First World War

Introduction

Much has gone forever from history with the volleys of the "salute of nations" that sounded on November 11, 1918 - too much for the historian's thoughts not to turn again and again to the events of the World Crisis.

The point is not only and not so much in the human victims of the Great War, it is not in the huge material and financial losses. Although these losses were many times greater than the conservative estimates of pre-war theorists, calling them "incalculable" or "beyond the human imagination" is unjustified. In absolute terms, human losses were less than from the influenza epidemic of 1918-1919, and material losses were inferior to the consequences of the 1929 crisis. As for relative figures, the First World War cannot bear any comparison with medieval plague epidemics. Nevertheless, it is the armed conflict of 1914 that is perceived by us (and was perceived by contemporaries) as a terrible, irreparable catastrophe that led to the psychological breakdown of the entire European civilization.

In this work, I will try to consider what economic and political motives allowed the world war to break out at the beginning of the last century and summarize this grandiose event.

1. Causes, nature and main stages of the First World War

Economic causes of the First World War

The world entered the 20th century under the conditions of a crushing industrial crisis of 1900-1901. It began almost simultaneously in the US and Russia, and soon the crisis became general, engulfing England, France, Germany, Italy, Austria, Belgium and other countries. The crisis hit the metallurgical industry, then affected the chemical, electrical and construction industries. It led to the ruin of a mass of enterprises, causing a rapid increase in unemployment. A serious shock for many countries that had barely coped with the consequences of the crisis at the turn of the century was the crisis of 1907.

Monopolies in the pursuit of profit influenced the sphere of pricing, which led to the creation of disproportions within the national economy of individual countries and intensified international economic contradictions. Thus, economic crises were associated not with failures in the sphere of commodity and money circulation, but with the policy of monopolies. This is what determined the peculiarities of the course of crises, their cyclical nature, depth, length and consequences.

Looking carefully at the pre-war political map of Europe, we will see that it is impossible to explain the nature and origin of the World Crisis of 1914 starting from the geopolitical interests of the countries participating in the conflict. Germany plays the role of the attacking side in the World War, having no meaningful territorial claims at all. France, acting under the banner of revenge and the return of lost territories, on the contrary, is on the defensive. Russia, which historical destiny the southern direction of expansion is prepared (the Straits and the Middle East), plans operations against Berlin and Vienna. Perhaps only Turkey is trying (albeit unsuccessfully) to act in some way in accordance with its geopolitical goals.

Orthodox Marxism, which explains the origin of the First World War by economic reasons - primarily by the most acute competitive struggle between Germany and Great Britain, is probably closer to the truth than the geopolitical concept. In any case, the British-German economic rivalry did take place. The sharp increase in industrial production in Germany (with a relatively low cost of labor) seriously undermined the position of the UK in the markets and forced the UK government to move to a protectionist trade policy.

By the beginning of the XX century. the struggle of the capitalist powers for markets and sources of raw materials has become extremely acute.

Political reasons

Russian foreign policy after 1905

Russo-Japanese War and Revolution 1905-1907 worsened the situation in the country. The army was demoralized and incapacitated, finances were in disorder. Domestic political problems made it difficult for tsarist diplomacy to pursue such a foreign policy that would allow the country to avoid participation in international conflicts. But the rivalry between the great powers was getting too sharp. Anglo-German antagonism came to the fore. Under these conditions, back in 1904, London agreed with Paris on the division of spheres of influence. This is how the Anglo-French Entente took shape. Allied to France, Russia was in no hurry to get closer to England. Germany actively sought to involve Russia in the wake of its policy and split the Franco-Russian alliance. In 1905, during a meeting between Nicholas II and Wilhelm II in Bjerka, the Kaiser persuaded the tsar to sign an agreement on mutual assistance in the event of an attack on one of the parties. Despite the indignation of Wilhelm II, the Bjork agreement, which was in conflict with the alliance treaty with France, had no practical results and in the autumn of 1905 was essentially annulled by Russia. The logic of the development of international relations pushed the autocracy in the direction of the Entente. In 1907, a Russian-Japanese agreement on political issues was signed. The parties agreed to maintain the "status quo" for Far East. At the same time, Russian-English conventions on Persia, Afghanistan and Tibet were concluded. Persia was divided into three zones: northern (Russian sphere of influence), southeast (English sphere of influence) and central (neutral). Afghanistan was recognized as a sphere of influence of England.

These agreements became an important stage in the process of forming an anti-German coalition. In 1908, Minister of Foreign Affairs A.P. Izvolsky, during negotiations with his Austrian colleague A. Erenthal, agreed to annex Bosnia and Herzegovina to Austria-Hungary, occupied by the Austrians after the Berlin Congress (1878), having received in exchange a promise not to object to the opening of the Black Sea straits for Russian military ships. However, England and France did not support the claims of tsarist diplomacy. Austria-Hungary announced the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Germany sent an ultimatum to Russia in March 1909, demanding recognition of this act. The tsarist government was forced to yield. The Bosnian crisis turned into a "diplomatic Tsushima" for the autocracy. A.P. Izvolsky was dismissed in 1910, S.D. was appointed instead. Sazonov. Despite the deterioration of Russian-German relations, Germany still tried to draw Russia into the orbit of its policy. But she failed to achieve the desired results, and only in the summer of 1911 an agreement was signed relating only to the Persian question (the Potsdam Agreement), which in fact did not lead to the settlement of disputed problems.

The prologue to the First World War was the attack on Turkey by Italy in 1911 heralded another aggravation of the Eastern question. Without waiting for the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, the Italian government decided to carry out its colonial claims to Tripolitania and Cyrenaica by force of arms. And the Balkan wars of 1912-1913. In 1912, Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria and Greece, united as a result of the active efforts of Russian diplomacy, started a war against Turkey and defeated it. Soon the winners quarreled with each other. This was facilitated by Germany and Austria-Hungary, who viewed the formation of the Balkan Union as a success for Russian diplomacy. They took measures aimed at its collapse, and pushed Bulgaria to act against Serbia and Greece. During the second Balkan war, Bulgaria, against which they began fighting also Romania and Turkey, were defeated. All these events significantly exacerbated the Russian-German and Russian-Austrian contradictions. Turkey more and more submitted to German influence. German General L. Von Sanders in 1913 was appointed commander of the Turkish corps, located in the region of Constantinople, which was rightly regarded by St. Petersburg as a serious threat to Russian interests in the strait zone. Only with great difficulty did Russia succeed in moving L. Von Sanders to another post.

The tsarist government, realizing the country's unpreparedness for war and relying in case of (defeat) new revolution, sought to delay an armed clash with Germany and Austria-Hungary. At the same time, in the context of the progressive deterioration of relations with its Western neighbors, it tried to conclude an alliance with England. But the latter did not want to bind herself with any obligations. At the same time, the allied relations between Russia and France by 1914 were significantly strengthened. In 1911-1913. at meetings of the chiefs of Russian and French general staffs decisions were made that provided for an increase in the number of troops deployed against Germany in the event of war, and an acceleration of the time for their concentration. The naval headquarters of England and France concluded a naval convention entrusting the protection of the Atlantic coast of France to the English fleet, and the protection of England's interests in the Mediterranean - to the French.

The Entente as a coalition of England, France and Russia, directed against the Triple Alliance, which included Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy (the latter, however, had already actually moved away from its partners, it was replaced by Turkey), was becoming a reality, despite the fact that England was not connected with Russia and France by an alliance treaty5. The formation of two blocs of great powers hostile to each other, which took place against the backdrop of an intensified arms race, created a situation in the world that threatened at any moment to turn into a military conflict on a global scale.

Events in Sarajevo. On June 15 (28), 1914, a Serbian student from the national-terrorist organization "Black Hand" Gavrilo Princip shot the heir to the Austrian throne Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife. This happened in the Bosnian town of Sarajevo, where the Archduke arrived at the maneuvers of the Austrian troops. Bosnia at that time still remained part of Austria-Hungary, and Serbian nationalists considered part of the Bosnian territory, including Sarajevo, to be theirs. The assassination of the Archduke, the nationalists wanted to reassert their claims.

As a result, Austria-Hungary and Germany received an extremely convenient opportunity to defeat Serbia and gain a foothold in the Balkans. The main question now is whether Russia, which has patronized Serbia, will stand up for Serbia. But in Russia, just at that time, a major reorganization of the army was going on, which was planned to be completed only by 1917. Therefore, in Berlin and

Vienna hoped that the Russians did not risk getting involved in a serious conflict. Nevertheless, Germany and Austria-Hungary discussed the plan of action for almost a month. Only on July 23, Austria-Hungary gave Serbia an ultimatum with a number of demands, which boiled down to the complete cessation of all anti-Austrian actions, including propaganda. Two days were allotted for the fulfillment of the conditions of the ultimatum.

Russia advised its Serb allies to accept the ultimatum, and they agreed to fulfill nine of its ten conditions. They only refused to allow Austrian representatives to investigate the murder of the Archduke. But Austria-Hungary, pushed by Germany, was determined to fight even if the Serbs accepted the entire ultimatum. On July 28, she declared war on Serbia and immediately began hostilities by shelling the Serbian capital of Belgrade.

The very next day, Nicholas II signed a decree on general mobilization, but almost immediately received a telegram from Wilhelm II. The Kaiser assured the king that he would do his best to "calm down" the Austrians. Nicholas canceled his decree, but the Minister of Foreign Affairs S.N. Sazonov managed to convince him, and on July 30, Russia nevertheless announced general mobilization. In response, Germany itself began a general mobilization, at the same time demanding that Russia cancel its military preparations within 12 hours. Having received a decisive refusal, Germany on August 1 declared war on Russia. It is characteristic that even the day before the Germans informed France of their intention, insisting on its observance of neutrality. However, the French, bound to Russia by treaty, also announced mobilization. Then on August 3, Germany declared war on France and Belgium. The next day, England, initially showing some hesitation, declared war on Germany. So the Sarajevo massacre led to a world war. Subsequently, 34 states on the side of the opposite bloc (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria) were drawn into it.

Reasons for the war:

1. The struggle of the capitalist powers for markets and sources of raw materials;

The aggravation of all contradictions in the countries of capitalism;

Creation of two opposing blocs;

Weak peace forces (weak labor movement);

Striving for the division of the world.

The nature of the war:

For everyone, the war was of an aggressive nature, but for Serbia it was fair, because. the conflict with it (presenting an ultimatum on July 23, 1914) to Austria-Hungary was only a pretext for the outbreak of hostilities.

State goals:

¾ Germany sought to establish world domination.

¾ Austria-Hungary Control over the Balkans => control over the movement of ships in the Adriatic Sea => enslave the Slavic countries.

¾ England sought to capture Turkish possessions, as well as Mesopotamia and Palestine with their oil possessions.

¾ France sought to weaken Germany, return Alsace and Lorraine (lands); seize the coal basin, claims to be the hegemon in Europe.

¾ Russia sought to undermine the position of Germany and secure free passage for itself through the Strait of Vasbor and the Dardanelles in the Mediterranean Sea. Strengthen influence in the Balkans (by weakening German influence on Turkey).

¾ Turkey sought to leave the Balkans under its influence, seize the Crimea and Iran (raw material base).

¾ Italy Dominance in the Mediterranean and Southern Europe.

The war can be divided into three periods:

During the first period (1914-1916) the Central Powers achieved superiority of forces on land, while the Allies dominated the sea. This period ended with negotiations on a mutually acceptable peace, but each side still hoped for victory.

In the next period (1917), two events occurred that led to an imbalance of power: the first was the entry into the war of the United States on the side of the Entente, the second was the revolution in Russia and its withdrawal from the war.

The third period (1918) began with the last major advance of the Central Powers in the west. The failure of this offensive was followed by revolutions in Austria-Hungary and Germany and the surrender of the Central Powers.

