Russian lunar exploration program. lunar station lunar station
Image copyright RIA Novosti Image caption Exploration of the moon is an attractive topic for politicians, but there is no money for this in the budget yet
Russia is developing a project for a lunar habitable base. It is not part of the state program; it is prepared by the Central Research Institute of Mechanical Engineering.
There is little information about the appearance of the lunar station - representatives of the Federal State Unitary Enterprise TsNIIMash told in an interview with several Russian publications that at first it will be designed for two to four people, in the future - for 10-12.
The technical parameters, in particular, the source of energy and the location, have not yet been finally determined, although it is known that the possibility of placing it on the South Pole of the Moon is being considered.
The idea of building a station on the moon has been discussed at the government level for a long time, at least this has been talked about a lot in recent years by Deputy Prime Minister Dmitry Rogozin and other government officials.
However, what sounds good in the speeches of politicians is quite difficult to put into practice. There is no money for such an ambitious project in Russia, and experts believe that there is no reason to seriously expect that it will be implemented in the coming decades.
Not to the moon
How much a lunar program can cost is hard to say for sure. As stated, presenting the federal space program, the head of Roskosmos Igor Komarov, necessary for such a program, can be equal to the ten-year space budget of Russia. The development of the rocket itself alone would cost $10 billion, and a single launch would cost a billion dollars.
The American Apollo program, whose goal was to put astronauts on the moon in the late 1960s and early 1970s, cost $200 billion in today's dollars. And this is only to land 12 people on the surface of the Earth's satellite - that is, to implement only the first stage of the program for its development.
In Roskosmos, which is undergoing a period of deep reform and which Last year it was necessary with great difficulty to optimize the federal space program for a more than halved budget, they are skeptical about the exploration of the moon.
Direct preparation for the flight and landing of a man on the moon (not even for the construction of a base) with the reduction of the FKP was moved beyond the program, which is valid until 2025.
Image copyright getty Image caption The American Apollo program cost $200 billion today.Over the past months, the plan has changed several times, and even adopted program was subsequently corrected - first in the part devoted to the development of the Vostochny cosmodrome, where there was no plan to build a launch pad for a super-heavy rocket.
In May, these plans were revised. It was announced that a third table for a super-heavy rocket would be built on Vostochny, which, however, will only begin to be created in the next 10 years. It is not known when this site will be built.
The head of the Space Policy Institute, Ivan Moiseev, in an interview with the BBC Russian Service, said that he considers such decisions to be political. "This goes beyond the horizon of the [FKP] program, and when it comes to the implementation of such political decisions, it turns out that there is not enough money for this," he said.
As the head of Roscosmos, Igor Komarov, said earlier, it is too expensive to create a superheavy carrier only for the lunar program, and there will be no commercial load for it in astronautics.
"Under the existing agreements, which I hope will be maintained, on the use of outer space and the limitation of weapons, there will be no need for payloads, including for military purposes," he said in March.
By the whole world
The station on the moon is not only an occasion for high-profile political statements, it also has a practical meaning.
Astronautics around the world is striving for planetary exploration solar system, with the first of these likely to be Mars.
The moon in such a situation could become a kind of springboard in the literal and figurative sense. Firstly, you can build a base on it to send ships to other planets, and secondly, during flights to the Earth's satellite, you can test technologies for such expeditions.
In addition, scientists say that telescopes can be built on the moon to study deep space and implement other scientific programs.
The current project of TsNIIMash is by no means the first and not the only one. Lunar station project, for example, DLR in Cologne.
Igor Komarov, presenting the federal space program to journalists in March, said that large space projects should be developed in cooperation with other countries.
Roscosmos and the European Space Agency are already preparing a series of launches of unmanned vehicles that will explore the South Pole of the Moon in order to study the place where, according to experts,.
However, according to Ivan Moiseev, "between an automatic interplanetary station of any type and a base there is a huge distance of decades and many tens of billions of dollars," and these preparatory flights do not mean that things will come to colonization.
Image copyright RIA Novosti Image caption The USSR had extensive experience in building super-heavy rockets, but the lunar N-1 never took off, and Energia's super-carrying capacity was never useful in national economyIn company with NASA
According to Moiseev, today the only country capable of implementing the moon colonization program alone is the United States, and the issue of Russia's participation in this program will have to be resolved with the future American president.
According to the expert, this is not only a political issue. “There is a whole range of issues here, including politics, economics, and technology. It will not work to consider prospects for only one of these issues,” he believes.
However, as Scott Pace, director of the American Space Policy Institute in Washington DC, told the BBC last February, NASA is now pursuing a policy of space exploration, relying mainly on its own forces (which, in his opinion, is not true).
“When NASA announced that it was going to send a manned expedition to Mars, many foreign space agencies made it clear that they were too tough to participate in such a program. international cooperation- the most important resource in modern world", - he said.
distant future
The task of building a lunar base, according to many experts (), is not as urgent as creating, for example, a large satellite orbital constellation.
But other experts are convinced that large and ambitious tasks can be a good incentive for the development of the space industry.
“We have a certain development-related stagnation in world astronautics, we have largely stopped at the milestone that humanity reached 40 years ago. From this point of view, engaging in lunar programs or Martian programs is better than modernizing rockets or space ships developed in the 60s and 70s. But lunar projects have not yet been substantiated in any way. The state will act as an investor in these projects, and it must understand why and in what it invests, "corresponding member said in an interview with Kommersant Russian Academy cosmonautics Andrey Ionin.
