Methods of mastering mental operations analysis synthesis. Methodology for the study of mental operations in younger students
Target: assessment of the level of development of mental operations of the subject.
Introductory remarks.
This laboratory work involves the performance of several small tasks aimed at determining the level of development of such mental operations of the subject as analysis, synthesis, comparison, generalization, classification, abstraction.
For this, the subject is offered the following series of diagnostic methods:
• “Exclusion of the superfluous” (the technique has subject and verbal variants; the latter is recommended for the study of persons over 11–12 years of age);
• "Simple analogies" (the technique is used to examine people aged 10 years and older);
• "Complex analogies" (the technique is intended for subjects adolescence and adults)
• "Comparison of concepts" (the method is used to study children, adolescents and adults);
• "Interpretation of proverbs" (the method is used both in the study of adolescents and adults);
• "Identification of essential features" (the technique is suitable for examining children and adults).
Each technique has its own purpose, stimulus material, method of processing and presenting data. The order in which the methods are presented to the subject does not matter. For data registration, a common protocol is being prepared for all methods. For comparative analysis results, a diagnostic examination of several (two) subjects is recommended.
The results obtained for all methods are drawn up in one report, reflecting the level of development of mental operations of the subjects, taking into account their age, social and psychological characteristics.
Method "Exclusion of excess"
Target: study of the ability to generalize and abstract, the ability to highlight the essential features of objects and phenomena.
Stimulus material and equipment.
Subject option: a set of cards with four items on each (see Appendix 3).
Verbal option: A form with a printed series of five words (see Appendix 4).
Response registration protocol, pen.
Working process.
Subject option. The cards are presented one by one to the subject. Of the four objects drawn from each card, he must exclude one object, and give the rest one name. When an extra item is excluded, the subject must explain why he excluded this particular item.
The researcher together with the subject solves and analyzes the first task. The rest of the subject, as far as possible, analyzes independently. If he is having difficulty, the researcher asks him a leading question.
In the protocol, the subject writes down the number of the card, the name of the subject that he excluded, the word or expression with which he designated the other three, explanations, all the questions that were asked to him, and his answers. This option is used to study children and adults.
verbal option. The execution of this test variant is identical to the previous one.
Test subject instructions.
Subject option:“Look at these drawings, 4 objects are drawn here, three of them are similar to each other, and they can be called in one word, and the fourth object does not fit them. Tell me which one is superfluous and what can be called the other three if they are combined into one group.
Verbal option:“Here in each line five words are written, of which four can be combined into one group and give it a name, and one word does not belong to this group. It needs to be found and eliminated (deleted).
Processing of results.
Based on the answers of the subject, a certain number of points is assigned, corresponding to a certain level of development of the mental operation - generalizations (see the rating scale).
The scores obtained by the subject for each task are summed up, after which the arithmetic mean is found. Based on the latter, the level of development of the generalization operation with
taking into account the maximum and minimum possible number of points for the task (10 and 0, respectively).
If the subject copes with the first three or four tasks and makes mistakes as they become more difficult, or solves the task correctly, but cannot explain his decision, choose a name for a group of objects, then we can conclude that he is intellectually inadequate.
If the subject explains the reason for combining objects into one group not according to their generic or categorical characteristics, but according to situational criteria (i.e., invents a situation in which all objects somehow participate), then this is an indicator of concrete thinking, i.e. insufficient the development of the operation of abstraction, the inability to build generalizations according to essential features.
Technique "Simple analogies"
Target: revealing the nature of logical connections and relationships between concepts, developing the ability to identify essential features of objects and phenomena while abstracting from non-essential ones.
Mental operations (analysis, synthesis, comparison, abstraction, generalization, seriation, classification, etc.) are elements of thought processes. Through mental operations, the basic properties and essence of objects and phenomena of reality are established, their connections and relationships are identified.
Visually impaired children have the same thought processes as those with normal vision. At the same time, the narrowness of their sensory experience, the insufficient development of practical activity, determine the peculiarities in the formation and development of mental operations. They have difficulties in the analysis of objects and their images. Analysis is often not as systematic, versatile and deep as that of sighted peers. Blind and weakly seeing more often than children with normal vision find it difficult to distinguish spatial relationships, species-generic characteristics. In objects and their images, essential features are often not separated from minor ones, the particular is taken for the general, the less general for the more general (T. N. Golovina, L. P. Grigorieva, M. I. Zemtsova, Yu. A. Kulagin, V. A. Lonina, T. P. Nazarova, L. I. Solntseva, S. V. Stashevsky and others).