The first main stage of the war. Allied forces initially included Russia, France, Great Britain, Serbia, Montenegro and Belgium and enjoyed overwhelming naval superiority (Table 2). The Entente had 316 cruisers, while the Germans and Austrians had 62. But the latter found a powerful countermeasure - submarines. By the beginning of the war, the armies of the Central Powers numbered 6.1 million people; Entente army - 10.1 million people. The Central Powers had an advantage in internal communications, which allowed them to quickly transfer troops and equipment from one front to another. In the long term, the Entente countries had superior resources of raw materials and food, especially since the British fleet paralyzed Germany's ties with overseas countries, from where before the war German enterprises received copper, tin and nickel. Thus, in the event of a protracted war, the Entente could count on victory. Germany, knowing this, relied on a lightning war - "blitzkrieg".

The Germans put into action the Schlieffen plan, which was supposed to ensure a rapid success in the West with a large offensive against France through Belgium. After the defeat of France, Germany hoped, together with Austria-Hungary, by transferring the liberated troops, to strike a decisive blow in the East. But this plan was not carried out. One of the main reasons for his failure was the sending of part of the German divisions to Lorraine in order to block the enemy's invasion of southern Germany. On the night of August 4, the Germans invaded Belgian territory. It took them several days to break the resistance of the defenders of the fortified areas of Namur and Liège, which blocked the path to Brussels, but thanks to this delay, the British transported almost 90,000 expeditionary force across the English Channel to France (August 9-17). The French, on the other hand, gained time to form 5 armies that held back the German advance. However, on August 20, the German army occupied Brussels, then forced the British to leave Mons (August 23), and on September 3, the army of General A. von Kluk was 40 km from Paris. Continuing the offensive, the Germans crossed the Marne River and on September 5 stopped along the Paris-Verdun line. The commander of the French forces, General Jacques Joffre, having formed two new armies from the reserves, decided to launch a counteroffensive.

The first battle on the Marne began on 5 and ended on 12 September. It was attended by 6 Anglo-French and 5 German armies. The Germans were defeated. One of the reasons for their defeat was the absence of several divisions on the right flank, which had to be transferred to the eastern front. The French advance on the weakened right flank made it inevitable that the German armies would retreat northward to the line of the River Aisne. The battles in Flanders on the rivers Yser and Ypres on October 15 - November 20 were also unsuccessful for the Germans. As a result, the main ports on the English Channel remained in the hands of the Allies, which ensured communication between France and England. Paris was saved and the Entente countries got time to mobilize resources. The war in the west took on a positional character; Germany's hopes of defeating and withdrawing France from the war turned out to be untenable.

Hopes remained that on the Eastern Front the Russians would be able to crush the armies of the Central Powers bloc. On August 17, Russian troops entered East Prussia and began to push the Germans to Koenigsberg. Leading the counteroffensive was entrusted to the German generals Hindenburg and Ludendorff. Taking advantage of the mistakes of the Russian command, the Germans managed to drive a "wedge" between the two Russian armies, defeat them on August 26-30 near Tannenberg and force them out of East Prussia. Austria-Hungary did not act so successfully, abandoning the intention to quickly defeat Serbia and concentrating large forces between the Vistula and the Dniester. But the Russians launched an offensive in a southerly direction, broke through the defenses of the Austro-Hungarian troops and, having captured several thousand people, occupied the Austrian province of Galicia and part of Poland. The advance of the Russian troops posed a threat to Silesia and Poznan, important industrial regions for Germany. Germany was forced to transfer additional forces from France. But an acute shortage of ammunition and food stopped the advance of the Russian troops. The offensive cost Russia huge casualties, but undermined the power of Austria-Hungary and forced Germany to keep significant forces on the Eastern Front.

Back in August 1914, Japan declared war on Germany. In October 1914, Turkey entered the war on the side of the bloc of the Central Powers. With the outbreak of war, Italy, a member of the Triple Alliance, declared its neutrality on the grounds that neither Germany nor Austria-Hungary had been attacked. But at the secret London talks in March-May 1915, the Entente countries promised to satisfy the territorial claims of Italy in the course of the post-war peace settlement if Italy came out on their side. May 23, 1915 Italy declared war on Austria-Hungary. And on August 28, 1916, Germany on the western front, the British were defeated in the second battle of Ypres. Here, during the battles that lasted for a month (April 22 - May 25, 1915), chemical weapons were used for the first time. After that, poison gases (chlorine, phosgene, and later mustard gas) began to be used by both warring parties. The large-scale Dardanelles landing operation, a naval expedition, which was equipped by the Entente countries at the beginning of 1915 with the aim of taking Constantinople, opening the Dardanelles and Bosporus for communication with Russia through the Black Sea, leading Turkey out of the war and attracting the Balkan states to the side of the allies, also ended in defeat. On the Eastern Front, by the end of 1915, German and Austro-Hungarian troops had ousted the Russians from almost all of Galicia and from most of the territory of Russian Poland. But it was not possible to force Russia to a separate peace. In October 1915, Bulgaria declared war on Serbia, after which the Central Powers, together with a new Balkan ally, crossed the borders of Serbia, Montenegro and Albania. Having captured Romania and covered the Balkan flank, they turned against Italy.

war historical versailles peaceful

The balance of power at the beginning of the war

StranaChislennost army after mobilization (mln. People). The number of lung orudiyChislennost Heavy orudiyChislennost SamoletovRossiya5.3386.848240263Velikobritaniya1.0001.50050090Frantsiya3.7813.960688156Antanta10.11912.3081.428449Germaniya3.8226.3292.076232Avstro-Vengriya2.3003.10450665Tsentralnye derzhavy6.1229.4332.582297

War at sea. Control of the sea allowed the British to freely move troops and equipment from all parts of their empire to France. They kept sea lanes open for US merchant ships. The German colonies were captured, and the trade of the Germans through the sea routes was suppressed. In general, the German fleet - except for the submarine fleet - was blocked in its ports. Only occasionally did small fleets come out to attack British seaside towns and attack Allied merchant ships. During the entire war, only one major naval battle took place - when the German fleet entered the North Sea and unexpectedly met with the British near the Danish coast of Jutland. The Battle of Jutland May 31 - June 1, 1916 resulted in heavy losses on both sides: the British lost 14 ships, about 6,800 men killed, captured and wounded; the Germans, who considered themselves victorious, - 11 ships and about 3,100 people killed and wounded. However, the British forced the German fleet to withdraw to Kiel, where it was effectively blockaded. The German fleet no longer appeared on the high seas, and Great Britain remained the mistress of the seas.

Having taken a dominant position at sea, the Allies gradually cut off. The Central Powers from overseas sources of raw materials and food. According to international law, neutral countries, such as the United States, could sell goods that were not considered "military contraband" to other neutral countries - the Netherlands or Denmark, from where these goods could be delivered to Germany. However, the belligerents did not usually bind themselves to the observance of the norms international law, and the UK has so expanded the list of goods considered contraband that in fact nothing passed through its barriers in the North Sea.

The naval blockade forced Germany to resort to drastic measures. Its only effective means at sea remained the submarine fleet, capable of freely bypassing surface barriers and sinking merchant ships of neutral countries that supplied the allies. It was the turn of the Entente countries to accuse the Germans of violating international law, which obliged them to save the crews and passengers of torpedoed ships.

On February 1915, the German government declared the waters around the British Isles a military zone and warned of the danger of ships from neutral countries entering them. On May 7, 1915, a German submarine torpedoed and sank the ocean-going steamer Lusitania with hundreds of passengers on board, including 115 US citizens. President W. Wilson protested, the United States and Germany exchanged sharp diplomatic notes.

Verdun and the Somme. Germany was ready to make some concessions at sea and seek a way out of the deadlock in action on land. In April 1916, British troops had already suffered a serious defeat at Kut-el-Amar in Mesopotamia, where 13,000 people surrendered to the Turks. On the continent, Germany was preparing for a large-scale offensive operation on the Western Front, which was supposed to turn the tide of the war and force France to ask for peace. The key point of the French defense was the ancient fortress of Verdun. After an artillery bombardment of unprecedented power, 12 German divisions went on the offensive on February 21, 1916. The Germans slowly advanced until the beginning of July, but they did not achieve their intended goals. The Verdun "meat grinder" clearly did not justify the calculations of the German command. Great importance during the spring and summer of 1916 they had operations on the Eastern and Southwestern fronts. In March, at the request of the Allies, Russian troops carried out an operation near Lake Naroch, which significantly influenced the course of hostilities in France. The German command was forced to stop attacks on Verdun for some time and, holding 0.5 million people on the Eastern Front, transfer an additional part of the reserves here. At the end of May 1916, the Russian High Command launched an offensive on the Southwestern Front. During the fighting under the command of A.A. Brusilov managed to carry out a breakthrough of the Austro-German troops to a depth of 80-120 km. Brusilov's troops occupied part of Galicia and Bukovina, entered the Carpathians. For the first time in the entire previous period of trench warfare, the front was broken through. If this offensive had been supported by other fronts, it would have ended in disaster for the Central Powers. To relieve pressure on Verdun, on July 1, 1916, the Allies launched a counterattack on the Somme River. For four months - until November - there were unceasing attacks. The Anglo-French troops, having lost about 800 thousand people, could not break through the German front. Finally, in December, the German command decided to stop the offensive, which cost the lives of 300,000 German soldiers. The 1916 campaign claimed more than 1 million lives, but did not bring tangible results to either side.

Basis for peace negotiations. At the beginning of the 20th century, the ways of conducting military operations completely changed. The length of the fronts increased significantly, the armies fought on fortified lines and attacked from the trenches, in offensive battles machine guns and artillery began to play a huge role. New types of weapons were used: tanks, fighters and bombers, submarines, asphyxiating gases, hand grenades. Every tenth inhabitant of the warring country was mobilized, and 10% of the population was engaged in supplying the army. In the warring countries, there was almost no room for ordinary civilian life: everything was subordinated to the titanic efforts aimed at maintaining the military machine. The total cost of the war, including property losses, was estimated to be between $208 billion and $359 billion. By the end of 1916, both sides were tired of the war, and it seemed that the time had come to start peace negotiations.

The second main stage of the war. On December 12, 1916, the Central Powers asked the United States to send a note to the Allies with a proposal to start peace negotiations18. The Entente rejected this proposal, suspecting that it was made in order to break up the coalition. In addition, she did not want to talk about a world that would not provide for the payment of reparations and the recognition of the right of nations to self-determination. President Wilson decided to initiate peace negotiations, and on December 18, 1916, he turned to the warring countries with a request to determine mutually acceptable peace terms.

As early as December 12, 1916, Germany proposed to convene a peace conference. The civil authorities of Germany were clearly striving for peace, but they were opposed by the generals, especially General Ludendorff, who was confident of victory. The Allies specified their terms: the restoration of Belgium, Serbia and Montenegro; withdrawal of troops from France, Russia and Romania; reparations; the return of Alsace and Lorraine to France; liberation of subject peoples, including Italians, Poles, Czechs, elimination of the Turkish presence in Europe.

The Allies did not trust Germany and therefore did not take seriously the idea of ​​peace negotiations. Germany intended to take part in a peace conference in December 1916, relying on the benefits of her martial law. The case ended with the Allies signing secret agreements designed to defeat the Central Powers. Under these agreements, Great Britain laid claim to the German colonies and part of Persia; France was to receive Alsace and Lorraine, as well as establish control on the left bank of the Rhine; Russia acquired Constantinople; Italy - Trieste, Austrian Tyrol, most of Albania; Turkey's possessions were to be divided among all the allies.

US entry into the war. At the beginning of the war, public opinion in the United States was divided: some openly sided with the Allies; others - like the Irish-Americans who were hostile to England, and the German-Americans - supported Germany. Over time, government officials and ordinary citizens leaned more and more on the side of the Entente. This was facilitated by several factors, and, above all, the propaganda of the Entente countries and the German submarine war.

On January 22, 1917, President Wilson set out in the Senate terms of peace acceptable to the United States. The main one was reduced to the demand for "peace without victory", i.e. non-annexations and indemnities; others included the principles of the equality of peoples, the right of nations to self-determination and representation, freedom of the seas and trade, the reduction of armaments, the rejection of the system of rival alliances. If peace is made on the basis of these principles, Wilson argued, then a world organization of states can be created that guarantees security for all peoples. On January 31, 1917, the German government announced the resumption of unlimited submarine warfare in order to disrupt enemy communications. Submarines blocked the supply lines of the Entente and put the allies in an extremely difficult position. There was growing hostility towards Germany among Americans, as the blockade of Europe from the west boded ill for the United States. In the event of a victory, Germany could establish control over everything Atlantic Ocean.

