What plains are located in the Far East. Relief of the Far East
The Far East is traditionally called the territory of Russia, located off the coast of the Pacific and partially Arctic Oceans, as well as the Kuril, Commander, Shantar Islands and Sakhalin Island. Far East- this is a huge territory, 36% of the total area of \u200b\u200bmodern Russia.
Geography and climate
The length of the region from Chukotka to the southwest to the borders of Korea and Japan is 4500 km. It captures the Arctic Circle, where snow lies all year round. The lands in the northern part of the Far East are bound by permafrost, on which the tundra grows. In fact, almost the entire territory of the Far East, except for Primorye and the southern half of Kamchatka, is located in the permafrost zone.
To the south the climate and nature change considerably. In the south of the Far East, taiga trees coexist with plants from the subtropics (which is not repeated almost anywhere in the world).
Far East. Nature
In the view of the majority, and in fact, the Far East is a vast taiga, mountains and other irregularities of the territory that attract extreme tourists so much. The rivers Amur, Penzhin, Anadyr and a number of less significant ones flow here.
The relief of the Far East has a strongly rugged character and is represented mainly by mountainous forms. There are several watershed ranges: Kolyma, Dzhugdzhur, Yablonovyo and Stanovoy. There are powerful mountain systems, for example: the Tukuringra and Jagdy ranges. The peaks of the mountain ranges of the Far East, as a rule, do not exceed 2500 m.
The landscapes of the Far East are very diverse. Plains stretch along its tributaries. In the north and west, these plains are covered with southern taiga forests of special Daurian larch. In the south, on the flat Prikhankaysko-Amur lowland, unique Manchurian broad-leaved forests grow. Many relict and southern plants are found in them: Mongolian oak, Amur linden, white-bark elm, Manchurian ash, hornbeam, cork tree.
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The vast lowlands located between the mountain ranges are very interesting for their flora and fauna: Zee-Bureinskaya, Nizhne-Amurskaya, Ussuriyskaya and Prikhankayskaya. But in general, the plains occupy no more than 25% of the area of the region.
Winters are severe and with little snow, summers are relatively warm and with heavy rainfall. Winter is characterized by weak winds, a large number of sunny days, little snow and severe frosts. Especially gets from frost to the inhabitants of the most remote mainland, for example, in Transbaikalia. Here, on average, up to 10 mm of precipitation falls during the winter. Sometimes you can't go sledding either.
Rains in the Far East, the closer to China and the sea, the more similar to showers in the tropics, but only in intensity, but not in temperature. In the summer in the Far East, you can easily come across a swamp; the swampiness of the territories reaches 15-20%.
The tastiest piece of Russia for the damned imperialists. The richest region, the natural pantry of diamonds (in Yakutia more than 80% of all reserves of Russia), in almost every subject of the region there are gold deposits (50% of Russia's reserves), deposits of non-ferrous metals, minerals, there is coal, and oil, and gas.
Cities of the Russian Far East
TO big cities include Vladivostok, Khabarovsk. These cities are of great economic and geostrategic importance for the country. Blagoveshchensk, Komsomolsk-on-Amur, Nakhodka, Ussuriysk, Magadan should also be mentioned.
The city of Yakutsk is of particular importance for the entire region. But in Chukotka there are endangered settlements. The places there are harsh and hard to reach - people leave.
Population of the Far East
There are many nationalities in the Far East, but Russians predominate everywhere. Russians are about 88%, the second group is Ukrainians - about 7%. There are, of course, Koreans, Chinese (which is not surprising), Belarusians, Jews.
The population of the Far East is 6.3 million people. (about 5% of the population of Russia).
Indigenous peoples:
- Yakuts,
- Dolgans, Evenki and Eveny in the north,
- the northeast is occupied by the Eskimos and Chukchi,
- on the islands - Aleuts,
- in Kamchatka - Itelmens and Koryaks,
- in the Amur basin and to the east of it - Nanai, Ulchi, terms, Orochi, Udege, Nivkhs.
The number of Yakuts is about 380 thousand people, Evenks - 24 thousand. And the rest - no more than 10 thousand people. Difficult living conditions have determined that the urban population prevails over the rural. On average, 76% of the population of the Far East lives in cities.
The territory of the Far East zonal belongs to the area of late Cenozoic folding and is part of the Pacific belt. The Russian Pacific coast is part of two converging continental plates - Asian and American. The plate contact zone is defined by the characteristic "depression" of the ocean floor.
Typical signs of oncoming plate movement and crustal activity are deep depressions and noticeable mountain building processes accompanied by earthquakes and volcanic activity. In fact, geosynclines, active zones of the earth's crust, form a contracting ring around the Pacific Ocean.
Scientists confirm the fact that the total area of the ocean is shrinking, a clear evidence of this is the so-called Pacific belt of volcanoes - a chain of high mountain ranges. The rise of the ocean floor is also characteristic of the Russian territory of the Far East. A sign of the geological youth of the region and tectonic activity is a high concentration of active and dormant volcanoes.
The Kamchatka Peninsula is known for 29 active volcanoes, while their total number in the region is about 180 units. Another evidence of activity is the Kuril Islands, built by a chain of volcanoes, in addition, a deep (9.7 km) Kuril-Kamchatsky Trench is found near the islands. Most scientists are sure that such trenches can be considered the entry point of the oceanic crust under the continental one.
The northern part of the Far East is considered to be older, having a more complex geological and tectonic structure than in the Kuril and Kamchatka zones, which are characterized by high mobility and seismological activity, which are characteristic of modern geosynclines.
Among the elements of the mainland Far East there are:
- marginal massifs;
- folding systems;
- Structured platform series.
The marginal part, located in the southeast of the region under consideration, is notable for the presence of narrow deep-water depressions passing in the zone of the junction of the oceanic and continental crust. Geologist L.I. Red, depending on the location, highlights a group of megablocks and their constituent elements:
- Sea of Okhotsk - Koni-Taigonossky belt of volcanoes, Kuril-Kamchatka arc (islands), Sea of Okhotsk depression (southern) and massif, East-Skhalinsk and Hokaido-Sakhalinsk folded systems;
- Kolyma - Okhotsk and Omolon massifs, Okhotsk-Chukotka volcano belt, South Anyui and Verkhoyansk-Chukotka folding areas;
- Aldan-Stanovoy - Southeastern segment of the vast Siberian plate, the rising Aldan-Stanovoi shield with characteristic crystalline complexes indicating the ancient age of formation;
- Bering Sea - adjacent parts of the geosynclinal-folded Koryak system (south), the Kuril-Kamchatka arc (north) and the Aleutian-Alaska system (west);
- Amur - Sikhote-Alin volcanic belt and fold system, Khanka and Bureya massifs of intergeosynclinal type, Amur-Okhotsk fold system.
Relief of the Far East
The predominant type of relief in the Far East is mountainous, this is due to the peculiarities of the tectonic structure. The dominance of highlands determines the secondary importance of the plains and their coastal and intermountain localization. The largest plains are located within: the Central Kamchatka depression, the Anadyr and Penzhina lowlands, the Parapolsky valley.
The predominant number of ridges located in the north of the Far East are characterized as horst massifs and anticlinal uplifts. Synclinal troughs are found in depression zones. The Chukchi Ranges are composed of Verkhoyansk rocks and are of Mesozoic folding age.
In the localized area of the Okhotsk-Chukotka belt of volcanoes, ridges protruding on the northern coast of the Sea of Okhotsk, the south of the Chukotka highlands, the western part of the Anadyr-Penzhinsky depression and the ridges of the Anadyr plateau were formed. These elements have a diverse structure and are composed of structures of different ages, including Quaternary, Paleogene, and Upper Cretaceous.
They are present in the area of the structure of the Cenozoic period. The folded zone of this time includes: the Kuriles, Kamchatka, the Koryak Highlands. characteristic feature of all the mentioned elements is their localization in the zone of high volcanic activity and the young geosyncline. Highest point The region is located at an altitude of 4.75 km - Klyuchevskaya Sopka, the average height of the mountain peaks is 2-3 km.
In addition to tectonic processes, rivers, the ocean and climate took an active part in the formation of the region's relief. Erosion factors in the relief are traced throughout the entire Far East. Also significant factors include: physical weathering, solufication and periodic glaciations.
A characteristic and typical relief of the Far East are mid-mountain and low-mountain massifs. There is a pronounced network of deep valleys, dissecting most massifs, also, in large numbers there are mountains with flat tops. The height of the region ranges from 0.5 to 1.7 km. The most elevated zones of Kamchatka, the Koryak and Chukchi highlands have a diverse, with a predominance of alpine, relief. Most of the relief forms are glacial, and the proportion of lava plateaus is also significant.