An expert in the field of astronautics Vadim Lukashevich said in an interview with the BBC that it is impossible to dream of banning TsNIIMash engineers, they will develop similar projects of lunar stations on their own initiative, but it is difficult to expect that they will come to fruition. Such projects, according to him, are created "on the table."
"TsNIIMash should have some developments. So that if in five years the government says that it wants to raise astronautics, that it has money, and what does TsNIIMash have interesting? Then they take it off the shelf - here, here and here," - he says.
ADELAIDE (Australia), September 27 - RIA Novosti. The space agencies of Russia and the United States have agreed to create a new Deep Space Gateway space station in orbit of the moon, said Igor Komarov, head of Roscosmos, at the International Astronautical Congress 2017, which is taking place in Australia.
China, India, as well as other BRICS countries can take part in the project.
"We agreed that we will jointly participate in the project to create a new international circumlunar station Deep Space Gateway. At the first stage, we will build the orbital part with further perspective application of proven technologies on the surface of the Moon and subsequently on Mars. The output of the first modules is possible in 2024-2026," Komarov said.
Russian contribution
According to the head of Roskosmos, the parties have already discussed a possible contribution to the creation of a new station. Thus, Russia can create from one to three modules and standards for a unified docking mechanism for all ships that will arrive at the Deep Space Gateway, and also proposes using a super-heavy launch vehicle currently being created to launch structures into a lunar orbit.
Director of Roskosmos for manned programs Sergey Krikalev added that Russia could also develop a habitable module.
The specific technological and financial contribution of all participants in the creation of the Deep Space Gateway will be discussed at the next stage of negotiations, Komarov noted. According to him, a joint statement of intent to work on the circumlunar station project has now been signed, but the agreement itself requires serious study already at state level. In this regard, the Federal Space Program for 2016-2025 will be reviewed.
“We hope to present an interesting and important program, prove its necessity and provide funding. We have an understanding and hope to partially find external sources of financing for this program. But at the same time, the main task is state funding,” said the general director of Roskosmos.
The need for unification
Komarov noted that at least five world space agencies are working on the creation of their own spacecraft and systems, therefore, in order to avoid problems in the future in matters of technical interaction, part of the standards should be unified.
Some key standards, in particular the docking station, will be based on Russian developments, he added.
“Given the number of dockings that we have carried out and the experience that we have, there is no equal to Russia in this direction. Therefore, this standard will be as close as possible to the Russian one. Also, on the basis of Russian developments, a standard for life support systems will be developed,” said head of Roskosmos.
Krikalev, for his part, explained that the docking standards will contain uniform requirements for the dimensions of the parts of the docking station.
“The most developed option is the gateway module, the dimensions of the elements of the residential module can also be unified. As for carriers, new elements can be displayed both on American SLS carriers and on the Russian Proton or Angara,” he said.
The creation of the Deep Space Gateway will open up new opportunities for using the capacities of the Russian industry, and the developments of RSC Energia can play a serious role here, Komarov concluded.
Roskosmos is preparing to participate in the construction of the Deep Space Gateway (DSG) near-lunar visited station, proposed by NASA. The idea is to create a multi-module visited station in a halo orbit several thousand kilometers from the Moon. Such a station should become a new laboratory for the study of cosmic effects and a support for further research manned flights to the Moon and Mars.
The project was presented to NASA in March 2017, when the course to the Moon of the new administration of US President Donald Trump became apparent. NASA, under Barack Obama, abandoned the idea of reaching the Moon and designated Mars as a goal with a transitional stage of visiting a near-Earth asteroid - the Asteroid Redirect Mission. In view of the complexity and, most importantly, the duration of the outlined strategy, the approach of the new president is aimed at bringing some significant results closer. First, he launched people to the moon immediately in the first test flight of the SLS rocket and the Orion spacecraft in 2019, but technical experts dissuaded - the risk is high.
It is easier to launch from the Moon to Mars. If you assemble a Martian ship in a near-lunar halo orbit, gradually bringing up fuel tanks and structural elements, you can save up to a third of the mass of fuel for a flight, compared to starting from low Earth orbit. You can achieve even greater savings if you take part of the station in the form of a compartment of a Martian ship.
Do not forget the political motive. Today, the main foreign policy adversary of the United States is China. And he is already approaching the creation of his own near-Earth station. Therefore, it is important for the United States to emphasize the continued technological superiority, the lunar station is excellent for this, and here Russia, Europe and Japan are simply helping in this.
What is Russia's interest here?
Despite the political differences between Russia and the United States, common sense, backed by economic motives, has prevailed in the Russian space industry. For Roscosmos, cooperation with NASA in the 90s under the Mir program, and in the 2000s under the ISS program, practically ensured the safety and high level manned astronautics. The ISS project has now been extended until 2024, and after it no one could name a worthy and at the same time feasible goal for the budget. Despite the declared lunar ambitions, as soon as money was discussed during the adoption of the Federal Space Program for 2015-2025, the first thing that went under the knife was a super-heavy rocket, without which reaching the Moon is extremely difficult. There was hope for a four-launch scheme with the Angara A5V, but it had to be forgotten when it became clear that there was no other demand for this rocket, and there would be only one launch pad on Vostochny. Only the developments of the interplanetary spacecraft "Federation" were able to save, but without the "Angara-A5V" it is doomed to near-Earth flights, which are now dominated by the ready-to-work Soyuz-MS.
