was proposed to be renamed the "Ministry of the Colonies and Mandate Territories" was entrusted to W. Churchill, known for his consistent position on the need to reform the mechanism of the Middle East policy. On January 11, 1921, following the decisions taken by the Cabinet, an Inter-Ministerial Committee was established, including representatives of the Foreign Office, the Treasury, the Ministry of Indian Affairs and the War Department, headed by Secretary of Labor J. M. Smith, whose main task was to ensure a smooth transition necessary powers to the new governing body. On January 31, the committee submitted a final report, which outlined the future structure and scope of the Eastern Department being created, which was to begin its activities on March 1, 1921. It was called upon to exercise control over Iraq, Palestine (including territories east of the Jordan River) and Aden. Due to the lack of clearly fixed boundaries of mandated possessions, the territory transferred under the control of the Ministry of Colonial Affairs was limited: in the west - by the Mediterranean Sea, in the southwest - by the border of Egypt and the Red Sea, in the south and southeast - by the Indian Ocean, in the north and northeast by the coast of the Persian Gulf. Within the specified limits, the Eastern Department of the Ministry of the Colonies was authorized to exercise all the necessary completeness of the management of the mandated territories of Great Britain, to control the process of demarcation of their borders, to direct all British civil services and military units, to coordinate relations with the Arabian state entities(with the exception of Hijaz - A.S.). The staff of the Eastern Department was to be recruited from officials of related departments. In addition, the report contained a recommendation to actively involve representatives of the local Arab population in the field. The recommendations of the Interdepartmental Committee were considered at a Cabinet meeting on 14 February. W. Churchill, despite the objections of Lord Curzon, managed to achieve the inclusion in the sphere of competence of the Eastern Department of most of the Arabian Peninsula. Justifying his position, he stated: "The Arab problem is one, and any attempt to divide it will inevitably cause a return to the situation that existed during the previous two years ...". The Cabinet approved, in general, the recommendations of the Smith Committee, instructing the heads of the Colonial Office and the Foreign Office to work out the final decision on the delimitation of areas of competence in Arabia through a bilateral agreement. At the same time, the composition of the Eastern Department was approved, the staff of which included such well-known experts on Middle Eastern problems as J. Schukgurg, R. Vernon, H. Young, R. Bullard, F. Adam, G. Clayton and Colonel Meinertsagen. T.E. was entrusted to head the new department. Lawrence. The transfer of all powers to manage the mandated possessions in the Middle East to a single structure was the logical outcome of several years of discussions around Middle Eastern problems that brought the British cabinet in December 1920 to the brink of crisis. W. Churchill, who headed the Ministry of Colonial Affairs from March 1921, saw as his most important goal, in combination with maintaining overall control over the situation, the gradual reduction in the level of the military and administrative presence of Great Britain in the region and bringing it into line with the financial capabilities of the mother country. The concrete implementation of this task required, first of all, in Iraq, the creation of an effective state system and the formation of a different model of relations between the mandated territories and the mandate holder power.

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

1. Great Britain: the era of reforms / Ed. A.A. Gromyko. - M.: Publishing house "Ves Mir", 2007 Democracy in a changing world. - Nizhny Novgorod: Publishing house of the Volga-Vyatka personnel center, 1995. - 150 p. Kodaneva S.I.

2. British constitutional reform: Regional aspect. Analytical review / RAS. INION. Center for social scientific-inform. research Dep. jurisprudence. - M., 2005. - 112.

3. Constitutional law foreign countries: Textbook for universities. - M.: Norma, 2005. Manning N. Public Administration Reform: International Experience. - M .: Publishing house "Ves Mir", 2003. - 496 p. Pronkin S.V., Petrunina O.E. State administration of foreign countries: Tutorial. – M.: Aspect Press, 2001. – 416 p.

Great Britain in the 1920s and 30s

The period between the First and Second World Wars was the heyday of the British colonial empire and at the same time the beginning of a long economic crisis in Britain.

background

Events

1928 - Nearly universal suffrage introduced in Great Britain; Married women over 30 also get the right to vote.

Foreign policy

Conclusion

Abstract

Having emerged victorious from the World War, Great Britain began to play a significant role in the political life of Europe and the World. The domestic political line of the government was entirely aimed at restoring the domestic economy, burdened by the world war. Compared to other victorious countries, Great Britain was not able to get ahead in terms of its economic development, but only restored its pre-war level. At the same time, as in other countries of Western Europe, the standard of living of the so-called increased in Great Britain. middle class.

Rice. 1. Representatives of the middle class ()

Rice. 2. Consequences of the World economic crisis ()

In the 1920-1930s. important role in the life of English society began to play unions. These organizations, which defended the rights of workers, during this period of time became quite a powerful force of influence in the UK. In 1925, when the government cut state funding for the coal industry, mine owners began to cut miners' salaries, close unprofitable (inefficient, unprofitable) mines, and massively lay off miners. In response, the unions in Great Britain called a general strike in May 1926. The forceful measures of the government directed against the workers almost led to a social explosion and revolution. In fact, only a concession on the part of the trade unions did not lead English society into a protracted conflict. Individual workers went on strike until 1927, never getting any concessions from the capitalists.

Rice. 3. Army trucks move to suppress the workers' strike ()

Bibliography

Shubin A.V. General history. Recent history. Grade 9: textbook. for general education institutions. - M.: Moscow textbooks, 2010.
Soroko-Tsyupa O.S., Soroko-Tsyupa A.O. General history. Recent history, 9th grade. - M.: Education, 2010.
Sergeev E.Yu. General history. Recent history. Grade 9 M.: - Enlightenment, 2011.

Homework

Read §5 of A.V. Shubin's textbook. pp. 45-49 and 51-52 and answer question 1 on p. 57.
What were the causes of the global economic crisis?
Why do you think the UK trade unions decided to curtail the protest movement?

Academician ().
Ukrainian textbooks ().
Student scientific forum ().