Along with the noted circumstances, other motives also pushed the United States to the war on the side of the allies. The economic interests of the United States were directly connected with the countries of the Entente, since military orders led to the rapid growth of American industry. In 1916, the warlike spirit was spurred on by plans to develop programs for the preparation of military operations. Anti-German sentiment among North Americans grew even more after the publication on March 1, 1917, of the secret Zimmermann dispatch of January 16, 1917, which was intercepted by British intelligence and passed on to Wilson. German Foreign Minister A. Zimmermann offered Mexico the states of Texas, New Mexico and Arizona if it would support Germany's actions in response to the US entry into the war on the side of the Entente. By the beginning of April, anti-German sentiment in the United States reached such a pitch that on April 6, 1917, Congress voted to declare war on Germany.

Russia's exit from the war. In February 1917, a revolution took place in Russia. Tsar Nicholas II was forced to abdicate. The provisional government (March - November 1917) could no longer conduct active military operations on the fronts, since the population was extremely tired of the war. On December 15, 1917, the Bolsheviks, who took power in November 1917, signed an armistice agreement with the Central Powers at the cost of huge concessions. Three months later, on March 3, 1918, the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was signed. Russia gave up its rights to Poland, Estonia, Ukraine, part of Belarus, Latvia, Transcaucasia and Finland. In total, Russia has lost about 1 million square meters. km. She was also obliged to pay Germany an indemnity in the amount of 6 billion marks.

The third main stage of the war. The Germans had good reason to be optimistic. The German leadership used the weakening of Russia, and then her withdrawal from the war, to replenish resources. Now it could transfer the eastern army to the west and concentrate troops on the main directions of the offensive. The allies, not knowing where the blow would come from, were forced to strengthen their positions along the entire front. American help was late. In France and Great Britain, defeatism grew with threatening force. On October 24, 1917, Austro-Hungarian troops broke through the Italian front near Caporetto and defeated the Italian army.

The German offensive of 1918 On a foggy morning on March 21, 1918, the Germans launched a massive attack on the British positions near Saint-Quentin. The British were forced to retreat almost to Amiens, and its loss threatened to break the united Anglo-French front. The fate of Calais and Boulogne hung in the balance.

However, the offensive cost Germany heavy losses - both human and material. The German troops were exhausted, their supply system was shattered. The Allies were able to neutralize the German submarines by creating convoy and anti-submarine defense systems. At the same time, the blockade of the Central Powers was carried out so effectively that food shortages began to be felt in Austria and Germany.

Soon long-awaited American aid began to arrive in France. The ports from Bordeaux to Brest were filled with American troops. By the beginning of the summer of 1918, about 1 million American soldiers had landed in France.

July 1918 the Germans made their last attempt to break through. A second decisive battle unfolded on the Marne. In the event of a breakthrough, the French would have to leave Reims, which, in turn, could lead to the retreat of the allies along the entire front. In the first hours of the offensive, the German troops advanced, but not as fast as expected.

The last offensive of the allies. On July 18, 1918, a counterattack by American and French troops began to relieve pressure on Château-Thierry. In the battle of Amiens on August 8, the German troops suffered a heavy defeat, and this undermined their morale. Earlier, German Chancellor Prince von Gertling believed that the Allies would sue for peace by September. “We hoped to take Paris by the end of July,” he recalled. - So we thought the fifteenth of July. And on the eighteenth, even the most optimistic among us realized that all was lost. Some military men convinced Kaiser Wilhelm II that the war was lost, but Ludendorff refused to admit defeat.

The Allied advance began on other fronts as well. Ethnic unrest flared up in Austria-Hungary - not without the influence of the Allies, who encouraged the defection of Poles, Czechs and South Slavs. The Central Powers mustered the last of their forces to contain the expected invasion of Hungary. The way to Germany was open.

Tanks and massive artillery shelling became important factors in the offensive. In early August 1918, attacks on key German positions intensified. In his Memoirs, Ludendorff called the beginning of the battle of Amiens on August 8 "a black day for the German army." The German front was torn apart: entire divisions surrendered almost without a fight. By the end of September, even Ludendorff was ready to surrender. Bulgaria signed the armistice on 29 September. A month later, Turkey capitulated, and on November 3, Austria-Hungary.

To negotiate peace in Germany, a moderate government was formed, headed by Prince Max B., who already on October 5, 1918, proposed to President Wilson to begin the negotiation process. In the last week of October, the Italian army launched a general offensive against Austria-Hungary. By October 30, the resistance of the Austrian troops was broken. The cavalry and armored vehicles of the Italians made a swift raid behind enemy lines and captured the Austrian headquarters. On October 27, Emperor Charles I issued an appeal for a truce, and on October 29, 1918, he agreed to conclude peace on any terms.

Brief conclusions. At the beginning of the XX century. the struggle of the capitalist powers for markets, and the sources of raw materials reached extreme severity, against the backdrop of economic rivalry, political disagreements occurred, which led to the political rivalry of the great powers, the result of the rivalry was the formation of two political blocs: the Entente and the Triple Alliance. The formation of two blocs of great powers hostile to each other, which took place against the backdrop of an intensified arms race, created a situation in the world that threatened at any moment to turn into a military conflict on a global scale. The impetus for the outbreak of the First World War was the assassination of the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo on June 28, 1914. Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. But Russia intervened in the events, which began the mobilization of its army. Germany demanded its termination. When Russia did not respond to her ultimatum, Germany declared war on her on August 1, and later on France. Then Britain and Japan entered the war. The First World War began. The German command believed that after the defeat of France, the army should have been transferred to the east against Russia. Initially, the offensive in France developed successfully. But then part of the German troops were transferred to the Eastern Front, where the Russian army launched an offensive. The French took advantage of this and stopped the advance of the German army on the Marne River. Formed Western Front. Soon the Ottoman Empire entered the war on the side of the Triple Alliance. Military operations against it began in Transcaucasia, in Mesopotamia, on the Sinai Peninsula. April 6, 1917 The United States declares war on Germany, the United States takes the side of the countries participating in the Entente. By the beginning of the summer of 1918, the United States is landing its troops in France. The First World War ended with the complete defeat of the countries of the Triple Alliance. In October 1918, a truce was signed for 36 days and the German government turned to US President Woodrow Wilson with a proposal to conclude a truce on all fronts. On June 28, 1919, the Treaty of Versailles was signed, which put an end to World War I.

Chronology important events in World War I

YearThe course of hostilitiesFeatures of the warOn August 4, 1914, the Germans invaded Belgium.Continuing the offensive, the Germans crossed the Marne River and on September 5 stopped along the Paris-Verdun line. The Battle of Verdun was attended by 2 million people, 5 German and 6 million people. Anglo-French soldiers. The war was oppositional. On August 4, the Russian army invaded the aisles of Germany. The German army is defeated. Japan starts the war on August 23. New fronts were formed in Transcaucasia and Mesopotamia, on the Sinai Peninsula. The war is waged on 2 fronts and takes on a positional character (i.e. protracted). 1915 The use of chemical weapons. On the western front near Ypres, chemical weapons, namely chlorine, were used for the first time. In total, 15 thousand people died. 1916 Germany shifts its efforts to the western front The city of Verden became the main theater (place) of hostilities. The operation was called the Verdun meat grinder. It lasted from February 21 to December, and 1 million people died. There is an active offensive of the Russian army, the strategic initiative was in the hands of the Entente. Bloody battles that depleted the resources of all warring countries. The situation of the workers worsened, revolutionary actions of soldiers grew, especially in Russia. 1917 The United States enters the war In October, Russia withdrew from the war. Revolution in Russia. Spring 1918 Anglo-French troops had a significant advantage under the German armies. The Entente troops used tanks for the first time. German troops were ousted from the territory of France, Belgium, the soldiers of Austria-Hungary refused to fight. On November 3, 1918, a revolution took place in Germany itself, and on November 11, the Peace Treaty was signed in the Compiègne forest.

The use of tanks. The strongest revolutionary uprisings took place in all the belligerent countries.

2. Socio-economic situation in Russia during the First World War

The specifics of the economic and social development of Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. led to the fact that the country was a complex conglomerate of almost autonomous socio-economic enclaves with their own, often irreconcilable interests. Under these conditions, the flexibility and far-sightedness of the authorities, the ability not only to adapt to existing conditions, but to influence them through anticipatory steps that could keep the entire socio-economic system in balance and prevent its collapse were of particular importance. At the same time, it should be noted once again that for the time being, not a single social force, except for a part of the intelligentsia, openly raised the question of forcibly changing the autocratic principle of government, relying only on the fact that government policy would take into account their interests. Therefore, all layers jealously perceived the traditional attachment of power to the nobility, and the latter became openly aggressive with any attempt to encroach on its primordial rights and interests.

In such conditions, the personality of the monarch was of decisive importance. However, at a critical time, a man appeared on the Russian throne who did not understand the scale of the tasks ahead. Nikolai, unlike his famous grandfather, did not feel the alarming atmosphere of general expectation, bringing the country to a revolutionary explosion. Not having his own program, he was forced to use the one that was strongly imposed by liberal forces to get out of the crisis. But Nicholas was inconsistent. His domestic politics lost its historical logic, therefore it met with rejection and irritation both from the left and from the right. The result was a rapid decline in the prestige of power. Not a single tsar in the history of Russia was subjected to such impudent and open reproach as Nicholas II. This led to a decisive change in the public consciousness. The most terrible thing happened: the halo of the king as the Divine chosen one, a bright and infallible personality dissipated. And from the fall of the moral authority of the authorities there was only a step to its overthrow. It was accelerated by the First World War.

At the same time, most political parties, having no real social base, appealed to the darkest instincts of the masses. The Black Hundreds, with their bloody pogroms and anti-Semitism, the Bolsheviks, with their violent rejection of the idea of ​​social peace, the Socialist-Revolutionaries, with their romanticization of the gravest sin - the murder of a person - they all introduced ideas of hatred and enmity into the mass consciousness. The populist, punchy slogans of the radical parties - from the Black Hundreds "beat the Jew, save Russia" to the revolutionary "rob the loot" - were simple and understandable. They did not affect the mind, but the feelings, and could at any moment turn ordinary people into a crowd capable of any illegal actions. Separate visionary warnings about the perniciousness of such sentiments remained "the voice of one crying in the wilderness." The psychology of hatred, destruction, the loss of a sense of the very value of human life was greatly intensified by the world war. The slogan of the defeat of their government became the apogee of the moral decay of the Russian people. And the collapse of traditional moral foundations was bound to lead to the collapse of the state. It was accelerated by the revolution.

Changes in the country's economy during the First World War:

The pride of the nation was also domestic science and technology. They are represented by the names of I.P. Pavlova, K.A. Timiryazev and others I.P. Pavlov was the first Russian scientist to be awarded the Nobel Prize.

Changes in the economy led to changes in the social sphere. The reflection of this process was the increase in the size of the working class. However, the country still 75% of the population were peasants. In the political field, Russia remained a Duma monarchy.

The total cost of the war by March 1917 had already exceeded 30 billion rubles. The money spent on the war is not returned in the form of goods or profits, which leads to an increase in the total amount of money in the country26. They are depreciating. So, by February 1917, the ruble fell to 27 kopecks. Food prices have increased by 300%. Silver coins began to disappear from circulation, instead of them a large amount of paper money was issued.

Industrial enterprises reduced output. Small businesses closed. Consequently, the mobilization of industry accelerated.

The role of banks has grown significantly. In 1917, the largest Russian banks dominated railway companies, machine building, controlled 60% of the share capital in ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, oil, timber and other industries.

Russia has lost its traditional trading partner, Germany. The system of free market relations was supplanted by the order system, the redistribution of funds for the needs of the military industry, caused a shortage of goods in the country of free competition.