Even assuming that there was money in the budget for a super-heavy rocket, is it worth tearing the industry up for ten years in order to repeat Armstrong's walk 60 years ago? And then what? Curtail all work and forget how the United States did in the 70s?
As a result, until yesterday, Roskosmos was in a stalemate - it makes little sense to fly to the Moon, and it only makes sense to fly near the Earth to the ISS, which will end soon. But with the entry into the lunar partnership, everything changes.
First, there are again opportunities to receive orders for the development and operation of technology for NASA. Secondly, a long-term meaning appears in a superheavy rocket and interplanetary flights, because we do not just fly for self-affirmation, but fly to work to develop technology and advance humanity into deep space, and to a large extent not at our own expense. Thirdly, the industry receives such a long-awaited new impetus for development: finally, there is a sense in the Federation spacecraft, new station modules, life support systems, space suits, instruments, lunar satellites, lunar rovers ... Young teams can finally realize themselves not in repeating Soviet schemes , but to bring something of their own at the modern level.
The participation of Roscosmos also helps NASA. Programs that NASA tried to develop alone: Constellation, Asteroid Redirect Mission, were very vulnerable to changes in domestic policy. The international partnership imposes mutual obligations and the refusal of a project acquires not only an economic, but also a political color, and here no one wants to lose extra points. This also applies to Russian international programs.
So, despite the predominant participation of the United States in the DSG project, the partners' dependence here is mutual, which, in fact, is called cooperation in space exploration. This can only be welcomed.
As a goal for the next thirty or forty years, Russia chooses the Moon. What will be the domestic lunar program? Numerous draft documents and proposals from leading space companies and industry institutes helped to put together the "puzzle" of disparate proposals into a single picture.
Development of a national strategy for the development of our natural satellite was the topic of the round table "Study of the nearest planets of the solar system on the example of the exploration of the surface of the moon", which was held in mid-October 2014 in the TASS conference hall. Representatives of the Federal Space Agency, RSC Energia, IKI RAS, NPO named after S.A. Lavochkin, TsNIIMash and the Keldysh Center. Additional Information about the Russian lunar program was presented at the Fifth International Moscow Symposium on Solar System Research, held at the Space Research Institute (IKI) on October 13–17.
Science and life // Illustrations
Science and life // Illustrations
Modeling of the lunar base "Moon seven" on the panoramic system of virtual reality of the Faculty of Mechanics and Mathematics of Moscow State University. M. V. Lomonosov. Drawing "Lin Industrial" and the Mehmat of Moscow State University.
Stages and conditions for the implementation of the lunar program. Federal Space Agency.
The first stage of the Russian lunar program. Federal Space Agency.
Elements of a promising manned lunar infrastructure. Federal Space Agency.
A ship for delivering the crew to lunar orbit with an upper stage. Federal Space Agency.
Lunar infrastructure of the third stage of RSC Energia
Science and life // Illustrations
At the beginning of next year, the Federal Space Program (FSP) for 2016-2025 should be approved. Projects and research that fall into it will receive funding in the next decade. Of course, changes can be made in the course of work, but usually they are associated with the timing of implementation, and not with an increase in allocated funds. Plans beyond the FSF 2016–2025 are considered in two additional documents: Concepts for the National Program for the Exploration of the Moon and the Long-Term Program for Deep Space Exploration. These documents have not yet been adopted and are in the process of being finalized.
First the machines...
At the first stage (in FKP 2016–2025 it is registered), our natural satellite is going to be studied only with the help of automatic stations. Unlike the expeditions of the 1970s, new domestic lunar stations must land in the polar region of the moon.
There were no national expeditions to the Selena in Russia for a very long time - almost forty years. The last Soviet lunar lander, Luna-24, completed the task of delivering soil in August 1976. The participation of Russian scientists in foreign lunar programs has so far been limited to the installation of the LEND (Lunar Exploration Neutron Detector) neutron detector on the American probe Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO). The domestic device recorded dips in neutron radiation initiated by cosmic rays in the upper layer of the lunar surface. Such dips indicate the presence of hydrogen in the lunar soil. Of course, these may be its various compounds, but other indirect data, in particular, observations of absorption lines made by American scientists using the Indian Chandrayaan-1 probe, confirm that this is most likely water ice.
To obtain evidence of the presence of water ice in the lunar soil, NASA scientists conducted an interesting experiment: the fall upper stage(RB) Centaur to the Cabeus crater area, where neutron detector data indicated the presence of hydrogen. After the collision of the RB with the Moon, a cloud of dust rose. The LCROSS mini-probe flying behind the Centaurus ( Lunar C Rater Observation and Sensing Satellite- A spacecraft for observing and probing lunar craters) flew through it and registered the presence of about 150 kg of water in the form of steam and ice in a raised cloud. This made it possible to estimate the mass fraction of ice in the regolith at approximately 2.7–8.5%.
Measurements of the neutron radiation of the Moon before LRO were also carried out by the Clementine and Lunar Prospector spacecraft, but their instruments did not provide high spatial resolution. They only pointed out that the dips in neutron emission are roughly related to polar craters. The LRO data showed that neutron emission dips are recorded both inside the craters and in their vicinity. This may mean that there are reserves of water ice not only in "cold traps" - craters where the Sun never looks - but also nearby. How they got there is not entirely clear. Astrophysicists suggest that there is a mechanism for the migration of water molecules due to their knocking out by solar wind ions.