Minerals of the Far East
The richness of the subsoil of the Russian Far East is a proven fact. The total volume of deposits makes the region a world leader in this indicator. Here lie such minerals as oil, gas, metals of various categories and classes, etc. Silver deposits, bauxites, tin, titanium and others can be developed in the region chemical elements characteristics of which correspond to world standards. There are areas in the Far East, the development of which does not require large investments, all of them can be developed within a short period of time.
The process of mining in the region is difficult for the following reasons:
- Lack of exploration data;
- Lack of infrastructure;
- High transport and logistics costs;
- Small depth of occurrence of fossils.
Regardless of the complexity of the conditions, there is a noticeable increase in the role of the Far East in the economic development of the country. In the future, the region will be used to develop the latest technologies geological exploration and mining. In general, the potential of the region is assessed as very high.
Far East It is customary to call the territory of Russia, located off the coast of the Pacific Ocean. This territory also includes the Kuril archipelago located directly in the Pacific Ocean, for which they have been arguing for many years. The Far East consists of mainland, peninsular and insular parts. In addition to the Kuril Islands, it also includes the Kamchatka Peninsula, an island, and other (smaller) single ones located near the eastern borders of Russia.
The length of the Far East from the northeast (from) to the southwest (to the borders of Korea and) is quite large and amounts to 4.5 thousand kilometers. Its northern part is located beyond the Arctic Circle, so there is snow here almost all year round, and the seas washing the coast are not completely cleared of ice even in summer. The land in the northern part of the Far East is shackled. It dominates here. In the southern part of the Far East, conditions are much milder. One indicator of the unusual nature of this part is that the trees characteristic of the north are adjacent to plants that are more common in the subtropics. Thus, the climatic conditions in different points this area are quite different from each other. This is especially true of the temperature regime, but everywhere it is increased. Proximity also has a great influence on the climate of the entire Far East.
Far Eastern cedar cones
Only a quarter of the territory of the Far East is occupied. They are mainly located in those parts of the coast where tectonic activity is low (West Kamchatka, North Sakhalin), as well as in intermountain depressions (Middle Amur, Anadyr, Central Kamchatka), so their area is relatively small. The relief of the Far East was formed mainly in the Mesozoic and Cenozoic periods. It was then that folded zones and intermountain depressions appeared. The ocean had some influence on the formation of the relief. So, for example, the entire modern and eastern slope was under water at that time. Only later did these areas appear on the surface, where they still are.
From west to east, the character of the Far East changes from older to younger, and from folded-blocky to folded and blocky-folded. The highest parts of the mountains (the ridges of Dzhagdy, Bureinsky, Badzhalsky, Sikhote-Alin and others) were occupied in ancient times. Traces of this have been preserved in our time in the idea of various small landforms (hills, carts and troughs).
Thus, as a result of various internal (tectonic) and external (glaciation, ocean waters) different types relief:
- -denudation mid-mountains and low-mountains with areas of glacial landforms on Paleozoic and Mesozoic blocky-folded structures
- erosion-denudation low mountains of Sikhote-Alin and Sakhalin on Mesozoic and Cenozoic fold-block and folded structures with lava plateaus
- denudation-erosion formation plains of intermountain depressions
- plains of intermontane depressions on Mesozoic and Cenozoic folded structures.
Ussuri taiga
Depending on the nature of tectonic processes, they also change on the surface. So, for example, on the Kuril Islands, under which the thickness reaches 15-20 kilometers, three elements of the tectonic structure are mainly developed. These are island arcs and deep-water depressions. Their formation was carried out sequentially. At the first stage, a deep-water trench formed at the point of contact between the oceanic and continental plates. At the second stage, a marginal sea is formed, and then a rift depression near the islands.
The relief of the Kamchatka Peninsula and the mainland of the country is a reflection of a more ancient period. Continental and transitional (from oceanic to continental) crust, blocky-folded structures, and longitudinal-transverse troughs predominate here. In the relief of this territory, these features are expressed by lowlands and volcanic forms. Here, for example, the intermountain Anadyr-Penzhinskaya Plain is located.
The structure of Kamchatka and the Kuril Islands mainly consists of Cretaceous and sedimentary. Loose Neogene deposits are also present in the places of troughs. Modern processes of relief formation in the Far East are determined by tectonic processes and permafrost (in the northern part).
Active tectonic processes currently taking place in the Far East are the cause of various. There are several active volcanoes and geysers in this area. Quite often, strong (up to 10 points) and seaquakes occur in this part of the planet. The latter become the cause of the emergence of huge ocean waves. All these cataclysms lead to significant destruction and even human casualties. Therefore, this part of Russia is the most unfavorable in terms of the presence of hazardous natural phenomena.
Relief
Most of the territory of Russia is located in a stable region of the lithosphere - the Eurasian lithospheric plate and is represented by the earth's crust of the continental type, which determines the dominance of a low-contrast plain and plateau relief with isolated areas of low mountains. The exceptions are: a) the Far East region, which is part of a mobile belt with large amplitudes of tectonic movements, high seismicity and manifestation of volcanism, located on the border with the Pacific plate; b) Southern Siberia mountains With Baikal rift system; c) The Crimean Mountains and the Greater Caucasus are part of the inland Alpine-Himalayan mountain belt. The position in the north of the mainland, mainly in temperate latitudes, partly in the polar region, the dominance of the continental, and over a large area and sharply continental climate explains the predominance of geomorphological processes characteristic of the cold humid climate. Fluvial processes, processes of physical weathering and gravitational displacement of masses have been widely developed. Along with this, vast spaces are subject to cryogenic morphogenesis. Relic relief plays an important role in the geomorphological structure of the territory of Russia. The primary features of its form, created by glaciers during the era of Pleistocene cooling, have been most fully preserved. The participation of more ancient (Cenozoic, less often Mesozoic) peneplains and leveling surfaces, as well as traces of transgressions of sea and lake basins in the form of terraced accumulative plains, is noticeable. The increase in heights is generally from north to south and from west to east, towards the Pacific Ocean. According to the absolute heights and the nature of the relief in the continental part of the territory of Russia, 6 large regions are distinguished: 1) the hilly-flat European part; 2) low-lying-plain Western Siberia; 3) plateau-like Central Siberia; 4) mountains of Southern Siberia; 5) mountains and plains of the Northeast; 6) mountains and plains of the Far East. The mountain systems of the Crimea, the Urals, and the Caucasus, which are not part of them, serve as orographic elements limiting and delimiting in relation to the first two regions. The relief of the islands belonging to Russia in most cases reveals a morphostructural unity with the nearby continental areas, being their orographic and morphological continuation (see map).
the East European Plain
General information. The European part of Russia is almost entirely occupied by one of the largest plains on Earth - East European Plain, or Russian, corresponding to the ancient platform of the same name (average heights of the plain are about 170 m). Geostructurally, the plain corresponds to East European platform, includes the denudation plain on the Baltic Shield and the East European Plain proper on the Russian and Scythian plates. The highest heights are noted on the Kola Peninsula in the Khibiny, the lowest - on the coast Caspian Sea .
Northern regions. The crystalline basement of the platform, composed of strong igneous and metamorphic rocks, is exposed within the Baltic Shield in Karelia and on Kola Peninsula. During the Pleistocene, the region was repeatedly covered by gigantic glaciers that spread south and east from here. The relief created by them has changed little and still determines the appearance of the landscape. They predominate as exaration forms associated with the destructive activity of ice sheets (they plowed out numerous depressions occupied by lakes or swamps, "ram's foreheads" and "curly rocks"), and forms of glacial and water-glacial accumulation (drumlins, eskers, kams, moraine ridges). There are also a number of large uplands - tundra, including low-mountain appearance ( Lovozero tundra). The maximum heights (more than 1000 m) are in the Khibiny. To the south and east of the Baltic Shield, the crystalline basement of the platform subsides under a cover of Paleozoic sedimentary rocks. In the continental part of the Arkhangelsk region and in the Komi Republic, swampy plains are developed on them, alternating with plateaus, ridges and ridges. In a number of areas, karst landscapes are widespread (the White Sea-Kuloi plateau, up to 217 m high). The largest upland, the Timan Ridge (height up to 471 m), marks the outcrop of Precambrian folded structures and is distinguished by relatively sharp landforms. Near the Urals, large undulating forms are outlined in the relief, reflecting folds in the sedimentary cover of the platform (Chernyshev Ridge, up to 253 m high). Stretch along the Arctic coast Bolshezemelskaya tundra(height up to 253 m) and Malozemelskaya tundra(height up to 171 m), in the relief of which the influence of permafrost and ancient glaciations, which left moraine hills and ridges - musurs, is noticeable. The southern limit of the Baltic Shield is clearly expressed in the relief in the form of the Baltic-Ladoga ledge (Glint) up to 56 m high. To the south of it, limestone plateaus stretch, dissected by canyon-like valleys and abounding in karst forms. The plateau in the south is bordered by bowl-shaped basins of glacial origin, the central parts of which are occupied by lakes: Chudsko-Pskovskoye, Ilmen, Bely, etc. western moraine relief left by the Valdai glaciation. Bells are characteristic - isolated flat tops that arose on the site of glacial lakes. A similar relief has the Smolensk-Moscow and the Galich-Chukhloma Uplands, which continue it in the northeast, formed during the epochs of the Dnieper and Moscow glaciations.