Restructuring the economy for military needs:

By this time, it became clear that victory was determined not so much by actions on the fronts as by the situation in the rear. The command of all the warring countries counted on the short duration of hostilities. There were no large stocks of equipment and ammunition. Already in 1915, everyone faced difficulties in supplying the army. It became clear that a sharp expansion of the scale of military production was required. The restructuring of the economy began. In all countries, it primarily meant the introduction of strict state regulation. The state determined the volume of necessary production, placed orders, provided raw materials and labor. Labor service was introduced, which made it possible to reduce the shortage of workers caused by the conscription of men into the army. As military production grew at the expense of civilian production, there was a shortage of consumer goods. This forced the introduction of price controls and consumption rationing. The mobilization of men and the requisition of horses caused severe damage to agriculture. In all the warring countries, except England, food production declined, and this led to the introduction card system food distribution. In Germany, which traditionally imported food, a particularly deplorable situation developed due to the blockade. The government was forced to ban the feeding of livestock with grain and potatoes, the introduction of all kinds of low-nutrient substitutes food products- ersatz.

At the time of the October uprising in Russia and for the first time after it, the Bolsheviks did not have a clear and detailed plan for transformations, including in the economic sphere. They expected that after the victory of the revolution in Germany, "the German proletariat as more organized and advanced" would take on the task of developing a socialist course, and the Russian would only have to support this course. Lenin at that time sounded characteristic phrases like “We don’t know how to build socialism” or “We dragged socialism into everyday life And that's where we need to figure it out."

The reference point for the economic policy of the Bolsheviks was the model of the economic structure described in the works of the classics of Marxism. According to this model, the state of the dictatorship of the proletariat was to become a monopolist of all property, all citizens became employees of the state, equalization was to dominate in society, i.e. a course was taken to replace commodity-money relations with centralized distribution of products and administrative management of the national economy. Lenin described the socio-economic model he presented as follows: "The whole society will be one office and one factory with equality of labor and equality of pay."

In practice, these ideas were realized in the liquidation of industrial, banking and commercial capital. All private banks were nationalized, all external state loans were canceled, foreign trade was monopolized - the financial system was completely centralized.

In the first weeks after October, industry was transferred under "workers' control", which did not give a noticeable economic - and political - effect. An accelerated nationalization of industry, transport, and the merchant fleet was carried out, which Lenin called "a Red Guard attack on capital." All trade was quickly nationalized, down to small shops and workshops.

The strictest centralization of the management of the national economy was introduced. In December 1917, the Supreme Council was created National economy in whose hands everything was concentrated economic management and planning. The demand for military discipline in production was announced, general labor service was introduced for persons from 16 to 50 years old. Strict sanctions were envisaged for evading compulsory labor. The idea of ​​creating labor. troops hatched and actively put into practice by Trotsky. Lenin declared the need to move "from labor service as applied to the rich."

Trade was replaced by card distribution of products. Those not engaged in socially useful work did not receive cards.

Having rather quickly solved the problem of suppressing the big bourgeoisie, the Bolshevik leaders announced the transfer of the center of the class struggle and economic reforms to the countryside. A surplus was introduced. This measure reflected the theoretical ideas of the Bolsheviks: an attempt was made to administratively abolish commodity-money relations in the countryside. But, on the other hand, the specific practice left the Bolsheviks a rather small choice: after the liquidation of the landlord and monastic economic complexes, the mechanism for the procurement and sale of food was broken. The peasantry in the conditions of communal locality tended to naturalism in housekeeping. The Bolsheviks tried to create state farms and agricultural communes in the countryside, to transfer Agriculture on the rails of centralized production and management. More often than not, these attempts have been outright failures. There was a threat of famine. The authorities saw the overcoming of food difficulties in emergency measures, in the use of force. Agitation was carried out among the urban workers, calling for a "campaign against the kulaks." Food detachments were allowed to use weapons.

Centralizing tendencies in the economy appeared even before the Bolsheviks. During the war years, the rationing of production, marketing and consumption was characteristic of all warring countries. In 1916, the tsarist government in Russia decided on a surplus appropriation, this measure was confirmed by the Provisional Government: in the conditions of the world war, it was clearly forced. The Bolsheviks, on the other hand, turned the surplus appraisal into software requirement, striving for its conservation and conducting it much harder. Coercion against the peasantry was becoming the norm. In addition to natural grain duty, the peasants were required to participate in the system of labor duties, in the mobilization of horses and carts. All granaries were nationalized, all privately owned farms were rapidly liquidated. Fixed prices for agricultural products were introduced. They were 46 times lower than the market ones. Everything was aimed at the accelerated creation of an economic model.

The leaders of the Bolsheviks persistently called the rationing system a sign of socialism, and trade - the main attribute of capitalism. The organization of labor took on paramilitary forms, the ultimate centralization of production and product exchange was intended to oust money from economic life.

Communist, natural elements were introduced into everyday life: food rations, utilities, industrial clothing for workers, and urban transport were declared free; some printing etc. . Such a system had its supporters among employees, unskilled workers, etc. In those difficult economic conditions, they were afraid of free market prices. Many welcomed the fight against speculation.

In general, however, the economic policy of the Bolsheviks caused discontent. It did not focus on the development of production, but on the control of distribution and consumption. Money artificially depreciated. The peasants did not want to work in conditions of reduced sowing. Grain harvest was reduced by 40%, sown areas of industrial crops decreased by 12-16 times compared with pre-war. The number of livestock has been significantly reduced. Workers were transferred from piecework to tariff, which also reduced their interest in productive labor. Money lost its production-stimulating function. Under the conditions of natural product exchange, the role of money as a universal equivalent was also gradually eroded, without which it was impossible to establish normal production. The economy quickly deteriorated. The pre-revolutionary production assets were being eaten up, there was no new construction, and there was no expansion. People's lives were getting harder.

New technology used by the Russians during the First World War:

At the beginning of the century, the development of automatic weapons began in Russia. His sample was created by a soldier - a blacksmith Y. Rotsepey. Despite being awarded a large silver medal, weapons were not produced until the very first world war.

In 1906, V. Fedotov designed an automatic rifle. In 1911, its first sample was released. The following year, 150 pieces were made. However, the king spoke out against further release, because. for her, they say, there will not be enough cartridges.

T. Kotelnikov created the first parachute. During the First World War, the tsarist government paid foreigners 1,000 rubles. for the right to manufacture a parachute at the Triangle plant in Petrograd.

M. Naletov created the world's first submarine designed for laying mines.

Russia was the only country that at the beginning of the war had further bomber aircraft - the Ilya Muravets airships.

On the eve of the war, Russia had excellent field artillery, but was much inferior to the Germans in heavy artillery.

Industry

The war made its demands on industry as well. In order to mobilize it for the needs of the front, the government decided to create meetings and committees. In March 1915, a committee for the distribution of fuel was created, in May of the same year - the main food committee, etc. Almost simultaneously with the indicated actions of the government, military-industrial committees began to form. The leading role in them belonged to the bourgeoisie, and 226 committees were created by it. The Russian bourgeoisie was able to attract 1200 private enterprises to the production of weapons. The measures taken made it possible to significantly improve the supply of the army. Paying tribute to them, we emphasize that the produced stocks were enough for the civil war.

However, the development of industry was one-sided. Enterprises not related to military production were closed, thereby accelerating the process of monopolization. The war disrupted traditional market ties. Part of the factories closed because it was impossible to get equipment from abroad. The number of such enterprises in 1915 amounted to 575. The war led to the strengthening of state regulation of the economy and the curtailment of free market relations. For the country's economy, the curtailment of market relations and the strengthening of state regulation turned into a fall in industrial production. By 1917 it was 77% of the pre-war level. Small and medium capital was the least interested in the development of the trend noted above and showed extreme interest in ending the war.

Transport was also in a difficult situation. By 1917, the locomotive fleet was reduced by 22%. Transport did not provide either military or civilian cargo transportation. In particular, in 1916 he completed only 50% of the food transportation for the army.

Agriculture was also in a difficult position. During the war years, 48% of the male population was mobilized from the village to the army. The shortage of workers led to a reduction in the area under crops, an increase in prices for the processing of agricultural products, and, ultimately, an increase in retail prices. Huge damage was done to livestock. The total number of livestock and, especially, the main draft force - horses, has sharply decreased.

All this had its consequences. The food problem associated with transport and other troubles has become extremely aggravated in the country. It increasingly embraced both the army and the civilian population. The situation was greatly aggravated by the disorder of finances. The commodity value of the ruble by 1917 was 50% of the pre-war, and the issue of paper money increased 6 times.

Failures at the front, the deterioration of the internal situation led to the growth of social tension in society. It manifested itself in all areas. Unity based on patriotic sentiments was replaced by disillusionment and dissatisfaction with the policies of the government and the monarchy, and as a result, a sharp increase in political activity various social groups. In August 1915, the "Progressive Bloc" was formed. It included representatives of bourgeois and partially monarchist parties - a total of 300 Duma deputies. Representatives of the bloc presented their program. Its main provisions were: the creation of the Ministry of Public Trust, a broad political amnesty, which included the permission of trade unions, the legalization of the workers' party, the weakening of the political regime in Poland, Finland and other national outskirts.

. Treaty of Versailles

In October 1918, a truce was signed for 36 days: the development of peace conditions, but they were tough. They were dictated by the French. Peace was not signed. The truce was extended 5 times. There was no unity in the Allied camp. France held the first position. She was greatly weakened by the war, both economically and financially. She came out with demands for the payment of colossal reparations, as she sought to crush the German economy. She demanded the division of Germany, but England opposed this.

Germany agreed to Wilson's Fourteen Points, the document that served as the basis for a just world. Nevertheless, the countries of Atlanta demanded from Germany full compensation for the damage caused to the civilian population and the economy of these countries. In addition to demands for restitution, negotiations were complicated by territorial claims and secret agreements concluded by England, France and Italy with each other and with Greece and Romania in Last year war.

June 1919 - Signing of the Treaty of Versailles, which put an end to World War I. The peace treaty between Germany and the countries of the Entente was signed in the Mirror Hall of the Palace of Versailles in the suburbs of Paris. The date of its signing went down in history as the day the World War I ended, despite the fact that the provisions of the Treaty of Versailles came into force only on January 10, 1920.

27 countries participated in it. It was an agreement between the winners and Germany. Germany's allies did not take part in the conference. The text of the peace treaty was created during the Paris Peace Conference in the spring of 1919. In fact, the conditions were dictated by the leaders of the Big Four represented by British Prime Minister David Lloyd George, French President Georges Clemenceau, American President Woodrow Wilson and Italian President Vittorio Orlando. The German delegation was shocked by the harsh terms of the treaty and the apparent contradictions between the armistice agreements and the future peace provisions. The vanquished were especially indignant at the wording of German war crimes and the incredible amount of her reparations.

The legal basis for Germany's reparations was accusations of her war crimes. It was unrealistic to calculate the real damage caused by the war to Europe (especially France and Belgium), but the approximate amount was $ 33,000,000,000. Despite the statements of world experts that Germany would never be able to pay such reparations without pressure from the Entente countries, the text The peace treaty contained provisions that allowed for certain measures of influence on Germany. Among the opponents of the recovery of reparations was John Maynard Keynes, who, on the day of the signing of the Treaty of Versailles, said that Germany's huge debt would lead to a world economic crisis in the future. His prediction, unfortunately, came true: in 1929, the United States and other countries suffered the Great Depression. By the way, it was Keynes who stood at the origins of the creation of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund.

The leaders of the Entente, in particular, Georges Clemenceau, were interested in excluding any possibility of Germany starting a new world war. To this end, the treaty included provisions according to which the German army was to be reduced to 100,000 personnel, military and chemical production in Germany was prohibited. The entire territory of the country east of the Rhine and 50 km to the west was declared a demilitarized zone.