The fact remains: there is water ice on the surface - where there is sunlight! For planning future lunar missions, this is fundamentally important - it is very difficult to create a probe that will work in a permanent shadow. It would have to be powered by powerful isotopic energy sources and somehow communicate with the Earth after landing in the "pit". Previously, when scientists hoped to find ice only in "cold traps", the practical benefits of such a find were not obvious. It is difficult to build a lunar settlement in a shaded crater and it is not easy to organize an automatic expedition there. When ice was also discovered around the craters, the idea immediately arose that research could be carried out in the foreseeable future by a direct method - by landing spacecraft.
So, according to the new Federal Space Program, in 2019 the Luna-25 probe (or Luna-Glob) should land on the moon in the Boguslavsky crater, which is located in the southern polar region of the Moon. The device will be launched by the Soyuz-2.1A rocket, the dry mass of the spacecraft will be 533 kg, the total weight will be 1450 kg. Payload weight (including a manipulator for taking soil samples) - 30 kg.
Luna 25 is a prototype probe for training. According to CEO NPO named after S.A. Lavochkin Viktor Vladimirovich Khartov, “you need to re-learn how to land on the moon.” As part of the project, landing systems and ensuring work on the surface will be worked out. Despite the test character, the mission is unique: unlike the Soviet probes, the Russian automatic station will land not in the equatorial, but in the polar region of the Moon, which is very interesting for scientists.
It is very likely that Russia will lose the lead in the new "lunar race" to the lunar poles. In 2016-2017 (two or three years earlier than Luna-25), the Indian mission Chandrayan-2 will launch, which will include an orbiter weighing approximately 1400 kg and a descent module (1250 kg), including a small rover (300 -100 kg). The vicinity of the south pole of the moon was chosen as the landing site for the Chandrayaan-2 descent vehicle.
At the end of 2015 or at the beginning of 2016, Chinese specialists will try to deliver the second Chinese lunar rover (mission 嫦娥四号 - "Chang'e-4"), and automatic delivery is planned for 2017-2018 lunar soil. Judging by the information available to date, the landings of Chinese vehicles will be carried out far from the polar regions. However, the plans of the Middle Kingdom may well change.
The issue of funding a European landing project in the polar region of the Moon - Lunar Lander - was considered in 2012, but no money was allocated. Europe is still focused on joint exploration of the moon with Russia.
The landing of the device will take place in a passive mode, the dimensions of the landing ellipse will be 15 by 30 km and will be determined by the accuracy of the pre-landing trajectory of the device. The probe must work on the lunar surface for at least a year. On board, scientific experiments will be held to study the features of the polar regolith and the polar exosphere of our natural satellite. The device will be equipped with a manipulator for opening the top soil layer in the landing area, for moving soil samples into the onboard mass spectrometer, for pointing the onboard infrared spectrometer and TV camera at the most interesting surface areas in the vicinity of the landing site. The probe will experimentally measure the content of water and other volatile compounds in the surface layer.
The next vehicle, the orbital Luna-26 (or Luna-Resource-1 orbital), is scheduled to launch in 2021. If something goes wrong, it is planned to repeat the mission in two years - in 2023. The dry weight of the apparatus is 1035 kg, the total weight is 2100 kg. Payload weight - 160 kg. The launch is also with the help of the Soyuz-2.1A launch vehicle.
The Luna-26 spacecraft will explore the Moon from a polar orbit, which will make it possible to conduct a global survey of the entire surface and detailed studies of the regions of the poles. The period of operation in lunar orbit will be at least three years. During the first stage, geophysical studies of the Moon, the lunar exosphere and the surrounding plasma will be carried out in working orbits of 100x150 km and 50x100 km. At the second stage, the apparatus will be transferred to the third working orbit of 500–700 km for physical research on the search for and registration of cosmic particles of the highest possible energies - the LORD experiment (lunar orbital radio detector).
In addition, the orbiter will serve as a repeater for the next mission, Luna-27 (or Luna-Resource-1 landing), which is scheduled for 2023. If the 2023 mission fails, the landing will be repeated in 2025.
The probe "Luna-27" (it will also be launched by "Soyuz-2.1A") will be heavier than the test "Luna-25": the dry mass of the device will be 810 kg, the total weight - 2200 kg. The payload mass will reach 200 kg, including a European drill for "cryogenic" (not evaporating "volatile" substances from the soil) drilling. This spacecraft will land on the moon in the most promising region of the South Pole for further research and will ensure the implementation of the scientific research program for a period of at least one year. The possibility of placing a mini-rover on Luna-27 is being considered.
The Luna-27 apparatus is to be created on the basis of on-board systems and technical solutions worked out in the Luna-25 project. His main feature will be the use of a high-precision landing system with the possibility of avoiding obstacles in the final section of the descent. This system will reduce the margin of error in the position of the landing point on the lunar surface to a size of the order of several hundred meters. Due to the high accuracy of the descent, the landing area of Luna-27 will be chosen based on the criteria of maximum convenience for priority scientific research.
The second feature of Luna-27 will be the use of both a direct radio communication system with ground stations and an independent VHF communication channel with the Luna-26 lunar polar satellite. The VHF channel will be used during the landing phase of the probe to transmit to the orbiter telemetric on-board information about the operation of all systems and the properties of the surface in the landing area. In the event of an emergency or an accident during landing, this information will allow you to fully restore the complete picture of the process and find out the cause of the failure.