Central regions. They include the Central Russian Upland, the Volga Upland, the General Syrt and the Bugulma-Belebeevskaya Upland; Northern Ridges, Ufa Plateau, High Trans-Volga and adjacent Cis-Urals, as well as depressions separating them: Meshcherskaya lowland , Oka-Don Plain and the valleys of the main rivers (Volga, Don, Kama, Oka). The region was not subjected to glaciation and was formed under the long-term influence of fluvial (mainly erosional) processes. The interfluves are usually wide, the relief is flat or slightly convex, less often wavy. In the Cis-Urals, they are complicated by isolated remnants (shikhans) and karst phenomena (for example, Kungur cave). The rivers freely meander, on the low floodplain there are numerous oxbow lakes. The valleys are wide and asymmetrical: with a steep, as a rule, right and sloping left slope, on which the staircase of terraces is well expressed. The valleys are decorated with picturesque cliffs - mountains (Zhiguli and Sovereign Mountain on the Volga, Sparrow Hills in Moscow, Galichya Mountain on the Don, Belogorye on Vorskla and Oskol, etc.). High steep river banks on the East European Plain are associated with such dangerous phenomena as landslides, the occurrence of which is largely due to the influence of human activities. Another natural disaster caused by anthropogenic intervention is accelerated ravine erosion, which reached its largest size in the black earth regions after their almost universal plowing and deforestation.
Southern regions. Occupied by a strip of seaside Kuban-Azov lowland and Caspian lowland. Connects them Kumo-Manych depression, which only a few millennia ago served as a strait that united the Azov-Black Sea and Caspian basins. The Caspian lowland has a pronouncedly flat relief of marine and alluvial-deltaic origin; to the coast of the Caspian Sea, it drops to a mark of -28.4 m (2019) - the lowest point in Russia. A minor complication is introduced by the chains of Baer mounds of problematic genesis and depressions filled with salt lakes (Elton and Baskunchak) formed above the salt domes. There are also areas of blown sands with eolian relief (dunes, dunes, etc.). An anomalous height for this area (up to 250 m) is the "sand mountain" Sarykum. The general flatness of the territory is somewhat disturbed by the eastern end of the Donetsk Ridge (within Russia, height up to 215 m), the Salsko-Manych ridge (height up to 221 m) and the Ergeni Upland (height up to 222 m). As a link to the mountains Caucasus speaks Stavropol Upland, having the form of a vast high dome dissected by river valleys, which corresponds to the bending of the sedimentary strata of the platform cover, which occurred in the latest (Pliocene-Quaternary) time, the height is up to 831 m (Mount Strizhament). In accordance with the warm and dry (semiarid and arid) climate, eolian processes play a significant role in the exogenous morphogenesis of the southern regions of the East European Plain. Their activation is greatly facilitated by economic activity, primarily plowing and grazing. At times, they take on the character of dangerous and even catastrophic phenomena (black storms associated with the blowing of the fertile soil layer).
Crimean mountains
Mountain system stretching to the south Crimean peninsula(Crimea) parallel to the Black Sea coast from southwest to northeast in the form of three ridges separated by two longitudinal valleys. Differ high concentration within a relatively small area of unique geological and geomorphological phenomena.
The main ridge (Yayla) has a length of 150 km (from Balaklava to Mount Agarmysh) and a maximum height of 1545 m (Mount Roman-Kosh on Babugan-Yayle, the highest point of the Crimean Mountains). The inner ridge reaches a length of 125 km (from Sapun Gora to Stary Krym), a height of up to 739 m (Mount Kubalach). The outer ridge is stretched for 114 km (from Cape Fiolent to the city of Stary Krym), it is the shortest and lowest - a height of 344 m (mountain Kazantash), for its small heights it is often called a foothill. The mountains are 50–60 km wide. The inner and outer ridges are typical cuestas, they have same character slopes, gently sloping to the northwest and north, steep from the south. The summit surface of the Main Ridge is a chain of flat table-like peaks - yail. The western part of Yaila is a wavy plateau, its individual parts are named: Baydarskaya, Ai-Petrinskaya, Yalta, Nikitskaya, Gurzufskaya, Babugan-Yayla. In the east, it breaks up into more or less isolated plateau-like massifs - Chatyrdag, Dolgorukovskaya Yayla, Demerdzhi-Yayla, Mount Tyrke, Karabi-Yayla. The karst of Yayla is very pronounced, it is a classic example of bare karst of the Mediterranean type. In the clefts of the slopes of most yayls there are many passes. The southern slope of the Main Ridge forms a strip Southern coast of Crimea, its relief is characterized by amphitheaters, heaps of rocks (the so-called chaos), picturesque isolated massifs ( Karadag, Ayudag, Castel, etc.).
Ural Mountains
General information. The extended mountain system of the Urals, which forms a conditional boundary between Europe and Asia, exists in isolation from other mountainous countries of the continent, surrounded by vast plains and extends almost meridionally for more than 2000 km, forming an important physical and geographical boundary in the north of the mainland. Morphostructurally, the Ural Mountains correspond to a folded Paleozoic complex penetrated by intrusions of various compositions, which forms an ancient suture zone along eastern border East European Platform. This ancient mountain system has been rejuvenated in recent times by tectonic movements of moderate intensity. In general, the Ural Mountains are low mountains with a predominance of small (a few hundred meters) elevation changes and gentle slopes. Traditionally, the mountain system is subdivided into the Polar Urals, Subpolar Urals, Northern Urals, Middle Urals and Southern Urals; each site has individual features of morphology and features of the history of the development of the relief. In morphostructural terms, the northern continuation of the Urals is the low Pai-Khoi ridge (More-Iz Mountain, 423 m), which occupies the interior of the Yugorsky Peninsula.
Polar Ural has a length of more than 380 km. Its southwestern strike is somewhat different from the general one for the entire mountain system. The Polar Urals is a swell-like uplift, dissected by wide steep-sided valleys into isolated mountain ranges. Almost everywhere there are traces of glacial processing of the relief - relics of the Pleistocene glaciation eras. In the axial zone, a number of alpine-type ridges with pointed peaks - carlings and steep slopes are distinguished (the highest point is Mount Payer, 1472 m). Valleys - typical troughs with a trough-shaped transverse profile - a consequence of the activity of the glacier, in some - lakes.
Subpolar Urals reaches a width of 150 km, its length is 230 km, the maximum height is 1895 m (Mount Narodnaya). The mountain system breaks up into a series of subparallel ridges, forming a wide fan in the north. There are isolated alpine-type massifs that rise several hundred meters above the surrounding plateau, among them - Mount Manaraga (1662 m) and Mount Saber (1497 m) with spectacular jagged ridges and small glaciers on the slopes.
Northern Ural is the longest (more than 500 km) part of the mountain system. It is formed by a number of parallel orographic lines (Poyasovy Kamen, Tulymsky Kamen, Khozatump, and other ranges) separated by wide tectonic depressions. The highest point is Mount Telpoziz (1617 m) in the northern part, where traces of glacial activity with sharp relief features are still found. The rest of the area is dominated by gentle slopes and smooth outlines of peaks. The exceptions are isolated massifs - stones: Tulymsky (1469 m), Denezhkin (1492 m), Konzhakovsky (1569 m), etc., their pyramidal peaks are covered with stone placers, steps stand out on the slopes - upland terraces. Characteristic Northern Urals - the presence of remnants - tumps on low flattened peaks. On the Manpuner plateau (height up to 840 m) rises a series of 30-meter stone pillars.
Middle Ural- the lowest part of the mountain system with a length of approx. 400 km. The main space is occupied by high plains, complicated by ridges (Kirgishansky, up to 555 m high; Konovalovsky, up to 726 m) and ridges (Kaslinsko-Sysertsky, up to 508 m high), which should actually include hills called ridges (Ufaleysky, up to 609 m). Low mountains in the Middle Urals can only be considered small massifs (the highest point is Mount Oslyanka, 1119 m).
Southern Urals reaches a width of 250 km with a length of approx. 550 km. It is formed by more than a dozen subparallel ridges fanning out to the south. A number of massifs stand out: Big Iremel (1582 m) and Small Iremel (1449 m), Yamantau (1640 m) and some other peaks. At altitudes above 1200 m, they are covered with rocky placers and have a tundra-like landscape. In the Taganay, Zyuratkul and Nurgush ridges there are ridges and peaks with sharp picturesque features of the rocky relief associated with the preparation of vertically standing layers of strong rocks. The wide development of limestones and other soluble rocks is due to karst landforms, including - Kapova cave.