From the very signing of the Treaty of Versailles, the Germans declared that "the Entente imposed a peace treaty on them." In the future, the rigid provisions of the treaty were relaxed in favor of Germany. However, the shock experienced by the German people after the signing of this shameful world, remained in memory for a long time, and Germany harbored hatred for the rest of Europe. In the early 1930s, in the wake of revanchist ideas, Adolf Hitler managed to come to power in an absolutely legal way.

The surrender of Germany allowed Soviet Russia denounce the provisions of the Brest-Litovsk separate peace concluded between Germany and Russia in March 1918, and return their western territories.

Germany has lost a lot. Alsace and Lorraine went to France, and northern Schleswick to Denmark. Germany lost more territories that were given to Holland. But France failed to achieve a border along the Rhine. Germany was forced to recognize the independence of Austria. Unification with Austria was forbidden. In general, a colossal number of different prohibitions were imposed on Germany: a ban on creating a large army and having many types of weapons. Germany was forced to pay reparations. But the issue of quantity has not been resolved. A special commission was created, which practically dealt only with the fact that appointed the amount of reparations for the next year. Germany was deprived of all her colonies.

Austria-Hungary split into Austria, Hungary and Czechoslovakia. From Serbia, Montenegro, Bosnia, Herzegovina and Southern Hungary, at the end of the war, the Serbo-Croatian-Slovenian state was formed, which later became known as Yugoslavia. They looked like Versailles. Austria lost a number of its territories and army. Italy received South Tyrol, Trieste, Istria with adjacent areas. The Slavic lands of Czech Republic and Moravia, which for a long time were part of Austria-Hungary, became the basis of the Czechoslovak Republic that was formed. Part of Silesia also passed to her. The Austro-Hungarian naval and Danube fleets were placed at the disposal of the victorious countries. Austria had the right to keep an army of 30 thousand people on its territory. Slovakia and Transcarpathian Ukraine were transferred to Czechoslovakia, Croatia and Slovenia were included in Yugoslavia, Transylvania, Bukovina and most of Banat-Romania. The size of the Vegerian army was determined at 35 thousand people.

It came to Turkey. Under the Treaty of Sèvres, she lost about 80% of her former lands. England received Palestine, Transjordan and Iraq. France - Syria and Lebanon. Smyrna and the surrounding areas, as well as the islands in the Aegean Sea, were to pass to Greece. In addition, Masuk went to England, Alexandretta, Killikia and a strip of territories along the Syrian border to France. The creation of independent states - Armenia and Kurdistan - in the east of Anatolia was envisaged. The British wanted to turn these countries into a springboard for the fight against the Bolshevik threat. Turkey was limited to the territory of Asia Minor and Constantinople with a narrow strip of European land. The straits were entirely in the hands of the victorious countries. Turkey officially renounced its previously lost rights to Egypt, Sudan and Cyprus in favor of England, Morocco and Tunisia - in favor of France, Libya - in favor of Italy. The army was reduced to 35 thousand people, but it could be increased to suppress anti-government protests. In Turkey, the colonial regime of the victorious countries was established. But because of the beginning of the national liberation movement in Turkey, this treaty was not ratified and then annulled.

The United States left the Versailles conference dissatisfied. It has not been ratified by the US Congress. It was her diplomatic defeat. Italy was also not happy: it did not get what it wanted. England was forced to reduce the fleet. It's expensive to maintain. She had a difficult financial situation, a large debt to the United States, and they put pressure on her. In February 1922, the 9-Power Treaty on China was signed in Washington. He did not sign the Treaty of Versailles, as it was planned to give some territory of German China to Japan. The division into spheres of influence in China was eliminated, there were no colonies left there. This treaty gave rise to another discontent in Japan. This is how the Versailles-Washington system was formed, which lasted until the mid-1930s.

4. Results of the First World War

November at 11 o'clock in the morning the signalman, who was standing at the headquarters car of the supreme commander, blew the signal "Cease fire." The signal was transmitted along the entire front. At the same time, hostilities were stopped. The First World War is over.

The Russian monarchy could not stand the test of the world war either. It was swept away within a few days by the storm of the February Revolution. The reasons for the fall of the monarchy are the chaos in the country, the crisis in the economy, politics, the contradictions of the monarchy with the general public. The catalyst for all these negative processes was the ruinous participation of Russia in the First World War. Largely due to the inability of the Provisional Government to solve the problem of achieving peace for Russia, the October Revolution took place.

World War I 1914-1918 lasted 4 years, 3 months and 10 days, 33 states participated in it (the total number of independent states is 59) with a population of more than 1.5 billion people (87% of the world's population).

The world imperialist war of 1914-1918 was the most bloody and cruel of all wars that the world knew before 1914. Never before have opposing sides deployed such huge armies for mutual destruction. The total number of armies reached 70 million people. All the achievements of technology, chemistry were aimed at the extermination of people. Killed everywhere: on land and in the air, on water and under water. Poisonous gases, explosive bullets, automatic machine guns, shells of heavy weapons, flamethrowers - everything was aimed at the destruction of human life. 10 million killed, 18 million wounded - this is the result of the war.

In the minds of millions of people who were not even directly affected by the war, the course of history was divided into two independent streams - “before” and “after” the war. "Before the war" - a free pan-European legal and economic space (only politically backward countries - like Tsarist Russia - humiliated their dignity with passport and visa regimes), continuous development "ascending" - in science, technology, economics; a gradual but steady increase in personal freedoms. "After the war" - the collapse of Europe, the transformation of most of it into a conglomerate of small police states with a primitive nationalist ideology; a permanent economic crisis, aptly called by the Marxists the “general crisis of capitalism”, a turn towards a system of total control over the individual (state, group or corporate).

The post-war redistribution of Europe according to the treaty looked like this. Germany was losing about 10% of its original territory. Alsace and Lorraine passed to France, and Saarland - under the temporary control of the League of Nations (until 1935). Three small northern provinces were given to Belgium, while Poland received West Prussia, the Pozdnań region and part of Upper Silesia. Gdansk was declared a free city. The German colonies in China, the Pacific region and Africa were divided among England, France, Japan and other allied countries.

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World War I (1914 - 1918)

The Russian Empire collapsed. One of the goals of the war is solved.

Chamberlain

The First World War lasted from August 1, 1914 to November 11, 1918. 38 states with a population of 62% of the world took part in it. This war was rather ambiguous and extremely contradictory described in modern history. I specifically cited Chamberlain's words in the epigraph to once again emphasize this inconsistency. A prominent politician in England (Russia's ally in the war) says that one of the goals of the war has been achieved by overthrowing the autocracy in Russia!

The Balkan countries played an important role in the beginning of the war. They were not independent. Their policy (both foreign and domestic) was greatly influenced by England. Germany by that time had lost its influence in this region, although it controlled Bulgaria for a long time.

• Entente. Russian Empire, France, Great Britain. The allies were the USA, Italy, Romania, Canada, Australia, New Zealand.
• Triple Alliance. Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire. Later, the Bulgarian kingdom joined them, and the coalition became known as the Quadruple Union.

The following major countries took part in the war: Austria-Hungary (July 27, 1914 - November 3, 1918), Germany (August 1, 1914 - November 11, 1918), Turkey (October 29, 1914 - October 30, 1918), Bulgaria (October 14, 1915 - 29 September 1918). Entente countries and allies: Russia (August 1, 1914 - March 3, 1918), France (August 3, 1914), Belgium (August 3, 1914), Great Britain (August 4, 1914), Italy (May 23, 1915), Romania (August 27, 1916) .

Another important point. Initially, a member of the "Triple Alliance" was Italy. But after the outbreak of the First World War, the Italians declared neutrality.

Causes of World War I

main reason The beginning of the First World War lies in the desire of the leading powers, primarily England, France and Austria-Hungary, to redistribute the world. The fact is that the colonial system collapsed by the beginning of the 20th century. The leading European countries, which had prospered for years by exploiting the colonies, were no longer allowed to obtain resources simply by taking them away from the Indians, Africans and South Americans. Now resources could only be won back from each other. Therefore, contradictions arose:

• Between England and Germany. England sought to prevent the strengthening of German influence in the Balkans. Germany sought to gain a foothold in the Balkans and the Middle East, and also sought to deprive England of naval dominance.
• Between Germany and France. France dreamed of regaining the lands of Alsace and Lorraine, which she had lost in the war of 1870-71. France also sought to seize the German Saar coal basin.
• Between Germany and Russia. Germany sought to take Poland, Ukraine and the Baltic states from Russia.
• Between Russia and Austria-Hungary. Contradictions arose because of the desire of both countries to influence the Balkans, as well as the desire of Russia to subjugate the Bosporus and the Dardanelles.

Cause to start a war

The events in Sarajevo (Bosnia and Herzegovina) served as the reason for the start of the First World War. On June 28, 1914, Gavrilo Princip, a member of the Black Hand organization of the Young Bosnia movement, assassinated Archduke Frans Ferdinand. Ferdinand was the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, so the resonance of the murder was enormous. This was the reason for Austria-Hungary to attack Serbia.

The behavior of England is very important here, since Austria-Hungary could not start a war on its own, because this practically guaranteed a war throughout Europe. The British, at the level of the embassy, ​​convinced Nicholas 2 that Russia, in the event of aggression, should not leave Serbia without help. But then all (I emphasize this) the English press wrote that the Serbs were barbarians and Austria-Hungary should not leave the murder of the Archduke unpunished. That is, England did everything so that Austria-Hungary, Germany and Russia did not shy away from war.

Important nuances of the reason for war

In all textbooks we are told that the main and only reason for the outbreak of the First World War was the assassination of the Austrian Archduke. At the same time, they forget to say that the next day, June 29, another significant murder took place. The French politician Jean Jaures, who actively opposed the war and had great influence in France, was killed. A few weeks before the assassination of the Archduke, there was an attempt on Rasputin, who, like Zhores, was an opponent of the war and had a great influence on Nicholas 2. I also want to note some facts from the fate of the main characters of those days:

• Gavrilo Principin. He died in prison in 1918 from tuberculosis.
• Russian Ambassador to Serbia - Hartley. In 1914 he died at the Austrian embassy in Serbia, where he came for a reception.
• Colonel Apis, leader of the Black Hand. Shot in 1917.
• In 1917 Hartley's correspondence with Sozonov (the next Russian ambassador to Serbia) disappeared.

All this indicates that there were a lot of black spots in the events of the days, which have not yet been revealed. And this is very important to understand.

The role of England in starting the war

At the beginning of the 20th century, there were 2 great powers in continental Europe: Germany and Russia. They did not want to openly fight against each other, since the forces were approximately equal. Therefore, in the "July crisis" of 1914, both sides took a wait-and-see attitude. English diplomacy came to the fore. By means of the press and secret diplomacy, she conveyed to Germany the position - in the event of war, England would remain neutral or take the side of Germany. By open diplomacy, Nicholas 2 heard the opposite idea that in the event of a war, England would take the side of Russia.

It must be clearly understood that one open statement by England that she will not allow war in Europe would be enough for neither Germany nor Russia to even think about anything of the kind. Naturally, under such conditions, Austria-Hungary would not have dared to attack Serbia. But England, with all her diplomacy, pushed the European countries to war.

Russia before the war

Before the First World War, Russia reformed the army. In 1907, a fleet reform was carried out, and in 1910 a reform ground forces. The country increased military spending many times over, and the total number of the army in peacetime was now 2 million people. In 1912, Russia adopts a new Field Service Charter. Today it is rightfully called the most perfect Charter of its time, since it motivated soldiers and commanders to take personal initiative. Important point! The doctrine of the army of the Russian Empire was offensive.

Despite the fact that there were many positive changes, there were also very serious miscalculations. The main one is the underestimation of the role of artillery in the war. As the course of events of the First World War showed, this was a terrible mistake, which clearly showed that at the beginning of the 20th century, Russian generals were seriously behind the times. They lived in the past when the role of the cavalry was important. As a result, 75% of all the losses of the First World War were caused by artillery! This is a sentence to the imperial generals.

It is important to note that Russia never finished preparing for the war (at the proper level), while Germany completed it in 1914.