The third important feature of the Luna-27 project is a cryogenic soil sampling device, which will make it possible to take samples of the lunar polar regolith from a depth of 10–20 cm to 2 meters and determine the nature of the distribution of volatile compounds in depth.
A radio beacon will be installed on board the Luna-27 probe, and it will be possible to continue its operation after the completion of the research program on board. To do this, the power supply of the radio beacon will be transferred to a direct connection to the onboard radioisotope generator.
It is planned that Luna-27 will be created with significant participation of ESA: many on-board systems, including high-precision landing, will be built by European specialists.
The last lunar station laid down in the FKP 2016-2025 is Luna-28 (Luna-Resource-2, or Luna-Grunt). The mass of the probe will be about 3000 kg, payload - 400 kg. He will probably go to the Moon in 2025 using the Angara-A5 rocket with an oxygen-kerosene upper stage DM-03. The main goal of Luna-28 is delivery to terrestrial scientific centers samples of lunar matter from the vicinity of the south pole.
The Luna-29 probe, a large lunar rover with a “cryogenic” drill, is not included in the FKP 2016–2025, which means that it will be implemented only in the second half of the 2020s.
In addition to the creation of automatic interplanetary stations, at the first stage of the lunar program, numerous research projects will be carried out on the topic of the lunar transport system and lunar infrastructure. Funding for them is included in the FKP. It also provides for the allocation of funds for the development of a super-heavy rocket: only for development - but not the creation "in metal"!
... and later on a person
As stipulated in the Federal Space Program 2016-2025, flight tests of the new Russian spacecraft PTK NP (New Generation Manned Transport Vehicle) will begin in 2021. In 2021-2023, the new spacecraft will launch twice to the ISS in an unmanned version. It is supposed to be put into orbit by means of the Angara-A5 launch vehicle (perhaps in a "shortened" version - without URM II).
According to the FKP 2016-2025, in 2024 the PTK NP should go into space for the first time in a manned version and deliver astronauts to the ISS or to the so-called Advanced Manned Orbital Infrastructure (POI). The PPOI presumably consists of one scientific and energy module, a nodal module, an inflatable residential (“transformable”) module, a slipway module and one or two free-flying OKA-T-2 modules.
In addition, as part of the PTK NP tests, the possibility of an unmanned flight around the Moon is being considered. The slides presented by RSC Energia indicate the dates for such a mission - 2021, and also show a two-launch scheme: one Angara-A5 launch vehicle puts into orbit an oxygen-kerosene upper stage DM-03, equipped with a docking station and a docking system , and second - spaceship.
An elementary calculation shows that according to such a scheme, DM-03 can send a payload weighing no more than 10-11 tons around the Moon. It is not clear how industry experts are going to solve this problem - whether they will use the PTK "lunar version" propulsion system for additional acceleration NP or will they be limited to flying in a highly elliptical orbit, “not reaching” the Moon?
Judging by the slides of RSC Energia, manned flybys of the Moon on the PTK NP should take place as early as 2024. However, in the FKP 2016–2025, flight tests of the lunar version of the PTK NP are laid down only for 2025. And there are incredibly many such discrepancies in the proposals of enterprises, the federal program and concepts. Documents resemble a patchwork quilt, not a single finished plan.
In addition, as shown on the slides, in 2023 (in the "concept of the lunar program" other dates are named - 2025) it is planned to send a prototype tug with low-thrust engines and a large cargo container (cargo - 10 tons) into the lunar orbit: will it be "nuclear tug" or something equipped with large solar panels? The first option seems more logical, but the slides show the second one - with solar panels. Probably, the prototype will have a power of 0.3–0.5 MW, which is 2–3 times less than the megawatt complex.
As already mentioned, Russia's lunar plans are not limited to FKP 2016-2025. Scientists and engineers in the space industry are also trying to develop a long-term concept for a national program for the exploration of the moon until 2050.
Lunar orbital station, outpost and base
In accordance with the Concept of the National Program for the Exploration of the Moon, flights of a super-heavy rocket with a payload of about 80–90 tons in low Earth orbit should begin as early as 2026. It should be noted that other sources give more realistic dates for the first launch of the "heavyweight" - 2028-2030. In the first flight, the new launch vehicle, using new powerful upper stages, will send an unmanned PTK NP into orbit around the Moon.
At the end of 2027, a large megawatt-class space tug with low-thrust engines should bring a cargo weighing 20 tons to the lunar orbit in 7–8 months. Moreover, the tug itself is launched by a super-heavy rocket, and the cargo is launched by the Angara-A5. The cargo could be a lunar orbital station module or a heavy probe/landing science platform.
The Luna-Orbit program is planned for the period from 2028 to 2030. A reusable automatic lunar spacecraft (MLAK) "Corvette" will be sent to the natural satellite of the Earth, and a tanker with fuel for its refueling will be sent to the circumlunar orbit. The probe will be able to deliver soil samples from the surface to the PTK NP (which will be in lunar orbit). There are various versions of the program, in particular, involving the use of lunar rovers.
The next stage in the exploration of the Moon, after 2030, is likely to be the construction of a station in lunar orbit. The station will consist of power (launch in 2028), hub (2029), residential (2030) and storage (2031) modules. The operating mode of the mini-station is a visit. Its main tasks are to provide comfortable living conditions for astronauts while working in orbit around the Moon and logistical support for lunar missions. Starting from 2037, it will be necessary to replace the station modules that have exhausted their resource.