Caucasus mountains
General information. The strip of mountains of the Greater Caucasus with a total length of St. 1200 km limits the plains of the European part in the south, "closing" them between the Azov-Black Sea and Caspian basins. The main massif of the highlands of this part of Russia is concentrated here. In the axial zone of the Greater Caucasus are located Main, or Dividing Range and Side Ridge. The northern macroslope of the Greater Caucasus belonging to Russia is formed by a series of parallel mountain ranges, the absolute heights of which increase from north to south. Along the strike, the mountain system is conditionally subdivided into western, central and eastern parts, differing in height and geomorphological structure. The western tip of the Caucasus is Taman Peninsula, among the accumulative plains of which low anticlinal ridges and hills of mud volcanoes rise (height up to 164 m).
Western Caucasus, starting in the area of the city of Anapa, has a low-mountain appearance for a significant extent. The ridges are characterized by asymmetry: the southern slope facing the sea is short and steep; the northern one is extended and noticeably more gentle. The relief clearly shows a young folded morphostructure in the form of longitudinal ridges and depressions separating them. In malleable Meso-Cenozoic limestones, clays and marls, short streams washed out deep gorge-like valleys, which divided the ridges into numerous narrow spurs. The middle mountains are confined to the axial zone, which is isolated in the form of the Main (Dividing) Range. The Lagonaki tract (up to 2200–2500 m high) and the Fisht mountain massif (2867 m) are distinguished by expressiveness of sculptural forms, which is associated with the preparation of karst limestones. Here and on the slopes facing the coast, there are many caves (Vorontsovskaya and others), picturesque canyons, and waterfalls. Along the northern foot of the Greater Caucasus stretch monoclinal ridges - cuestas: ridges rocky ridge, Pasture and Black Mountains, formed by layers of sedimentary rocks gently inclined to the north, with a gentle northern slope and a steep, steep to sheer southern slope. The highlands of the Greater Caucasus are confined mainly to blocky morphostructures composed of older, predominantly Precambrian, partly Paleozoic, rocks. A significant role in its structure also belongs to Cenozoic volcanic rocks, which form large massifs. The dissection of the mountain relief reaches its maximum values and is represented by the deepest (2–3 km relative elevations) valleys-gorges (the valley of the upper Kuban and its tributary Laba). In the lower reaches, closer to the exit from the mountains, they have a V-shaped transverse profile, in the upper reaches they have a U-shaped trough shape. The general background of the heights of the peaks noticeably exceeds 3000 m and increases towards the east. The ridge line of the ridges has a sawtooth longitudinal profile. Almost all peaks bear glaciers and eternal snows. The Western Caucasus is bounded in the east by the Elbrus volcanic massif.
Central Caucasus, extending to the east of Elbrus, is characterized by maximum heights. It is also characterized by division into a number of longitudinal mountain ranges that continue beyond its borders. The peaks of the Main (Dividing) Range are not lower than 4000 m, the highest are Shkhara (5068 m) and Dzhangitau (5058 m). The crest of the ridge in the region of these peaks breaks off to the north in the form of the often almost sheer Bezengi wall. The Side Range has a similar appearance - a mountain range consisting of a series of short ridges separated by deep gorges. The highest points are the peaks of Koitantau (5152 m) and Dykhtau (5204 m). In the east, the Central Caucasus completes the boundary volcanic massif of Kazbek (5033 m). In the foothill zone, cuestas continue - the Rocky Range (height up to 3646 m). On the Mineralnye Vody plateau stand alone domed peaks - laccoliths: Beshtau (1401 m), Mashuk (993 m), etc.
Eastern Caucasus formed by a significant (up to 160 km) expansion of the mountain system, the convex part facing the northern plains. It is composed of sedimentary rocks of the Mesozoic and Cenozoic, crumpled into folds. The general background of altitudes is noticeably reduced: the average height is 2500–3000 m, the highest point is Mount Tebulosmta (4492 m). The structure is clearly seen in the complex orography of the region and in the morphology of numerous ridges, collectively called "Dagestan". Cuestas and structural slopes are widespread. There are straight (anticlinal ridges and synclinal valleys) and inverted (anticlinal valleys, synclinal ridges and plateaus) folded morphostructures (the most famous are Gunib and Khunzakh). In the northern foothills, a number of low anticline ranges stand out: Tersky (up to 593 m high), Sunzhensky (Zamankul Mountain, 926 m), etc. They separate the Ossetian and Grozny plains. The contrasting relief of the Caucasus Mountains and high absolute heights ensure the development of a wide range of exogenous processes, their massive nature and high flow rates. In the first place are gravitational phenomena (landslides, landslides, screes, avalanches), which often acquire dangerous and catastrophic proportions. The channel processes and associated mudflow activity are very vigorous.
West Siberian Plain
General information. One of the largest low-lying accumulative plains of the globe is the West Siberian Plain, which occupies a vast space between the Ural mountains and the Yenisei valley and includes uniform lowland plains (an area of about 3 million km 2). The plain was formed on the plate of the same name, composed of thick layers of sedimentary rocks, at the base of which there is a folded basement of predominantly Paleozoic consolidation. The highest points are located on the western and southern periphery of the plain and belong to the ridge uplands in the transition zones to the mountains of the Urals and Altai; average height approx. 120 m. In general, the space of Western Siberia reveals a slight slope from south to north, towards the coast of the Kara Sea.
North of the West Siberian Plain It is occupied by flat plains with predominant heights of 30–80 m, complicated by the Gydan, Yuribei, and other ridges (height up to 150 m). The relief shows traces of Pleistocene marine and glacial accumulation. Cryogenic processes are widespread, forming khasyreys (depressions with a cellular microrelief), sede (ice mounds), raps (heaving mounds), solifluction slushes on slopes, and other characteristic forms. In connection with economic activity human (development of oil and natural gas fields), the processes of thermal erosion intensified, which led to the appearance of numerous ravines.
CentreWest Siberian Plain complicated by a large swell-like uplift of sublatitudinal strike - Siberian Ridges(height up to 245 m). Other elevated parts are noticeably lower: Tobolsk Mainland (up to 105 m high) and Belogorsky Mainland (up to 231 m high), Vasyugan Plain (up to 170 m high). Strong swamping processes are taking place everywhere, especially on flat interfluve areas, where sogrs, ryams and galleys are formed - landscapes with a characteristic hummocky relief of peat bogs.
South of the West Siberian Plain occupy Ishim Plain , Baraba lowland and Kulunda Plain with an almost perfectly flat relief, slightly disturbed by closed depressions and low "manes" - extended ridges of a predominantly northeast strike. The exception is the hilly-ridged relief of the Ob plateau and the Pre-Altai plain, rising to 300 m or more.
Central Siberia
General information. One of the largest natural regions in Russia - Central Siberia - is located in the central part of Siberia, between the valley of the Yenisei River and the western foot of Verkhoyansk ridge. In the south it borders on the mountains of Altai, Sayan, Baikal and Transbaikalia. In the north it is washed by the Kara and Laptev seas. Area approx. 4 million km 2. The length from north to south is 2800 km, from west to east 2500 km. The relief of Central Siberia is very diverse: in the north - byrranga mountains, south - North Siberian Lowland with remnant ridges, in the east -, in the south - the Irkutsk-Cheremkhovskaya plain. Most of Central Siberia is occupied by the largest in Russia Central Siberian Plateau .
Central Siberian Plateau and the plains and lowlands adjacent to it, together corresponding to a large tectonic formation - Siberian platform with an Early Precambrian crystalline base, form the basis of the region's topography. Long-term (since the Mesozoic) relief formation in subaerial conditions, uneven uplift of the earth's crust, lithological heterogeneity of the strata that make up the platform cover, and a sharply continental climate dominated by permafrost have led to a very complex orographic structure and diversity. morphosculptures. The plateaus formed on the sedimentary rocks of the platform cover and intrusions intruded into them, often expressed in the relief in the form of traps - steps on the slopes and interfluves, received the greatest development. The plateaus are dissected by deep canyon-like valleys, the channels of the rivers flowing in them often also have a stepped profile, abound in rapids, rapids (sometimes waterfalls). In the south of the Central Siberian Plateau, the Angara, Biryusa and Leno-Angara plateau, in general, forming several large undulating landforms corresponding to gentle bends of rock layers. The heights increase from west to east, reaching almost 1500 m. The plateaus are complicated by a number of short low (height up to 1000 m) ridges (Anadekan, Katyrminsky, etc.) and ridges (Angarsky, Kovinsky). In the southeast, along both banks of the middle reaches of the Lena, there is a vast, slightly rising from north to south, the Prilenskoye Plateau (altitude up to 700 m). Along the border of the plateau with the mountains of Southern Siberia and the Baikal region, the Irkutsk-Cheremkhovskaya Plain and the Cis-Baikal Depression (up to 300–700 m high) stretch with a gently undulating relief. The southwestern edge of the Central Siberian Plateau is formed by a ledge of the crystalline base of the platform with its characteristic features of low mountains with domed peaks - the Yenisei Ridge (up to 1125 m high). The central regions of the plateau are occupied by vast plateaus - Zaangarsky, Tungussky, Central Tungussky, Siverma and Vilyuisky plateau; the heights of their flat peaks range from 400 to 800 m, in some places isolated ridges rise above them (Mount Naxon, 1035 m). In the north of the plateau, a separate dome of the Anabar Plateau (up to 908 m high) stands out, in the central part of which the most ancient (Archaean) basement rocks are exposed. On its western slopes there is a ring-shaped relief depression of problematic genesis – the Popigai astrobleme (an impact or impact morphostructure of cosmic origin). The most elevated is the northwestern part of the plateau - the Putorana Plateau (Mount Kamen, 1678 m), the dissection of the relief here reaches its maximum depth (500–800 m) and expressiveness, creating the appearance of a mountain landscape. Pleistocene glaciation transformed the valleys into typical troughs, the wide bottoms of which are occupied by lakes in areas of overdeepening. The slopes are complicated by numerous cirques, some of which still contain small glaciers.