The balance of forces and means before the war and after it

Artillery

	Number of guns	Of these, heavy weapons
Austria-Hungary
Germany

According to the data from the table, it can be seen that Germany and Austria-Hungary were many times superior to Russia and France in terms of heavy guns. Therefore, the balance of power was in favor of the first two countries. Moreover, the Germans, as usual, before the war created an excellent military industry, which produced 250,000 shells daily. For comparison, Britain produced 10,000 shells a month! As they say, feel the difference...

Another example showing the importance of artillery is the battles on the Dunajec Gorlice line (May 1915). In 4 hours, the German army fired 700,000 shells. For comparison, during the entire Franco-Prussian War (1870-71), Germany fired just over 800,000 shells. That is, in 4 hours a little less than in the entire war. The Germans clearly understood that heavy artillery would play a decisive role in the war.

Armament and military equipment

Production of weapons and equipment during the First World War (thousand units).

	Shooting	Artillery
Great Britain
TRIPLE ALLIANCE
Germany
Austria-Hungary

This table clearly shows the weakness of the Russian Empire in terms of equipping the army. In all major indicators, Russia is far behind Germany, but also behind France and Great Britain. Largely because of this, the war turned out to be so difficult for our country.

Number of people (infantry)

The number of fighting infantry (millions of people).

	At the beginning of the war	By the end of the war	Losses killed
Great Britain
TRIPLE ALLIANCE
Germany
Austria-Hungary

The table shows that the smallest contribution, both in terms of combatants and in terms of deaths, was made by Great Britain to the war. This is logical, since the British did not really participate in major battles. Another example from this table is illustrative. We are told in all textbooks that Austria-Hungary, due to heavy losses, could not fight on its own, and it always needed Germany's help. But pay attention to Austria-Hungary and France in the table. The numbers are identical! Just as Germany had to fight for Austria-Hungary, so Russia had to fight for France (it is no coincidence that the Russian army saved Paris from capitulation three times during the First World War).

The table also shows that in fact the war was between Russia and Germany. Both countries lost 4.3 million killed, while Britain, France and Austria-Hungary together lost 3.5 million. The numbers are telling. But it turned out that the countries that fought the most and made the most efforts in the war ended up with nothing. First, Russia signed the shameful Brest peace for itself, losing a lot of land. Then Germany signed the Treaty of Versailles, in fact, having lost its independence.

The course of the war

Military events of 1914

July 28 Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia. This entailed the involvement in the war of the countries of the Triple Alliance, on the one hand, and the Entente, on the other.

Russia entered World War I on August 1, 1914. Nikolai Nikolaevich Romanov (uncle of Nicholas 2) was appointed supreme commander.

In the first days of the beginning of the war, Petersburg was renamed Petrograd. Since the war with Germany began, and the capital could not have a name of German origin - "burg".

History reference

German "Schlieffen Plan"

Germany was under the threat of a war on two fronts: East - with Russia, West - with France. Then German command developed the "Schlieffen plan", according to which Germany should defeat France in 40 days and then fight with Russia. Why 40 days? The Germans believed that this is how much Russia would need to mobilize. Therefore, when Russia mobilizes, France will already be out of the game.

On August 2, 1914, Germany captured Luxembourg, on August 4 they invaded Belgium (a neutral country at that time), and by August 20 Germany had reached the borders of France. The implementation of the Schlieffen plan began. Germany advanced deep into France, but on September 5 was stopped at the Marne River, where a battle took place, in which about 2 million people participated on both sides.

Northwestern front of Russia in 1914

Russia at the beginning of the war made a stupid thing that Germany could not calculate in any way. Nicholas 2 decided to enter the war without fully mobilizing the army. On August 4, Russian troops, under the command of Rennenkampf, launched an offensive in East Prussia (modern Kaliningrad). Samsonov's army was equipped to help her. Initially, the troops were successful, and Germany was forced to retreat. As a result, part of the forces of the Western Front was transferred to the Eastern. The result - Germany repulsed the Russian offensive in East Prussia (the troops acted disorganized and lacked resources), but as a result, the Schlieffen plan failed, and France could not be captured. So, Russia saved Paris, though by defeating its 1st and 2nd armies. After that, a positional war began.

Southwestern Front of Russia

On the southwestern front in August-September, Russia launched an offensive operation against Galicia, which was occupied by the troops of Austria-Hungary. The Galician operation was more successful than the offensive in East Prussia. In this battle, Austria-Hungary suffered a catastrophic defeat. 400 thousand people were killed, 100 thousand captured. For comparison, the Russian army lost 150 thousand people killed. After that, Austria-Hungary actually withdrew from the war, as it lost the ability to conduct independent operations. Austria was saved from complete defeat only by the help of Germany, which was forced to transfer additional divisions to Galicia.

The main results of the military campaign of 1914

• Germany failed to implement the Schlieffen plan for blitzkrieg.
• No one managed to win a decisive advantage. The war turned into a positional one.

Map of military events in 1914-15

Military events of 1915

In 1915, Germany decided to shift the main blow to the eastern front, sending all its forces to the war with Russia, which was the weakest country of the Entente, according to the Germans. It was a strategic plan developed by the commander of the Eastern Front, General von Hindenburg. Russia managed to thwart this plan only at the cost of colossal losses, but at the same time, 1915 turned out to be simply terrible for the empire of Nicholas 2.

The situation on the northwestern front

From January to October, Germany waged an active offensive, as a result of which Russia lost Poland, western Ukraine, part of the Baltic states, and western Belarus. Russia went into deep defense. Russian losses were gigantic:

• Killed and wounded - 850 thousand people
• Captured - 900 thousand people

Russia did not capitulate, but the countries of the "Triple Alliance" were convinced that Russia would not be able to recover from the losses it had received.

Germany's successes in this sector of the front led to the fact that on October 14, 1915, Bulgaria entered the First World War (on the side of Germany and Austria-Hungary).

The situation on the southwestern front

The Germans, together with Austria-Hungary, organized the Gorlitsky breakthrough in the spring of 1915, forcing the entire southwestern front of Russia to retreat. Galicia, which was captured in 1914, was completely lost. Germany was able to achieve this advantage thanks to the terrible mistakes of the Russian command, as well as a significant technical advantage. German superiority in technology reached:

• 2.5 times in machine guns.
• 4.5 times in light artillery.
• 40 times in heavy artillery.

It was not possible to withdraw Russia from the war, but the losses on this sector of the front were gigantic: 150,000 killed, 700,000 wounded, 900,000 prisoners and 4 million refugees.

The situation on the western front

All is calm on the Western Front. This phrase can describe how the war between Germany and France in 1915 proceeded. There were sluggish hostilities in which no one sought the initiative. Germany was implementing plans in Eastern Europe, while England and France were calmly mobilizing the economy and the army, preparing for further war. No one provided any assistance to Russia, although Nicholas 2 repeatedly appealed to France, first of all, so that she would switch to active operations on the Western Front. As usual, no one heard him ... By the way, this sluggish war on the western front for Germany is perfectly described by Hemingway in the novel Farewell to Arms.

The main result of 1915 was that Germany was unable to withdraw Russia from the war, although all forces were thrown at it. It became obvious that the First World War would drag on for a long time, since in 1.5 years of the war no one was able to gain an advantage or a strategic initiative.

Military events of 1916

"Verdun meat grinder"

In February 1916, Germany launched a general offensive against France, with the aim of capturing Paris. For this, a campaign was carried out on Verdun, which covered the approaches to the French capital. The battle lasted until the end of 1916. During this time, 2 million people died, for which the battle was called the Verdun Meat Grinder. France survived, but again thanks to the fact that Russia came to its rescue, which became more active on the southwestern front.

Events on the southwestern front in 1916

In May 1916, Russian troops went on the offensive, which lasted 2 months. This offensive went down in history under the name "Brusilovsky breakthrough". This name is due to the fact that the Russian army was commanded by General Brusilov. The breakthrough of defense in Bukovina (from Lutsk to Chernivtsi) happened on June 5th. The Russian army managed not only to break through the defense, but also to advance into its depths in places up to 120 kilometers. German and Austro-Hungarian losses were catastrophic. 1.5 million dead, wounded and captured. The offensive was stopped only by additional German divisions, which were hastily transferred here from Verdun (France) and from Italy.

This offensive of the Russian army was not without a fly in the ointment. They threw it, as usual, the allies. On August 27, 1916, Romania enters the First World War on the side of the Entente. Germany very quickly inflicted a defeat on her. As a result, Romania lost its army, and Russia received an additional 2,000 kilometers of front.

Events on the Caucasian and Northwestern Fronts

Positional battles continued on the North-Western Front in the spring-autumn period. As for the Caucasian front, here the main events continued from the beginning of 1916 to April. During this time, 2 operations were carried out: Erzumur and Trebizond. According to their results, Erzurum and Trebizond were conquered, respectively.

Outcome of 1916 in World War I

• The strategic initiative went over to the side of the Entente.
• The French fortress of Verdun survived thanks to the advance of the Russian army.
• Romania entered the war on the side of the Entente.
• Russia launched a powerful offensive - the Brusilovsky breakthrough.

Military and political events of 1917

The year 1917 in the First World War was marked by the fact that the war continued against the background of the revolutionary situation in Russia and Germany, as well as the deterioration of the economic situation of the countries. I will give an example of Russia. During the 3 years of the war, prices for basic products increased by an average of 4-4.5 times. Naturally, this caused discontent among the people. Adding to this big losses and exhausting war - it turns out excellent ground for revolutionaries. The situation is similar in Germany.

In 1917, the United States enters World War I. The positions of the "Triple Alliance" are deteriorating. Germany with allies cannot effectively fight on 2 fronts, as a result of which it goes on the defensive.

End of the war for Russia

In the spring of 1917, Germany launched another offensive on the Western Front. Despite the events in Russia, the Western countries demanded that the Provisional Government implement the agreements signed by the Empire and send troops on the offensive. As a result, on June 16, the Russian army went on the offensive in the Lvov region. Again, we saved the allies from major battles, but we set ourselves up completely.

The Russian army, exhausted by the war and losses, did not want to fight. Issues of provisions, uniforms and supplies during the war years have not been resolved. The army fought reluctantly, but moved forward. The Germans were forced to re-deploy troops here, and Russia's Entente allies again isolated themselves, watching what would happen next. On July 6, Germany launched a counteroffensive. As a result, 150,000 Russian soldiers died. The army actually ceased to exist. The front has collapsed. Russia could no longer fight, and this catastrophe was inevitable.

People demanded that Russia withdraw from the war. And this was one of their main demands on the Bolsheviks, who seized power in October 1917. Initially, at the 2nd Congress of the Party, the Bolsheviks signed a decree "On Peace", in fact declaring Russia's withdrawal from the war, and on March 3, 1918, they signed the Brest Peace. The conditions of this world were as follows:

• Russia makes peace with Germany, Austria-Hungary and Turkey.
• Russia is losing Poland, Ukraine, Finland, part of Belarus and the Baltic states.
• Russia cedes Batum, Kars and Ardagan to Turkey.

As a result of its participation in the First World War, Russia lost: about 1 million square meters of territory, about 1/4 of the population, 1/4 of arable land and 3/4 of the coal and metallurgical industry were lost.

History reference

Events in the war in 1918

Germany got rid of the Eastern Front and the need to wage war in 2 directions. As a result, in the spring and summer of 1918, she attempted an offensive on the Western Front, but this offensive had no success. Moreover, in its course it became obvious that Germany was squeezing the maximum out of herself, and that she needed a break in the war.

Autumn 1918

The decisive events in the First World War took place in the autumn. The Entente countries, together with the United States, went on the offensive. The German army was completely ousted from France and Belgium. In October, Austria-Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria signed a truce with the Entente, and Germany was left to fight alone. Her position was hopeless, after the German allies in the "Triple Alliance" essentially capitulated. This resulted in the same thing that happened in Russia - a revolution. On November 9, 1918, Emperor Wilhelm II was deposed.