Long-awaited manned flights with astronauts landing on the lunar surface are also planned after 2030. The first launches will be carried out according to a two-launch scheme with separate launching of bundles from upper stages and a lunar takeoff and landing ship, as well as upper stages and a manned spacecraft. If this option is approved, then Russian cosmonauts will set foot on the lunar surface for the first time 15 years after the start of the lunar program and 62 years after the historic flight of Apollo 11.
One manned flight to the Moon per year is envisaged. With the commissioning in 2038 of the super-heavy class PH with a carrying capacity of 150-180 tons, flights will be carried out according to a single launch scheme with an increase in frequency to two or three per year.
According to the Long-Term Program for the Exploration of Deep Space, in parallel with manned expeditions, the deployment of the so-called "lunar test site" in the southern polar region of the Moon will begin. It will include automatic scientific instruments, telescopes, prototype devices for the use of lunar resources, etc. The polygon will include a small lunar base - an outpost. The outpost is intended for the life of the crew during a short-term (up to 14 days) stay on the lunar surface. The outpost will probably include modules: energy (launch in 2033), hub (2034), residential (2035), laboratory (2036) and warehouse (2037). The modules will be created based on the experience of operating a circumlunar orbital station.
The construction of a large lunar base is planned only for the 40s of the 21st century. The modular composition of the base will be similar to the composition of the outpost, but it will ensure the life of the astronauts for a longer period and have increased radiation protection.
In the 2050s, on the basis of lunar experience, and possibly lunar resources, a flight to Mars will be undertaken. And before that time, before 2050, it is planned to deliver soil from Phobos (the mission "Phobos-Grunt-2", or "Boomerang", has already been laid down in the FKP 2016-2025 and is scheduled for 2024-2025) and Mars (2030-2035). years), to create an assembly complex at the Lagrange point for reusable ships that will fly along the Earth-Mars route, to build a fleet of "nuclear tugs" with an electric power of 4 MW and more.
The creators of the Long Term Program estimated the cost of exploration of the Moon. According to their calculations, in the period from 2014 to 2025, the annual costs will amount to from 16 to 320 billion rubles (in total, about 2 trillion rubles will be spent during this period) and will be determined mainly by the costs of creating ships, habitable modules, interorbital tugs and means excretion.
In the next decade (2026-2035), when, in addition to the development and flight testing of space vehicles involved in the implementation of the lunar program, the intensive operation of space systems will begin, the annual costs will be from 290 to 690 billion rubles (peak load falls on 2030-2032 - the period of the first landing of astronauts on the surface of a natural satellite and the beginning of the construction of the lunar orbital station), and the total costs for this period are almost 4.5 trillion rubles. Starting from 2036 and until 2050, the annual costs will be from 250 to 570 billion rubles (the total costs for this period are about 6 trillion rubles).
Thus, the total cost of the program from 2015 to 2050 is estimated at 12.5 trillion rubles. Less than 10% of the total financial costs (excluding flight test costs) will be spent on the development of all space assets necessary for its implementation (including launch vehicles and interorbital transportation). The main financial burden for the entire period under review (2014–2050) falls on the operation of space technology (over 60% of the total costs).
Questions, questions...
For the first time in many years, a completed strategy for the development of manned cosmonautics for decades (!) years ahead has been submitted to the government for approval. The choice of the Moon as a strategic goal also looks quite reasonable - after all, a Martian expedition without relying on lunar resources and lunar experience will turn into a risky one-time "flag pole".
Moon or Mars?
The main question that arises after getting acquainted with the new Russian space strategy is the timing. The 2030s, 2040s, 2050s are too far away to take such plans seriously. There is a fear that the delay in the implementation of the lunar project will lead to the fact that the state will have a desire to "jump out of the lunar train, which is barely crawling" and cancel the program. In the event of such a negative scenario, the resources for the development (and possibly the creation) of "lunar funds" will be wasted.
It also looks strange to link the program to a new (not yet implemented) relatively heavy (14-15 tons in the near-Earth and 20 tons in the near-lunar version) PTK NP spacecraft, for the delivery of which to the near-lunar orbit it will be necessary to create a super-heavy rocket with a payload of 80-90 tons per low earth orbit.
A few years ago, the American company Space Adventures, which sells "tourist" places on Russian ships Soyuz, with the consent of RSC Energia, offered an interesting service - a flyby of the Moon. According to the presented flight scheme, the upper stage DM with a passive docking unit is launched into low orbit by a Proton-M heavy-class rocket, then a ship with a pilot and two tourists starts to it on the Soyuz launch vehicle. The Soyuz spacecraft docks with the upper stage - and the bunch goes around the Moon. The journey takes 7-8 days. The company calculated that making changes to the equipment and organization of the flight would cost $250-300 million (excluding an unmanned flight to test the system).
Of course, flying into orbit around the Moon is much more complicated than a flyby mission, however, when using the modified Soyuz instead of the PTK NP, as well as the KVTK oxygen-hydrogen upper stage for launching from near-Earth orbit and the modernized Fregat for braking and accelerating near the Moon, an orbital lunar expedition can be “fitted” into two Angara-A5 missiles. Of course, docking with a cryogenic upper stage in near-Earth orbit is a rather risky operation, but such an action is also present in the state strategy (two-launch flyby mission on the PTK NP), and in proposals Space Adventures.
Thus, the need to create a super-heavy rocket for manned flights into orbit around the Moon is by no means obvious. The use of such a missile moves the mission from the category of realistic plans for the next decade to the category of a “strategy” with a timeline for implementation “closer to 2030”.