Central Yakut lowland, into which the Central Siberian Plateau gradually passes in the east, extends along the lower reaches of the Lena and its left tributary, the Vilyui. It is characterized by cryogenic processes and the bulgunnyakhs associated with them. Widespread are large, but shallow, rounded in terms of thermokarst depressions that arose at the site of melted masses. underground ice, - alas. Many of them are occupied by lakes. Solifluction dominates on the gentle long slopes of the hills - the slow sliding of thawed soils, resulting in the formation of narrow parallel stripes - delli. A sharp contrast with cryogenic forms is formed by areas of sands not fixed by vegetation with eolian processing (dunes, dunes).
North Siberian lowland, adjacent from the north to the Central Siberian Plateau, confined to a large trough filled with Meso-Cenozoic sediments, extends in the sublatitudinal direction. Flat swampy areas with absolute elevations of 50–100 m and the dominance of cryogenic morphosculpture alternate with moraine hills and ridges up to 300 m high. A number of forms are associated with salt-dome tectonics in the form of large hills and rounded depressions with lakes (Portnyagino).
Byrranga mountains- the elevated northern part of the Taimyr Peninsula. Only a compact massif in the east of the peninsula (altitude up to 1125 m) has a low-mountain appearance. The rest of the space is occupied by hilly plains and ridges 250–400 m high, the tops of which occasionally rise to a height of 600–700 m. Relic morphosculpture predominates. glacial erosion(exarations): trough valleys, smoothed rock ledges; in the low mountains - cirque processing of slopes, on which cryogenic processing is superimposed by the processes of solifluction, kurum formation, frost buckling.
Southern Siberia
General information. A number of mountainous countries in the south of the Asian part of Russia form a mountain belt of latitudinal strike, joining in the east with the mountains of the Far East. In morphological and structural terms, they are united by belonging to the Paleozoic belt of Central Asia, elongation along the southern margin of the Siberian Platform, and a long history of relief development, generally inherited from ancient stages. Morphosculpture region is determined mainly sharply continental climate, which causes the wide development of physical weathering and cryogenic processes. The ratio of mountains and plains in the transition zone is different. In the west, in the foothills of Altai, there is a gradual increase in heights with a series of ridges, ridges and low ridges. Among them is the Salair Ridge (height up to 621 m, Mount Kivda), the western slope of which is gentle and long, it still retains the features of a high plain. To the east, the hill descends more sharply and has a semi-mountainous appearance. A similar asymmetric structure has an extended mountainous country Kuznetsk Alatau, consisting of many short, mostly low, ridges and ridges (mountain Upper Tooth, 2178 m) with erosional relief. Only individual massifs rising above 1800 m can be classified as middle mountains, but they, as a rule, have flat peaks - taskyls, limited by steep slopes with car cavities on the eastern, leeward side. The space between Salair and Alatau occupies Kuznetsk hollow with complex erosional dissection, in the south it passes into the Mountain Shoria massif (height up to 1614 m). Closes the strip of low mountains Abakan Ridge(height up to 1984 m) - a kind of transitional bridge to the middle mountains of the Sayan and Altai.
Russian Altai is part of a vast mountainous country, which extends to the adjacent territories of Kazakhstan, Mongolia and China and has, on the whole, arched outlines, reflecting the uneven intensity of the latest uplifts. A system of blocky ridges and intramountain depressions is distinguished. The central and southern regions are occupied by high mountains of the alpine type with a sharply dissected relief and significant mountain-valley glaciation. It is formed by the Sailyugem ridges (height up to 4082 m), Yuzhno-Chuysky (height up to 3936 m), North Chuysky ridge(height up to 4177 m) and Katunsky with the highest point of Altai and all of Siberia - Mount Belukha (4506 m). The peaks are covered with eternal snow (squirrels). The ridges of the highlands are separated by basins of tectonic origin, the largest are the Chui and Kurai steppes. The southeast of Altai is occupied mainly by medium-altitude plateaus (altitude up to 2000–2500 m). The exceptions are the isolated Mongun-Taiga massif (3970 m) and the Shapshalsky ridges (altitude up to 3608 m) and Tsagan-Shibetu (altitude up to 3383 m) bordering on the Sayans. Relic glacial morphosculpture is widely developed, modern cryogenic and gravitational processes reach great intensity. The northern and western peripheries of the mountainous country have a flat-mountain appearance, where a number of fan-shaped divergent ridges stand out; as they approach the surrounding plain, their absolute marks decrease, the middle mountains are replaced by low mountains. In the summit belt, fragments of the ancient peneplain, transformed by the processes of nivation and kurum formation, can be traced. Erosion morphosculpture predominates on the slopes and in the valleys; often they look like gorges. A large tectonic failure in the northeast is occupied by the picturesque Teletskoye Lake.
Sayans and mountains of Tuva, immediately adjoining the Altai from the east, have a significantly different orography. The ridges that form them are noticeably lower, have the form of wide swell-like uplifts of predominantly sublatitudinal and northeastern strike (in contrast to Altai, where submeridional and northwestern directions are typical) and are separated by large basins. The Western Sayan has a maximum elevation of 3122 m (Kyzyl-Taiga massif), the main background of peak heights is 2000–2500 m (some ranges - Uyuksky, Ergak-Targak-Taiga - are slightly lower). Massive dome-shaped and flattened peaks, covered with stone ruins, predominate. Traces of Pleistocene glaciations are developed sporadically, steep slopes and sharp ridges are associated with them. A similar ratio of cryogenic and glacial morphosculpture is also characteristic of the Eastern Sayan, which is somewhat higher (mountain Munku-Sardyk, 3491 m). The flat, treeless peaks of its lowered western and northern spurs are often covered with light moss lichen, which is why they got the local name "white mountain". The ridges of the higher, eastern part are characterized by bald mountains widely distributed in Siberia - Kitoisky, Tunkinsky, etc. Here, the relatively lowered Okinsky plateau stands out. It and the surrounding mountains are characterized by a wide development of volcanic relief. The last eruptions occurred in the Holocene, the forms they created are perfectly preserved (Kropotkin and Peretolchin volcanoes and lava flows associated with them). In the mountains of Tuva, there are ridges: Academician Obruchev (height up to 2895 m), Tannu-Ola (height up to 3056 m) and Sangilen (height up to 3276 m), which are very similar in geomorphological structure to the mountains described above. Between them and the Sayans, as well as at the foothills, are the Minusinsk, Todzha (East Tuva), Tuva, Tunkinsk, Turan and Ubsunur basins. Their relief is very diverse: fragments of flat, inclined and stepped accumulative plains created by river and lake sediments; lowered spurs with dense erosional dissection; hilly-depression moraine landscape with numerous lakes; areas with wind-blown sands collected in dunes; small volcanic cones and short lava flows.
Baikal rift system, which occupies a central position in the mountains of southern Siberia, is expressed in the relief by a chain of large depressions, elongated in a northeasterly direction. Against the background of the general, inherited from ancient stages development of the region, the rift system is a relatively young neoplasm. Although the formation of large superimposed fractures of the earth's crust began as early as the Paleocene, the main movements along them, reaching an amplitude of several kilometers, occurred in the Neogene-Quaternary. They had an emphatically blocky character, which was expressed in a sharply contrasting relief, straightness and angularity of the boundaries of depressions and uplifts. The largest basin (length up to 700 km, width up to 50 km) is mainly occupied by Lake Baikal (depth 1642 m). Its bottom is lined with a layer of sediments up to 6 km thick or more and is complicated by a number of uplifts that form islands (Olkhon and others) and peninsulas (Holy Nose). The rift system includes the already mentioned Tunka depression, as well as Barguzin basin, Verkhneangarskaya, Muya-Kuandinskaya, Verkhnecharskaya depressions and a number of others. The subsidence of the blocks of the earth's crust within them was not so significant, the bottoms are lined with a relatively thin layer of sediments (except for the Tunka) and are occupied mainly by wide river valleys. It should also be noted the cryogenic processing of accumulative plains (thermokarst, heaving mounds) and massifs of semi-fixed sands with aeolian relief.