End of World War I

On November 11, 1918, the First World War of 1914-1918 ended. Germany signed a complete surrender. It happened near Paris, in the forest of Compiègne, at the Retonde station. The surrender was accepted by the French Marshal Foch. The terms of the signed peace were as follows:

• Germany recognizes complete defeat in the war.
• The return of France to the province of Alsace and Lorraine to the borders of 1870, as well as the transfer of the Saar coal basin.
• Germany lost all its colonial possessions, and also pledged to transfer 1/8 of its territory to its geographical neighbors.
• For 15 years, the Entente troops are located on the left bank of the Rhine.
• By May 1, 1921, Germany had to pay the members of the Entente (Russia was not supposed to do anything) 20 billion marks in gold, goods, securities, etc.
• For 30 years, Germany must pay reparations, and the amount of these reparations is set by the victors themselves and can increase them at any time during these 30 years.
• Germany was forbidden to have an army of more than 100 thousand people, and the army was obliged to be exclusively voluntary.

The terms of "peace" were so humiliating for Germany that the country actually became a puppet. Therefore, many people of that time said that the First World War, although it ended, did not end with peace, but with a truce for 30 years. And so it eventually happened ...

Results of the First World War

The First World War was fought on the territory of 14 states. Countries with a total population of over 1 billion people took part in it (this is approximately 62% of the total world population at that time). In total, 74 million people were mobilized by the participating countries, of which 10 million died and another 20 million were injured.

As a result of the war, the political map of Europe changed significantly. There were such independent states as Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Finland, Albania. Austria-Hungary split into Austria, Hungary and Czechoslovakia. Increased their borders Romania, Greece, France, Italy. There were 5 countries that lost and lost in the territory: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, Turkey and Russia.

Map of the First World War 1914-1918

In Moscow, the book by Sergei Kulichkin "The First World War" was published, which has already aroused reader interest. Its author, editor-in-chief of the Military Publishing House and secretary of the Union of Writers of Russia, analyzes in detail all the events of that period, talks about their secret background and military-political consequences.

- Sergei Pavlovich, your book came out, as they say, on time. And yet, I think this is not what made you turn to the topic of the First World War. But what exactly?

– I will say this: to analyze little-known, especially controversial issues related to the events and personalities of the First World War, I was prompted by resentment and sadness about the undeserved forgotten heroes Masurian swamps, Carpathian passes, Sarykamysh and Moonsund. As well as disagreement with the current interpreters of the "new truth" about this war. I am especially embarrassed by their comparative analysis of the two world wars in relation to the participation of our Fatherland in them.

- I think it's hard to compare. If the USSR, without any doubt, bore the brunt of the war with Nazi Germany on its shoulders, then the role of Russia in the First World War seems to be much more modest ...

Let me disagree with this. Russia was perhaps the most active participant in those tragic and heroic events that lasted not a day, not a month, but several years. By the way, our losses were the greatest.

- Then why did the First World War turn into an unknown war for us? Exclusively for ideological reasons?

- Not only. I want to note the most important feature that characterizes the entire course of the First World War: from the first to the last hour, the main vector of struggle for Germany was the Western Front. It was there, in the Western theater of operations, that the course and outcome of the war were to be decided - primarily on the fields of France. Therefore, the best part of the German troops concentrated there. In the same place, first of all, new tactical schemes, methods and means of armed struggle were used and worked out, new models of weapons and military equipment were tested. Even in 1915, when Germany concentrated its main efforts on defeating and withdrawing Russia from the war, the Western Front remained strategically the main one for the Germans. So it's not about the revolution and Russia's withdrawal from the war ...

- To be honest, it is not entirely clear: Russia took an active part in the war, suffered huge losses - but still the main vector of the struggle was the Western Front. What then is the role of Russia?

- Well, look ... The Battle of the Marne is rightfully considered the main battle of 1914. But at the same time in the East we carried out two major strategic operations - East Prussian and Galician. The Russians sought to pull the German forces over to themselves at all costs - the allied duty obliged. And the Germans were really forced to transfer part of their troops advancing on Paris to East Prussia. These corps and divisions, which left at the most decisive moment to the East, were one of the reasons for the German defeat on the Marne ... And in the Battle of Galicia, the Austro-Hungarian troops suffered a crushing defeat: they lost about 400 thousand people, of which more than 100 thousand prisoners, 400 guns , 200 machine guns and 8 banners - that is, half of its combat strength. Impressive compared to the numbers of the battle on the Marne ...

- And what were the results?

- The Germans lost about 250 thousand killed, wounded and missing, the Allies - more than 260 thousand. There is no mention of big trophies.

- But this is the very beginning of the war, and what happened next?

Let's go back to 1916. That summer, many battles took place in the theaters of military operations, but the main one, undoubtedly, was the victorious offensive operation of the troops of the Southwestern Front under the command of General Brusilov.

- Brusilovsky breakthrough?

- Yes. This, by the way, is the only operation of the World War that was named not by geographical area, but by the name of a military leader, commander. This operation unexpectedly turned out to be so successful that it was rightfully recognized as the main operation of the summer of 1916. This was recognized by both Russia and its allies in the Entente bloc. And this despite the fact that bloody battles near Verdun continued, drawing hundreds of thousands of soldiers of the opposing sides into their orbit, despite the full-scale offensive of the Anglo-French troops on the Somme River ...

- That is, almost until the very end of the empire, Russia took Active participation in the World War?

- Not "almost", but really - until the collapse of the empire and even longer! Already in 1917, when the revolution led to the death of both the Russian army and the Russian empire, we continued to advance in Galicia and defend ourselves in the Baltic states, chaining 124 enemy divisions to ourselves, of which 84 were German - largest number since the beginning of the war. The numbers speak for themselves. And even then, in the seventeenth, Russian blood flowed abundantly both on the Eastern Front and on the Western, where the Russian divisions of the Expeditionary Corps covered themselves with unfading glory. In general, without going into many other details, one can understand that the role of Russia in the World War was very great.

How much Russian blood has been shed because of someone's ambitions and for these worthless "allies".

- And meanwhile, it actually turned out to be forgotten - both in our homeland and abroad.

- I wouldn't say that clearly. In the West, they remember both the Russian imperial army and our millions of victims. Only one famous military museum in Paris - in the Les Invalides - can tell more about this than our entire memorial memory. By the way, recently in the center of Paris, near the Pont Alexandre III, a monument was erected to the soldiers of our Expeditionary Corps. In fairness, it should be noted that in our country the First World War, to one degree or another, of course, has always remained in the field of view of historical science, especially military science. Even in the first years after the establishment Soviet power Thousands of military-theoretical works, memoirs, memoirs of war veterans have been published in our country.
Why didn't World War I become World War II? Yes, everything is simple. The country frankly did not understand this war. Chatter about the straits and the Russian flag over Istanbul somehow did not reach the majority of people and did not touch them in the least. There was no idea.
The unprecedented upsurge and enthusiasm during the Turkish campaign can be easily explained: there was an idea then. To save the Orthodox Bulgarian little brothers from the Turkish adversary - it must be admitted, the idea is working, capable of seriously captivating. It’s another matter that these same little brothers, frankly speaking, did not deserve the spilled Russian blood at all - but that’s another topic…
Neither in the Russo-Japanese nor in the First World War did the vast majority of Russians feel these wars were their own. And since a person is so arranged that he categorically does not agree to die for goals that he does not understand, the lower classes did not want to fight. Desertion began indiscriminately. Only later, in 1920, when wholesale mobilization began due to the war with Poland, many deserters would be pulled out of the dark corners, who pulled from the front in the fifteenth year and sat behind the stove all the turbulent events like the revolution and civil ...
In 1915, in Moscow, the wounded from the infirmary rioted in crowds - so that even policemen were killed. In 1916, near Riga, they raised the company commander on bayonets - without any Bolshevik agitation. Rods whistled everywhere: back in the fifteenth, soldiers began to be flogged for the slightest offense and even to ... raise morale!
And no one has yet expressed himself better than Trotsky about the tops:

“Everyone was in a hurry to grab and eat, in fear that the blessed rain would stop, and everyone indignantly rejected the shameful idea of ​​a premature peace.”

“But then…

- Yes, the dominant ideology and domestic politics have affected. The Bolsheviks, who turned, in their terminology, a "damned" and "unjust" imperialist war into a "just" Civil War, quickly and successfully waged a campaign to completely discredit everything connected with Russia's participation in the First World War. Moreover, none of the new rulers on the fronts of the First World War even showed up.

- Thus, the "Great Patriotic" war, as it was called in pre-revolutionary Russia, turned into a "forgotten", "unknown" war. The war that they are now trying to "return" to our national history.

“Unfortunately, again, it’s not that simple. It would seem that in our time, God himself ordered to restore the forgotten or falsified pages of history. But some of today's "truth-tellers" have gone to the other extreme, apparently proceeding from the fact that everything that was hated by the Bolsheviks must now be glorified without fail and unconditionally. And now the layman is surprised to learn that on the eve of the war, imperial Russia was perhaps the most prosperous state in the world, that the God-bearing people fought in unison for the tsar-father, the Orthodox state, and that only the intrigues of the Bolsheviks clouded, clouded the bright mind of the Russian people and threw him into the crucible of revolution and fratricidal war.

- Meanwhile, it is well known that the Bolsheviks did not take any part in the overthrow of Nicholas II - this is the result of a palace conspiracy with the participation of the Grand Dukes, the leaders of the Duma, the highest generals, the ambassadors of the Entente countries. Yes, and the hierarchs of the church of the sovereign, alas, did not begin to support ... In general, as it always happens with us - from the fire to the frying pan! Either everything is good, or everything is bad. There is no middle!

- Yes, unfortunately, now we are being seriously proved that the real heroes of the First World War ended up in the camp of the White Guards, and the exaggerated heroes - in the ranks of the Red Army. Now they are arguing that the Red Army on the eve of the Great Patriotic War is a bunch of people who have been beaten up by commissars and enkavedeshniki, led by incompetent commanders. That in the First World War we did not give the enemy even an inch of Russian land, and the Stalinists allowed the Germans to reach the Volga ... How sad all this is! We again rush from one extreme to another.

- As I understand it, the purpose of your book is to warn the reader against these shirks?

- You can say that. I do not pretend to be the ultimate truth, nor do I claim a comprehensive coverage of the events of the First World War. This is backbreaking work. However, I strive to support my personal, subjective, of course, position with weighty arguments.
An attempt to debunk long-established myths, as life shows, is unproductive. That's why they are myths - eternally alive, indestructible. But it is necessary to draw the attention of the interested reader to the controversial moments of our past in order not to give rise to new myths. Therefore, I allow myself to focus on key, controversial points and in my book I try to recall the glorious deeds, the glorious heroes of those half-forgotten battles - in a mandatory comparison with the events of World War II and the Great Patriotic War.
And I also try to answer the question why that war did not become the Great Patriotic War, and talk about how the fate of its main characters and anti-heroes developed.

It is unlikely that there will be another war in the documented history of mankind that changed the minds of people so much as the First World War - the “great”. But it's not just about the severe moral trauma inflicted on the entire Western civilization by four years of mass senseless suicide. The First World War irrevocably changed the war itself. Some of the cardinal innovations from 1914-1918, after which the war never became the same, are in our selection.

Positional impasse

World War I is a "trench" war. Europe was dug up in several rows of trenches from and to, bloody battles were sometimes fought for sections of positions hundreds and even tens of meters deep. Maneuvering war was replaced by exhausting frontal attacks, many days of shelling of positions.

The result of the death of tens of thousands of people on barbed wire and under machine-gun fire sometimes became a shift in the front line by a couple of hundred meters in one direction or another.

A strategic breakthrough of the front was impossible - the offensive was being prepared and developed too slowly, they managed to stop it with reserves transferred from other sectors. It was a dead end that was tried to be solved, either by starving Germany out, or by massacres in the framework of the "strategy of crushing". From 1914 to 1918 itself, the Western Front, sung by Remarque, was marking time, until the states that created it collapsed during the revolutions in Austria and Germany.

Mass mobilization

The First World War touched many people. Men went to the front, women got up to the machines in the rear.

This mass, having been in conditions never seen before, became significantly politicized.

The result was revolutions in Europe and severe political crises in many states, the emergence of totalitarian regimes and military fascist dictatorships. World War II was born in this cradle, already poisoned by mass propaganda.