It will be either very difficult or simply impossible to find commercial payloads for a super-heavy carrier, and maintaining a complex infrastructure for the sake of two lunar flights a year is extremely wasteful. Any financial or political crisis (and they happen in Russia about once every 8-10 years) will put an end to such a project.
It should also be noted that in the proposed program there is a dispersal of forces: instead of creating a lunar base, the industry will be forced to deal either with the Moon-Orbit program or with the construction of a lunar orbital station, the need for which is extremely poorly substantiated.
Advantages and disadvantages of a lunar base relative to a station in orbit around the moon
Lunar Base Benefits:
– Access to lunar resources (regolith, ice), the ability to use lunar resources (regolith) to protect against radiation;
– Absence of weightlessness and related problems;
– Normal living conditions (eating, shower, toilet);
- Empty hulls from cargo modules can be used to increase the living volume of the base (in the case of a lunar orbital station, new modules increase its mass and fuel costs for orbit correction);
- The base, located at the “peak of eternal light”, is illuminated by the Sun almost all year round: there is the possibility of using solar energy to generate electricity and simplifying the thermal control system;
– The ability to explore the Moon using field geology methods (rather than remote ones – from orbit);
– When using the “direct scheme”, a launch to the Earth is possible at almost any time (synchronization of orbits and docking in the orbit of the Moon is not required);
– Experience in the construction of planetary bases;
– Higher propaganda effect compared to the lunar orbital station.
Moonbase Disadvantages:
- It is required to create landing platforms for the delivery of cargo and astronauts to the surface of the Moon;
– Working conditions on the surface of the planet will differ from the conditions in orbit, which will require the development of fundamentally new residential modules;
– Studies of the lunar surface are possible only in the vicinity of the base;
- Relatively high price deployment and operation.
It is strange that a nuclear tug with low thrust engines, which has no analogues in the world, is extremely poorly represented in the long-term program of deep space exploration. But it is precisely this unique development that could help save time significantly: to deliver heavy loads (about 20 tons) into orbit around the Moon by a nuclear tug, a superheavy carrier is not needed. Flights of the tug along the Earth orbit - lunar orbit route could begin as early as the first half of the 2020s!
On the one hand, of course, it cannot be said that the motto of the proposed program is “Flag on the Moon at any cost!” (the first landing after 2030), and on the other hand, the use of the Moon as a resource base is not visible either: there are no proposals for a reusable lunar transport system, the production of fuel / energy from local resources is not prescribed as a priority.
There are not so many places in the polar regions of the Moon where all the conditions necessary for the rapid and convenient deployment of the lunar base (flat surface, "eternal light", the possible presence of water ice lenses in shaded craters nearby) are met, and for them it can flare up competitive fight. And by postponing the creation of a manned lunar infrastructure to the 2030s, and the construction of the base to the 2040s, Russia may lose priority and lose the lunar territories forever!
Criticizing - suggest!
Following this principle, about a year ago, the author of the article proposed his own version of the project for the deployment of a lunar base - "Moon Seven" (the seventh landing of a man on the moon). Thanks to the help of a group of enthusiasts, including representatives of the space industry, it was possible to determine in a first approximation the parameters of both the base itself and the transport system necessary for its construction.
The main idea of this proposal is “Fly today!”, that is, the project uses only those means, the creation of which is possible in the near (+5 years) future.
The modernized Angara-A5 missile is supposed to be used as the basis of the transport system. Two options for upgrading the carrier are proposed. The first is the replacement of the four-chamber engine RD0124A with a thrust of 30 tf for URM II with two RD0125A engines with a total thrust of 59 tf. This possibility does not require significant changes in the design of the launch vehicle and has already been considered by the Khrunichev State Research and Production Space Center. The second upgrade option is to replace the URM II and the KVTK oxygen-hydrogen upper stage with one large oxygen-hydrogen upper stage, which will significantly increase the mass of the launcher on the departure trajectory to the Moon.
To enter the lunar orbit and land, the project uses a landing stage based on the existing and developed Fregat rocket launcher. The author acknowledges that space technology not the cubes of a children's designer and a significant refinement sometimes means a complete alteration of the RB or KA.
According to preliminary calculations, the transport system based on the upgraded Angara-A5, the oxygen-hydrogen upper stage and the Lunar Frigate will be able to deliver a clean cargo weighing 3.2–3.6 tons to the lunar surface (depending on the chosen option for upgrading the launch vehicle and not including the dry mass "lunar frigate" ≈1.2 tons).
In the Luna Seven proposal, all payloads—the base modules, the power plant, the leaky lunar rover, tankers, and the two-seat manned spacecraft—must be written into these "quanta" of mass.
The design of the manned lunar spacecraft is based on the use of the hulls of the descent vehicle and the utility compartment of the Soyuz. The ship lands on the lunar surface without fuel for the return trip - the supply needed for the return must first be delivered by two tankers.
It is doubtful whether it is possible to “squeeze” a manned spacecraft, consisting of SA, BO (the household compartment also performs the function of an airlock) and a “lunar Frigate” with landing legs, into 4.4–4.8 tons. It is clear that this will require a high "weight culture" and a new elemental base. However, let us recall that the mass of the Gemini maneuvering two-seat spacecraft capable of rendezvous and docking in orbit was 3.8 tons.