Transbaikalia- a vast region with complex orography, located to the east of Lake Baikal, from Patom Highlands and North Baikal Highlands in the north to the border with Mongolia and China in the south and to the Argun and Olekma rivers in the east. Stands out in the northeast Stanovoye Highlands, where the Kodar ridge (up to 3072 m) and the South Muya ridge (up to 3067 m) have the maximum heights, which are in contact with the depressions of the rift zone and resemble the mountains of the Baikal region with their appearance. As one moves away from the rift zone, the middle mountains give way to low mountains, and the altitudinal contrasts and steepness of the slopes decrease. The north of the region closes the Patom Highlands (height up to 1771 m) with an ancient folded structure, which is reflected in the orientation of the arcuately curved ridges and the valleys separating them. The central part of Transbaikalia is occupied by Vitim Plateau(height up to 1846 m), consisting of a number of low swell-like ridges of northeast strike. In the southeast, it is continued by a series of extended ridges of a similar appearance, of which the most significant are the Yablonovy Ridge (height up to 1706 m), Tsagan-Khurtei (height up to 1586 m), Chersky (height up to 1644 m), Olekminskiy Stanovik (height up to 1908 m ) and Borshchovochny Ridge(height up to 1498 m). The low mountains are characterized by a wide development of kurum formation processes; there are manifestations of Quaternary volcanism, which left traces in the relief in the form of plateaus and small cones. The appearance of most of the ridges of Southern Transbaikalia is similar. Among the specific relief features, one can note large tectonic depressions occupied by accumulative plains (Gusinoozerskaya depression) and isolated mid-mountain massifs (Sokhondo bald mountains, 2500 m, and Barun-Shabartuy, 2519 m). The exposure asymmetry of the ridges is well expressed, which is associated with the uneven illumination of the ridges. The southern, well-heated, dry and treeless slopes (salt-bakers) are noticeably steeper than the northern, waterlogged and subject to intensive cryogenic processing.
Baikal region- the territory adjacent from the west and east to Lake Baikal (often considered as part of Transbaikalia), unites ridges Primorsky ridge(mountain Three-headed Golets, 1746 m), Baikal Range(mountain Chersky, 2588 m), Khamar-Daban(height up to 2371 m), Barguzinsky ridge(height up to 2841 m) and a number of less significant rises between them. They are characterized by a sharp contact with the Baikal and other rift basins in the form of high, steep tectonic ledges. Peaks up to a height of 1800 m are often flattened, with fragments of primary peneplain. Higher up, traces of glacial processing are noticeable, the highest ridges have the features of an alpine relief with its characteristic sawtooth ridges and cirque modeling of slopes. The high seismicity of the region provokes collapses, landslides, avalanches and mudflows.
Eastern part of the mountains of Southern Siberia confined to the high edge Siberian platform – Aldan-Stanovoi shield, within which the sedimentary cover is either absent or very thin. Most of it is occupied Aldan Highlands. Maximum heights (up to 2306 m) are reached only by free-standing domed peaks, composed of igneous rocks. They rise several hundred meters above the flat interfluves, which are actually a continuation of the southern plateaus of the Central Siberian Plateau. The main complicating element of the relief is the valley-canyons, cutting to a depth of up to 500 m even more ancient crystalline basement rocks. The asymmetric Stanovoy Range stretches along the southern outskirts of the highlands: the northern slope is very gentle, imperceptibly turning into the highlands; the southern one is steep and short, facing the plains and depressions of the Amur region. Sharply prominent mid-mountain massifs (height up to 2256 m) bear traces of glacial processing; in general, low mountains with a nival cryogenic relief of a bald shape prevail. In depressions there are small volcanic cones and lava covers.
Northeast Siberia
General information. The north-east of Siberia is distinguished by extremely complex orography, which is formed by several mountain systems, a number of uplands and plateaus, alternating with vast low-lying plains and numerous depressions. The morphostructure of the region reflects its position at the junction of three lithospheric plates– Eurasian, North American and Pacific: mosaic structure of the earth's crust and a long history of development, during which cardinal rearrangements of tecto- and morphogenesis repeatedly occurred. The last of them were expressed in two main directions of orography. The northwest strike is characteristic of the Arctic coast and inland regions, in which Mesozoic consolidation structures predominate. The northeastern direction is more characteristic of the Pacific coast, where young volcanic formations are widespread and the influence of the Alpine orogeny is strong. For the morphosculpture of the Northeast, the harsh continental climate with long frosty and little snow winters, which determines the widespread development of thick permafrost and the dominance of cryogenic processes, is of decisive importance.
mountain systems(traditionally called ranges) consist of many mountain ranges, massifs and ridges and define the main features of the orography of the inland regions of the Northeast. Their length is up to 1000 km or more. Along the eastern edge Siberian platform in the form of swell-like uplifts stretch Verkhoyansk Range and Sette-Daban, to the east - Chersky Range and Momsky Range. At the heart of the mountain systems lies the thickness of the Paleozoic and Mesozoic sedimentary rocks, crumpled into folds. Low mountains predominate, in the orography of which a folded structure in the form of parallel or echelon-shaped diverging ridges is clearly traced. The ridges are dissected by through valleys, cutting through the mountains in the cross of their strike (antecedent valleys). The middle mountains are confined to the axial zone and have the features of large blocky uplifts. The mountain system of the Suntar-Khayat ridge extending to the southeast orographically continues the Verkhoyansk one, is similar to it in relief, but has a different internal structure. It is composed of Precambrian crystalline rocks. The extended southern spurs descending to the Sea of Okhotsk are overlain by Cenozoic volcanic rocks.
Plateaus and uplands are also characteristic of the inland regions of the Northeast. A strip of relatively reduced relief between the previously mentioned mountain systems is formed by predominantly similar, but less dislocated sedimentary strata. Janskoe Plateau, Elga, Nersk plateaus, Oymyakon Highlands and the Upper Kolyma Highlands. The heights of flat peaks gradually increase from northwest to southeast from 400–600 m to 1000 m or more. The Yukagir Plateau has a different morphostructure, at the base of which lies an ancient crystalline massif covered with layers of sedimentary rocks.
Strip of coastal lowlands(the largest Yano-Indigirskaya lowland and Kolyma lowland- located in the lower reaches of the rivers of the same name) extends in the north of the region, they are composed of a stratum of frozen rocks with a high (up to 90%) degree of ice content (yedoma), formed in the Pleistocene, when low-lying land plains extended to the shelf spaces of modern Arctic seas. Now Yedoma is in a relict state and is intensively destroyed by the processes of thermokarst, thermal erosion and thermal abrasion, which form the characteristic cryogenic relief of the lowlands. Flat areas have absolute elevations of 30–70 m; they are in sharp contrast with isolated hills and ridges (up to 400–500 m high) composed of dense bedrock. Low-lying spaces are also interrupted by large hills: Polusny Ridge and Ulakhan-Sis Ridge, Alazeya Plateau .
Intramountain depressions occupy a special position in the orography and morphostructure of the Northeast. Among them, in size and geodynamics, a system of basins with sharp steep sides is distinguished - the Momo-Selennyakh depression and the Seimchano-Buyunda depression, which continues it in the southeast - the Momsky rift.
Isometric massifs of igneous origin- a distinctive feature of the morphostructure of the Northeast. They can be found almost everywhere, but more often in the axial parts of the ranges, where they are composed of intrusions of predominantly granitoid composition. Isometric massifs rise sharply (by several hundred meters) above the surrounding space and occupy a dominant position in the relief. Most of the middle mountains are confined to them; on the plateaus they form low-mountain ridges, on the plains - remnant uplands. There are also cone-shaped and dome-shaped forms of volcanic origin. Among them are the Balagan-Tas extrusive dome of the Holocene age (northern side of the Momskaya depression) and the Anyui volcano, which erupted in the 18th century. with the formation of a crater and a lava flow that spread down the valley.
Okhotsk-Chukotka volcanogenic belt stretching along the coast Sea of Okhotsk and further to the northeast, expressed in relief as a wide strip of uplands, plateaus, plateaus and ranges with a very diverse relief. Dissected low mountains prevail; there are peaked ridges with a height of more than 2000 m and flat interfluves that preserve fragments of ancient volcanic covers (Olskoe plateau). In some places there are dilapidated volcanic structures of the central type (Russian Mountains) and depressions of various genesis. Among the latter, a rounded depression occupied by Lake Elgygytgyn, of cosmogenic (astroblem) or volcanic (caldera) origin, stands out.