Artillery - god of war

In both world wars, up to 80% of all defeats to personnel were inflicted as a result of artillery shelling.

In World War I, days of exhausting bombardment of positions preceded every major offensive.

This rarely gave a result, because in a few days the attacked managed to drag reserves to the sector and stop the future offensive. But people were grinded properly.

Machine gun - a symbol of the First World War

This weapon, which appeared in the very late XIX century, they called either “barbarism”, or a too expensive toy (they say, you can go broke on some ammunition thrown into the air). The First World War quickly put everything in its place: the machine gun became almost the key weapon of the infantry, its merits could not be overestimated.

Climbing into the attack "against the wind" of working machine guns was not an occupation for the faint of heart.

poisonous substances

Or simply "gases", as they said in those days. In 1915, when the front became solid, and the very first attempts to break through it with frontal attacks led to monstrous losses, the Germans used a cloud of chlorine near the Belgian city of Ypres, released from cylinders downwind towards the enemy's trenches. Subsequently, the release of artillery shells with poisonous substances began, in particular, this turned out to be a fairly effective means of suppressing enemy artillery. However, the “gases” were not only an inhumane weapon (the fear of Europe in front of them kept them from the massive use of accumulated military chemistry in World War II), but they also did not allow solving the problems of developing a breakthrough of the front, that is, removing the curse of “positional impasse”.

The vile weapon could do everything except for what it was created for.

tanks

Breaking through the equipped positions became more and more difficult. To accompany the infantry in 1917, the British applied a technical innovation - tanks. Huge armored hulls on caterpillar tracks (to overcome the destroyed zone of breakthrough and trenches), equipped first with machine guns and then with cannons, were initially considered as a means to overcome the "positional impasse". Already after the war, the concept of mobile tank formations appeared, entering the gap in the front and disrupting communications in the enemy rear faster than the enemy manages to bring up reserves - something that we could then massively observe on the battlefield of World War II, in German, and then in the Soviet performance.

Mobile mechanized units made it possible to at least partially get away from the dull hopelessness of the trench seat and frontal attacks on barbed wire without any result, except for piles of corpses.

However, World War II provided mankind with new horrors.

In general, the mechanization of the army

The very first use of vehicles in " great war”happened as an improvisation - Parisian taxis were used in 1914 for the rapid transfer of French infantry to the battlefield on the Marne. All the armies of the world emerged from the war with a clear conviction in the need to create powerful and numerous fleets of vehicles.

Combat aviation

Strictly speaking, the first combat use of aviation happened, albeit not long ago, but even before the First World War.

However, it was during the "great war" that combat aviation developed rapidly and gradually took the most important place on the battlefield.

It got to the point that in the interwar period, the possibility of a "non-contact" war from the air through massive strategic bombing of industrial centers and cities of the enemy was seriously discussed - the so-called "Douai doctrine". In part, these ideas were used in World War II, their results were the destruction of a number of cities - Rotterdam, Coventry, Dresden, Tokyo, as well as Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

Our colleague, journalist Konstantin Gaivoronsky is seriously interested in military history. He studied a huge amount of literature and historical documents, devoted dozens of articles to the participants, battles and little-known episodes of the First World War and is now finishing a voluminous book on this topic.
Konstantin outlined to "Saturday" his view of the causes and lessons of the war, the centenary of which Europe and Russia began to celebrate last year. He believes that Russia partly unleashed the world massacre on its own - and itself became its victim. The war stirred up revolutionary moods, split the nation, the empire collapsed, and the people were plunged into bloody civil strife. However, other countries participating in the war had to endure the most difficult trials. Modern politicians would do well to learn the lessons of the First World War. For example, to realize that petty nit-picking and big humiliations of national minorities do not lead to good.
* Why is the First World War more important for Europe than the Second World War?
* Why does Russia keep silent about some facts about the First World War?
* How did the First World War change the world community?
Natalia SEVIDOVA,
Olga KNYAZEVA.

disillusionment

- Kostya, why are you interested in the period of the First World War (WWII)?
“Because it has become an unprecedented example of a military conflict in the history of Europe and the world, in which people began to fight with weapons and tactics invented back in the 19th century. And by the end of the war in 1918, all types of weapons that we have today were already present on the battlefields, except for nuclear weapons. Poisonous substances, tanks, aviation, strategic bombing of cities - all this happened. London began to be bombed already in 1915, and they bombed in such a way that once a shell hit a school and killed 32 children. For ordinary people it was a shock.
The Europeans were sure that a world of progress and social well-being awaits everyone. And they were one step away from this: in Germany by that time there were both insurance and old-age pensions. And then suddenly the war, and, it would seem, from scratch. World War I literally broke the Europeans. Many call it the suicide of European civilization.

By prior arrangement

- In the USSR, they wrote about the First World War in textbooks like this: it was an imperialist war, where the interests of large powers clashed. In your opinion, where were the roots of the conflict?
- The lesson and paradox of this war is that a group of people, and far from the first persons of the state, by prior agreement can plunge several countries into a military conflict. Yes, there were contradictions between the powers, but they always existed, and Europe somehow knew how to smooth them out. Two groups - Germany and Austria-Hungary against England, France and Russia - coexisted quite peacefully, although they could not always share something. Of all the heads of state, only Raymond Poincare, the President of France, was a supporter of the war. Everyone else was against it. Although England is more often blamed for starting the war. But it was precisely this decision that was most difficult for her, since the ministers who were in favor of the war were a minority in the cabinet.

They wanted to return the export, but lost the country

- Let me remind you about the crisis at the end of 1912, when Austria-Hungary was going to defeat Serbia. The Russian generals, under the impression of that covert mobilization, decided that we would do the same. And Russia announced a general mobilization, and this was then considered the beginning of hostilities. Thus, Russia launched a chain reaction.
While the Minister of Foreign Affairs Sazonov was negotiating with the Germans on the settlement of the military conflict, the generals carried out mobilization activities.
How did the Germans react to this? They were territorially squeezed between two potential adversaries: Russia and France. And they perfectly understood that if these countries mobilize faster than them, they lose the war. Therefore, the Germans had no choice but to declare war. All this happened from July 24 to August 1, 2014.
Moreover, Minister Sazonov was warned: do not give free rein to the military! And he pretended that he had nothing to do with it, that it was all the generals' fault! Although on the most critical day for his career - July 30, 1914, when Nicholas II first allowed and immediately banned mobilization - Sazonov first delayed the tsar's letter about the abolition of mobilization, and then nevertheless persuaded the emperor to take this fatal step.
- What explains such militancy of the tsar's entourage?
- By that time, Germany had practically ousted Russia from the bread markets of Europe. Sazonov and his assistants, the generals of the General Staff, the Minister of Agriculture Krivoshein advocated using military force to return the possibility of export to Russia.

For Latvians, World War I was national

- Are the losses of the First World War known?
- There are no exact figures. Statistics in Russia were kept poorly. They call from 900 thousand to two million dead Russians. In total, about nine million people died in WWI. If we compare these two wars, then the loss of people on the battlefield during the Second World War was about eight to nine million people, the remaining 15-20 million people are civilians who died in burned villages, from hunger, epidemics and bombings.
- For this reason, in Russia, the attitude to the Second World War is completely different than in Europe, where there are a lot of memorials and monuments about the WWII?
- Undoubtedly. During the Great Patriotic War, it was really about the survival of the country and the existence of the Russian people: the OST plan to consolidate the dominance of the Third Reich in Eastern Europe was known. And during the First World War, people no longer understood for the second year: what, in fact, are we fighting for? Germans on Russian territory are not located, that is, there is no obvious enemy. For the Latvians, this war was a domestic war: when the front line passes through Latvia, and Kurzeme remains occupied by German territory, of course, you are eager to liberate them. And some Siberian shooter from Omsk had a completely different attitude, in front of whom comrades die every day, and tomorrow his turn will come. Very soon, the soldiers had a question: what is all this for?

Behind the front line - horned nonhumans

- At first, the military was told: we are helping our brother Serbs. For a while it worked. And in the third year of the war, any soldier began to think: is it really worth so many lives, or maybe it was possible to agree differently? Decomposition Russian army it went faster, because in it many soldiers were illiterate. It was difficult to influence them with printed propaganda. In England, France and Germany, soldiers were convinced to the last that this was a righteous war in the name of civilization. The propaganda was terrible! In the July days of 1914, when the question of starting hostilities was being decided in England, there was a very broad anti-war movement. Industrialists, banks, professors, students - almost everyone was against it: they say, why should we fight the civilized country of Schiller and Goethe? And a year later, the British were successfully convinced that the Germans were almost new Huns, they were barbarians, that they raped Belgian girls, and then cut off their arms to the elbow. Mass hysteria began: they say, everything German needs to be removed from the streets. Even the dachshund was recognized as a German breed, which was called for to be taken to shelters. british The Royal Family She was forced to change her surname from Saxe-Coburg-Gotha to Windsor. In Russia it was no better. In May 1915, it came to German pogroms: the Germans broke down to withdraw, shops were smashed.
In order to keep the soldiers in the trenches, they were told that we were opposed by nonhumans with horns! But the Germans had helmets with horns. And the Germans were told that they were fighting homosexuals and degenerates, who had nothing sacred in their souls. The same propaganda methods are being used today.
— In Ukraine and in Russia?
- Yes, and nothing new came up! The enemy must be presented, on the one hand, as miserable and insignificant, on the other, predatory and insidious.
Civilians were not spared
- And the methods of warfare were the same as during the Second World War?
- Almost the same, only the scale is smaller due to the limited technology. Shelling, chemical weapons, bombing of cities were used. The only difference was that the attitude of the prisoners was softer. But there were atrocities against civilians during WWI. Unless the Jewish question was so acute. In Belgium, for example, the Germans took hostages, and if suddenly the partisans killed a couple of German soldiers, they shot 20-30 well-known residents of the city in response.

Forgotten War

Why is the First World War so little talked about in Russia?
Her memory was erased by the Civil War. WWI mainly affected those who were drafted into the army, as well as their relatives. The civil war affected absolutely everyone. And there were many more victims. 20 million people died during civil war on the battlefield and from hunger, epidemics - these were colossal losses. In addition, after WWI, a revolution followed and we began to build new world. And our attitude after this war was completely different. Europe after WWI was a pitiful sight. When people came to their senses in 1918, they clutched their heads: my God, why did we lay down a whole generation of our young people?! For Europeans, losses in WWI are the same as for Russia, losses in the Great Patriotic War. The West received the same lost generation that Hemingway wrote about in his novels.
Good example. The British have a memorial day - July 1st. On this day they lay out poppies. This is the day the battle of the Somme began. They went on the offensive and on the first day they lost 60 thousand people. These are the largest losses in one day in all wars that have ever been. In 1941, our daily losses did not reach this figure. There were only a couple of days in 1941 when we were just approaching this level. And all along the front. And they lost 60 thousand people at once on a small sector of the front. Therefore, for Europeans, WWI is certainly more significant memorable date than WWII.

A bad peace is better than a good quarrel

Are wars like World War I unpredictable?
- In most cases, yes - they are unleashed by politicians who think this way: if I do not solve this problem with the help of war now, I will never solve it again. The Austro-Hungarians decided that if they don't deal with Serbia now, they won't have that opportunity again. Russia has decided that if they don't get the Black Sea straits now to control grain exports, the window of opportunity will also close. The Straits were controlled by the Turks, who were heavily influenced by Germany. After a couple of years, the Russians realized that there were other methods to achieve these goals. And 20 years later, historians found out that the goals were false. If Austria-Hungary had waited, then it would have solved its problem with the Serbs without a war. Austria-Hungary was a dynamically developing country with a European bureaucracy, while Serbia was a small, corrupt Balkan state. And sooner or later, the Serbs would have made a choice in favor of a more prosperous life. Everyone understood this, except for the scumbags and bawlers who organized anti-Serb movements. The same goes for Russia. For her, it would be incredibly profitable for her to get 20 years of peace, as Stolypin said, from these straits.