The direct flight scheme, without docking in the orbit of the Moon, with all its shortcomings, has a number of advantages. The ship does not expect the return of the expedition in orbit for a long time. The problem of the presence of stable circumlunar orbits is removed (due to the influence of the Earth, the Sun and the mascons under the surface, not all circumlunar orbits are stable). A unified landing platform is used both for the delivery of base modules and other cargoes, and for a manned spacecraft. Any other variants of the transport system require the development of new elements and new spacecraft. There are no complex docking operations at the Earth or at the Moon, which means that the installation of a docking port and other systems for docking will not be required. You can start to Earth at almost any moment. And most importantly, all operations are carried out with reference to the infrastructure of the base, which avoids duplication (simultaneous construction of a station in orbit and a base on the surface).
The scheme with the landing of a heavy SA on the surface is not energetically optimal. In the Luna Seven proposal, the “classic” variants of the expedition with docking in the orbit of the Moon were also considered, however, they require the creation of not only a separate light lunar spacecraft, but also a lunar landing module, which greatly complicates the concept.
Luna seven V.2.0 is also being considered, a version in which not a new spacecraft, but a modernized Soyuz spacecraft is used to fly into orbit around the Moon. In this case, a launch vehicle with a payload capacity of about 40 tons in low Earth orbit or a multi-launch scheme with numerous dockings (which increases the cost of the program and increases the time before the first flights) will be required.
As a place for the deployment of the first lunar settlement (rather, the “first tent”), the region of the south pole of the moon, namely Malapert mountain, was chosen. This is a fairly flat plateau with direct visibility of the Earth, which provides good conditions for communication and is a convenient place to land. Mount Malapert is the “peak of eternal light”: it has sunshine for 89% of the time, and the duration of the night, which happens only a few times a year, does not exceed 3–6 days. In addition, there are shadowed craters near the proposed base location, which may contain lenses of water ice.
Calculation of reserves of the base's life support system shows that with moderate water and oxygen closure (similar to the one that has already been achieved on orbital stations) for the work of a crew of two, it is enough to send one three-ton module with supplies per year (and even less when switching to partial use of local resources). In the process of base growth, the number of crew members will be increased to four people, which means that two modules with cargo will need to be sent annually. These modules are docked to the base and, after using the reserves, form additional residential volumes.
The proposed scheme for deploying, supporting and expanding the base requires no more than 13 launches of heavy (and not super-heavy!) missiles per year.
The base modules are self-propelled, equipped with motor-wheels, which greatly simplifies the assembly of the lunar "first tent" and eliminates the need for an urgent creation of a lunar rover-crane for transportation.
The base of the first stage includes two residential modules with life support systems and cabins for cosmonauts, service (main command post) and scientific modules, a storage module with supplies for the first crew, and a separate power plant module.
Before the construction of the base, using a unified transport system, it is proposed to deliver a communications satellite to a lunar orbit in one launch (after the base is deployed, communications in its vicinity can be provided using a repeater tower, but on initial stage a satellite is required) and light automatic lunar rovers (2-3 pieces) directly on the plateau of Mount Malapert. The rovers will make the final selection of the base deployment site, as well as install radio and light beacons to form a grid of coordinates that will help to accurately land the modules, tankers and manned ships.
To protect the base crew from radiation, it is proposed to use a cable-stayed roof, which is delivered to the Moon in a folded state. In the future, after opening the roof, a layer of regolith about a meter thick is applied using a soil thrower. This option is the preferred "traditional" backfilling of modules, since it allows access to the outer surface of the "barrels" and does not create additional difficulties for building up the base (additional modules simply drive under the roof and dock to the main structure). In addition, when using the roof, the amount of "earth" work is reduced.
In the Luna Seven proposal, the leaky lunar rover of the base of the first stage, equipped with a detachable module with a jaw bucket, is also considered in detail. The possibility of using one of the base modules as a pressurized lunar rover has been evaluated. Calculation done solar power plant bases: most its masses are batteries that allow you to survive a short night at the "peak of eternal light."
As the main communication system with the Earth, it is proposed to use a laser installation similar to the one already tested during the LADEE (Lunar Atmosphere and Dust Environment Explorer) mission. The weight of the equipment on the American probe was only 32 kg, the power consumption was 0.5 W, and the information exchange rate reached 20 Mb/s. On Earth, four telescopes with a mirror diameter of 40 cm were used for reception. Of course, in the case of a lunar base, backup communication channels in the radio range will also be required.
The cost of creating the Luna Seven base of the first (two-man crew) and second (four-man crew) stages, according to preliminary estimates, will amount to 550 billion rubles. The possible period for the implementation of the project is ten years from the start of the decision, of which five years are the direct deployment of the base and the work of the crews. At the third stage - with the advent of nuclear tugs with low-thrust engines and carriers that are more capable of lifting compared to the Angara-A5 - the scheme for deploying and supplying the base changes.
As experience is gained, new lunar construction technologies are being introduced: inflatable domes, 3D printers for printing from regolith, special equipment for creating artificial caves.
The goals of the project we proposed are: securing one of the promising sites on the Moon for Russia, gaining experience in building planetary bases and life on other planets in the shortest possible time, testing technologies and methods worked out on Earth in real lunar conditions, exploring the Moon and searching for resources. Various options for making a profit are also being worked out - from paid remote control of lunar rovers to the supply of matter and energy.
In conclusion, we note that the author did not set the task of contrasting the sentence "Moon seven" state program(strategy) of the exploration of the moon. The purpose is only to demonstrate that various options for such development are possible, including those that do not “leave” for the 2030s and 2040s.