Koryak Highlands, separated from the volcanogenic belt by a strip of intermountain depressions ( Parapolsky Dol and Anadyr lowland), acts as the northernmost morphostructure of the Alpine belt bordering the Pacific Ocean. The orography of the highlands has a centrifugal structure with a gradual increase in height from the periphery to the middle part (Ledyanaya Mountain, 2453 m).
Far East
General information. The territory of the Far East stretches from north to south for more than 4.5 thousand km. It is washed by the waters of the Bering, Okhotsk and Japan Seas of the Pacific Ocean. Includes the Eurasian mainland, the Kamchatka Peninsula. Mostly a mountainous country, the plains occupy small spaces, mainly along the valleys of the Amur and its tributaries.
Kamchatka has a transitional character of relief from the mainland to the ocean, which is emphasized by its isolated peninsular position. It is often included in the Kuril-Kamchatka island arc, which forms above the subduction zone and separates the oceanic (Pacific) and continental (Eurasian) lithospheric plates. The main orographic elements of the peninsula are median ridge(height up to 3607 m) and East Ridge(height up to 2375 m) of fold-block origin. They are separated by the Central Kamchatka lowland, along the western (Okhotsk) coast there is an inclined West Kamchatka lowland, complicated by a series of low anticline ridges. A direct expression of tectonomagmatic processes in the subduction zone is the abundance of volcanic forms of different sizes, morphology, genesis, and age, including modern ones. The largest among them are volcanic ridges and massifs consisting of merged cones. The Klyuchevskaya group of volcanoes stands out with the highest point of the Far East and the entire Asian part of Russia (volcano Klyuchevskaya Sopka). Quite spectacular are the free-standing regular cones of volcanoes Kronotskaya Sopka, Koryakskaya Sopka , Avachinskaya Sopka and a number of others. The tops of volcanoes are usually crowned with explosive funnels - craters. There are a number of large failure basins - calderas. On the periphery, volcanic apparatuses are surrounded by lava plateaus, tuff and ash plains; extrusive domes, cinder cones, and other meso- and microforms of volcanic relief are numerous. The destructive activity of exogenous processes leads to the appearance of gullies - barrancos on the slopes of volcanoes. Many of the cones are crowned with glaciers and bear traces of modern and relict (Pleistocene) glacial processing.
Mainland mountains occupy the narrowest zone on the western coast of the Sea of Okhotsk. Here it is represented by the only Dzhugdzhur mountains, which in general continue the morphostructure Okhotsk-Chukotka volcanoplutonic belt Northeast. south of Verkhnezeya Plain and the Uda depression, the mountain belt expands to 500 km and acquires complex orography. There are predominantly medium-altitude Yam-Alin-Bureinskaya (height up to 2370 m) and low-mountain Nizhneamurskaya (height up to 1573 m) mountainous countries, each of which consists of numerous ridges and massifs. A low-mountain chain formed by the Tukuringra and Dzhagdy ranges extends to the west. The heterogeneous morphostructure of the Far Eastern mountain belt mosaically combines fragments of Paleozoic and Mesozoic folding with the latter predominating, as well as volcanic formations of different ages and large intrusions, mainly of granitoid composition. A characteristic feature of the orography is the abundance of intermountain and intramountain depressions, partly occupied by accumulative plains, partly by reservoirs (lakes) and sea bays. A large submeridional depression stands out - the Evoron-Chukchagir depression, extending from the Amur valley to the Tugur Bay, which is actually a continuation of the depression. In the west, in the Middle Amur region, between the mountains and the Amur valley, there is a large lowered massif with stepped plains - Amur-Zeya Plain and Zeya-Bureya plain. Downstream in the Amur valley, there are a number of extensions of a complex configuration - the Middle Amur and Lower Amur lowlands. Basically, these are flat flood plains with absolute elevations up to 50 m, over which ridges and individual peaks rise, including those of volcanic origin. The final link in the south of the Russian sector of the Far East is the relatively monolithic uplands of Sikhote-Alin. It is characterized by asymmetry: relatively short eastern and extended western macroslopes. However, the heights of the main watershed are not predominant: the highest points belong to the western spurs. The Sikhote-Alin is a typical mid-mountain area with average values of relative heights of ridges over river valleys (300–700 m) and steepness of slopes (7–20º). It is characterized by a hilly relief, consisting of a combination of pyramidal (rarely domed) peaks with smoothed soft outlines. The hills are connected by winding ridges with low, easy-to-travel saddles-passes. An additional element in the landscape of the Sikhote-Alin is made by ancient volcanic structures, concentrated mainly along the coast of the Sea of Japan. They have been preserved in the form of separate cones and basalt plateaus, often dissected by deep canyons.
Islands
In the Arctic and Pacific Oceans and their seas, a large number of islands are concentrated, various in size, position, origin and topography.
Islands of the Arctic Ocean Basin, belonging to Russia, are elevated areas of a vast shelf. The archipelago occupies the extreme northwestern position in the Russian sector of the Arctic. Franz Josef Land, more than 80% of which is hidden under ice sheets. Rare nunataks (height up to 620 m) rise above the surface of the glacier. Other ice-free areas are concentrated in small "Arctic oases" and on the coast. They have a hilly relief with pronounced cryogenic morphosculpture. The Novaya Zemlya archipelago and Vaygach Island, in essence, are the northern continuation of the Ural mountain system. The strip of land 100–140 km wide forms several smooth bends in accordance with the folded Paleozoic structure that composes it. There are many glaciers, especially on Severny Island, where they form an ice sheet. The mountain relief prevails with heights up to 1547 m. The peaks in the elevated mid-mountain axial part are alpine-type, on the low-mountain periphery they are more often plateau-like. The valleys have an emphatically trog-like appearance, often turning into bays - fjords. The exceptions are the hilly plains of the Gusinaya Zemlya Peninsula and the Vaygach Islands. Relic glacial relief in open areas is subjected to intensive cryogenic and nival processing. The archipelago Severnaya Zemlya is geomorphologically closely connected with the adjacent continental land. The ancient (Precambrian) morphostructures of the northern part of Taimyr continue here, which rise to 874 m or more on the mountainous island of Bolshevik. There are ubiquitous traces of glacial processing, which continues under the ice domes. In areas not occupied by glaciers and mountains, plateaus up to 250 m high are common, turning into terraced plains on the shores. Numerous small islands off the coast of the Taimyr Peninsula ( nordenskiöld archipelago, the islands of Sergey Kirov, etc.) are typical rocky skerries. New Siberian Islands(area of over 38 thousand km 2) have a predominantly flat relief (height up to 50–180 m), disturbed by a number of remnant groups (the highest point is Mount De Longa, 426 m). Their relief is similar to the coastal lowlands of the North-East: an abundance of thermokarst forms, polygonal soils, baidzharakhs, characteristic of the icy strata (edom) composing them. A special position is occupied by the recently drained Bunge Land, which now acts as a connecting link between the former islands of Kotelny and Faddeevsky. The sands covering it are exposed to the action of the wind and have an eolian relief. The exception is the group of small De Long Islands, which carry ice domes. Fragments of basalt and sandstone plateaus up to 426 m high are typical for them. The large Wrangel Island (area 7.6 thousand km 2) off the northern coast of Chukotka has a contrasting mountainous relief in its inner parts (up to 1096 m high). In the north and south there are swampy low-lying plains with polygonal relief.
Pacific Islands very diverse in their position, origin and topography. Of the largest within the shelf, it should be noted Karaginsky island(area about 2 thousand km 2; the highest point is Mount High, 920 m) off the eastern coast of Kamchatka and the group of Shantar Islands (area about 2.5 thousand km 2; height up to 720 m) near the western coast of the Sea of Okhotsk. Geomorphologically, they are similar to the adjacent continental land: mountainous, have dense erosional dissection. Commander Islands are the western end of the Aleutian island arc - the surface part of an extended ridge at the bottom of the ocean, surrounded by deep-water depressions. The islands are composed of igneous rocks, in the hilly relief (height up to 631 m) features of partially destroyed volcanic structures are preserved. Similar origin Kuril Islands, forming an arc 1200 km long; the largest are Iturup, Kunashir, Paramushir, etc. They are based on folded volcanic-sedimentary strata of the Mesozoic, over which rise volcanic cones and covers. Many of the volcanoes are active or were active in historical time, they are distinguished by expressive relief forms. There are many cone-shaped buildings of the correct form (maximum height 2339 m - Alaid volcano). Craters and calderas are typical, including those occupied by lakes; other forms and complexes of volcanic relief. The relief of the largest of the islands belonging to Russia - Sakhalin (area 76.4 thousand km 2) is also associated with the latest tectonic movements in the transition zone from the continent to the ocean. Parallel chains stretch along the coast West Sakhalin Mountains and East Sakhalin Mountains, which have a low-mountain appearance and reflect anticlinal structures and uplifts of the Meso-Cenozoic sedimentary strata in the relief. The North Sakhalin Plain is also subject to folded deformations, where the corresponding swell-like uplands and depressions are distinguished. The relict volcanic morphostructure in the form of low plateaus and buildings of the central type is common on the western coast of the island. The mountainous regions have a dense erosional dissection, and the intensity of avalanche processes is very high there, significantly modeling the relief of the slopes. (On the relief of the bottom of the seas, see the article
The Far East is truly a mountainous country. About 75% of the territory is occupied by mountains, uplands and plateaus. With a large area of the region, medium-high or low mountains prevail here. Only a few ranges reach a height of 2000 m. In the south of the region there are two well-known mountain systems Khingano-Bureinskaya and Sikhote-Alin. The Dzhugdzhur Ridge is located along the Sea of Okhotsk. A chain of ridges Yankan-Tukuringra - Dzhagdy stretched to the north, and even to the north - a stanovoy ridge. The ridges of the Khingan-Bureinsky massif, Stanovoy and Dzhugdzhur are characterized by steep rocky slopes and treeless galtz peaks. The highest point (2639 m) is located in the Badzhal Range. The highest point of Sikhote-Alin is Mount Tardoki-Yani. Its height is 2077 m and it is located in the north of the Khabarovsk Territory.
The relief of the Far East was formed in the Mesozoic and Cenozoic periods. It was then that characteristic folded zones and intermountain depressions formed. The ocean also had a significant impact on the relief. So, for example, land areas - Sakhalin Island and the Kuril Islands were then under water. Only later these territories appeared on the surface, where they are still. From west to east, the nature of the morphostructures of the Far East changes from older to younger, and from folded-blocky to folded and blocky-folded. The highest sections of the mountains: the ridges of Dzhagdy, Bureinsky, Badzhalsky, Sikhote-Alin. There used to be glaciers here. Today, hills, kars and trogs testify to this.
The Far East of the CIS, commonly referred to as the Far East, is characterized by the predominance of uplands, which account for over 80% of the area. The Far East includes the Koryak Range and the Kamchatka Peninsula, the northern coast of the Sea of Okhotsk (to the west of the southern tip of the Kolyma Highlands), the Dzhugdzhur Range, the Amur Region, bounded in the north by the Tukuringra-Dzhagdy Ranges, the Bureinsky Range, Sikhote-Alin, Sakhalin Island, arcs Kuril Islands and a number of lowlands - depressions that have experienced subsidence (Anadyr, Penzhinskaya, etc.). A significant part of these territories was subjected to mountain building in the era of Alpine folding. At the same time, the bottom of the adjacent modern seas was sagging.
The Koryak mountains are the result of Alpine folding. They are characterized by a strong manifestation of volcanism in the past. The mountains consist of parallel chains with a height of 1000 to 1500 m (the highest peak is Mount Ledyanaya - 2562 m above sea level), separated by intermountain depressions. In the south, one of the chains almost touches the Sredinny Kamchatka Range, separated from it by the narrow Parapolsky Valley (up to 10 km wide). The Koryak mountains are characterized by the alpine nature of the relief.
To the north of the Koryaksky mountains is the vast Anadyr lowland with absolute and relative heights of less than 100 m.
In the river basin Penzhina is located Penzhina lowland with absolute heights of no more than 200 m.
The northern coast of the Sea of Okhotsk is filled with mountain ranges, strongly dissected by the valleys of numerous rivers. The slopes of the ridges descend steeply to the sea, the average height of the mountains ranges from 500 to 1500 m. The highest point is in the upper reaches of the Maimakan River - up to 2264 m above sea level. The highest point of the Dzhugdzhur ridge is 1906 m above sea level.
The Amur-Primorekaya region is located in the south of the Far East. The relief of the region is characterized by the presence of mountain ranges of various directions: from close to meridional (Sikhote-Alin ridge) to latitudinal (Tukuringra-Dzhagdy ridge system).
All mountain systems belong mainly to the Mesozoic folding, complicated in the extreme east by the manifestation of the Alpine orogeny.
The system of ridges Tukuringra-Dzhagdy stretches from west to east for a distance of over 800 km. Chains of goltsovy ridges predominate, the highest point reaches 1606 m above sea level. The general appearance of the entire mountain system is soft, the outlines are smooth, there are a number of pass depressions, the ridges are flat-topped, the slopes are gentle.
To the south of the mountain system is the slightly dissected Zeya-Bureya plain with surface elevations from 150 to 400 m above sea level. The Khingan-Bureinskoye highland, consisting of a number of meridional ridges, adjoins the eastern edge of the plain. The largest of them is Bureinsky, stretching from the valley of the Amur River to the north and northeast, where its height reaches 2071 m above sea level. In the west, the highlands are limited by the Turan range. The eastern spurs of the Bureinsky Range, descending, pass into a vast tectonic depression, known as the Khanka-Ussuri and Lower Amur lowlands. The relief of the lowlands is flat, the height of the surface is from 10-20 to 100 m above sea level; by genesis, these are young lacustrine-alluvial plains. Thick strata of alluvial deposits cover the irregularities of the primary relief. Low-mountain massifs and ridges are located in the marginal and internal parts of the Lower Amur Lowland. The lowland is about 600 km long and up to 200 km wide. The Khanka-Ussuri lowland is characterized by terraces that record the past levels of Lake Khanka.
Ridge Dzhugdzhur:
Location: Russia
Age: 150-100 million years.
| Name | Length, km. | Highest point | |
| Ridge Dzhugdzhur | 700 | Summit 1925 | 1 925 |
| Topko | 1 906 | ||
| Summit 1903 | 1 903 |
Mountains of the Amur region:
Location: Russia
Age: 300-150 million years.
| Name | Length, km. | Highest point | Height above sea level, m |
| Amur Mountains | 2340 | Pinnacle 2370 | 2 370 |
| Chernyshev Ridge | 120 | Lukinda | 1 571 |
| Yankan Ridge | 100 | Pinnacle 1334 | 1 334 |
| Tukuringra Range | 230 | Summit 1604 | 1 604 |
| Soktakhan Range | 110 | Bekeldeul | 1 470 |
| Dzhagdy Ridge | 200 | Summit 1604 | 1 604 |
| Turan Ridge | 300 | Wed. Nanaki | 1 806 |
| Selemdzhinsky Range | 200 | Yam-Alin | 2 100 |
| Ridge Yam-Alin | 180 | Pinnacle 2370 | 2 370 |
| Aesop Range | 150 | Summit 1902 | 1 902 |
| Bureinsky Range | 400 | Vertex 2167 | 2 167 |
| Badzhal Range | 200 | Summit 2221 | 2 221 |
| Kukan Ridge | 150 | Pinnacle 1288 | 1 288 |
Mountains of Primorye:
Location: Russia, China
Age: 150-100 million years.
Sakhalin island:
Location: Russia
Age: about 30 million years.
Koryak Highlands:
Location: Russia
Age: 150-100 million years.
| Name | Length, km. | Highest point | Height above sea level, m |
| Koryak Highlands | 880 | Ledyanaya | 2 453 |
Peninsula Kamchatka:
Location: Russia
Age: about 30 million years.
Kuril Ridge, Garland of Islands:
Location: Russia, Japan
Age: about 30 million years.
| Name | Length, km. | Highest point | Height above sea level, m |
| Kurile Islands: | 1300 | Volk. Alaid | 2 339 |
| Great Kuril Ridge | 1200 | Volk. Alaid | 2 339 |
| O. Atlasova | - | Volk. Alaid | 2 339 |
| O. Kunashir | - | Volk. tyatya | 1 819 |
| O. Paramushir | - | Volk. Chikurachki | 1 816 |
| O. Iturup | - | Volk. Stockup | 1 634 |
| O. Simushir | - | Milna | 1 539 |
| O. Matua | - | Volk. Sarychev | 1 446 |
| O. Urup | - | g. High | 1 426 |
| O. Onekotan | - | Volk. Krenitsyn | 1 324 |
| O. Ekarma | - | Volk. Ekarma | 1 170 |
| O. Macanrushi | - | Macanrushi | 1 169 |
| O. Ketoi | - | Ketoy | 1 166 |
| O. Harimkotan | - | Volk. Severgin | 1 157 |
| Small Kuril Ridge | 100 | Shikotan | 412 |
| O. Shikotan | - | Shikotan | 412 |
| O. Yuri | - | Bezymyanny | 44 |
| O. Anuchin | - | Bezymyanny | 33 |
| O. Green | - | Bezymyanny | 24 |