When studying objects and phenomena in the blind and visually impaired, integrity and simultaneity often suffer, the simultaneity of the review of various signs, i.e. when recreating images-representations, fragmentation, defects in synthesis are noted.
The comparison operation is directly related to analysis and synthesis. In the process of comparison, interrelations and relationships between features and properties in objects are established, similarity (identity) and difference in shape, structure, size, color, etc. are determined, and the most significant features that characterize the object being examined are identified.
Insufficiently complete, precise and versatile analysis and fragmentary, convoluted synthesis make comparison difficult. By carrying it out, children establish similarities or differences in some cases on the basis of very general, generalized features, in others on the basis of non-essential ones (V. A. Lonina, L. I. Morgalik, T. P. Nazarova), them it is not always possible to find common essential features in a group of objects depicted on the cards and to highlight the distinguishing features by which they differ from each other. Thus, in a study by V. A. Lonina, who studied the comparison of objects depicted on cards, first graders only in 36% of cases, having correctly identified the essential common features of objects, could establish similarities and differences. As students develop, they do this more successfully. The number of correct answers in fourth graders increases to 54%. In contrast to them, normally seeing peers have 70% of correctly completed tasks in the 1st grade and 84% in the 4th grade.
Visually impaired children compare objects more successfully in cases where their names are given (orally) (by presentation). According to the verbal designations of objects, they, focusing on their knowledge and memory images, more easily distinguish the similarities and differences between objects. The number of correct answers increases to 68% for visually impaired first graders and up to 95% for fourth graders. Such performance of comparison of objects according to
representation (caused by a verbal designation) in comparison with the performance of the same operation during the visual perception of objects, is probably due to the excessive distraction of children's attention to external, insignificant signs, i.e. in the visual field there are various signs that interfere with the selection of essential ones. The lower speed of processing incoming visual information in children with visual impairment creates certain difficulties for comparing objects.
Much of the digestible content educational material, especially in the lower grades, is based on comparison. Using comparison, children master phonetics, grammar, vocabulary mother tongue(L.I. Morgailik
And etc.). Studying the course of natural history, they learn to distinguish between seas, rivers, lakes, domestic and wild animals, plants, etc. (T. N. Golovina, B. K. Tu-ponogov, etc.). Comparison is widely used in mathematics. It is the basis for the formation of the concept of equality and inequality (T. P. Golovina, M. I. Zemtsova, V. Z. Deniskina, Kao Tien Tyan, E. V. Melnikova, T. N. Nazarova, S. M. Khorosh and etc.), is used in the formation of ideas about geometric figures (L. I. Plaksina, I. M. Romanova, etc.). Consequently, without comparison, children cannot systematize the knowledge that they have, as I. M. Sechenov noted, “rows”, and not “kinds”.
The mental operation "generalization" consists in the mental unification of a group of objects based on the commonality of their properties. One and the same sign in some conditions (relationships) can be significant, and in others - random. At the same time, children do not take into account that the essential properties of the phenomena of objects or their parts are determined by the tasks of activity - practical or theoretical.
The formation of generalizations in blind and visually impaired students is not only an indicator of their mental development, but also an important tool compensation. The study of the age and individual characteristics of the formation of generalizations in the blind and visually impaired, carried out by N. G. Tsvetkov, revealed the phase dynamics of their formation. The first stage in the development of schoolchildren's generalization is characterized by a low level of analysis, the predominance of various components in the structure of generalization. At the second stage of the development of generalizations, due to insufficient high level analysis and synthesis are abstracted
And both essential and non-essential features are summarized. At this stage, in the structure of generalizations in equally both logical and figurative components are presented. At the third stage, there is a high level of analytics co-synthetic activity, the predominance of the logical over the figurative, which is manifested in generalizations according to essential features. As shown by a comparison of blind and visually impaired students with normally seeing students, the main differences appear at the initial stage of generalization formation and are expressed in the predominance of figurative components. This is primarily due to the lack of sensory experience of children with visual impairment. These distinctions then blur, and children reach a high level of generalization.
IN depending on what phase of the development of generalization the student is in, what reasons low level generalizations, it should be organized remedial education. If the formation of the generalization is at the first stage, then the main attention is paid to the initial analysis. If at the second level - the analysis of essential semantic units
prots of the text and their interrelationships.
Conceptual generalizations are sufficiently fully disclosed on the material of the classification of objects or their images, which is based on the inclusion of objects in the corresponding classes.
In the formation of concepts about various classes of objects, classification plays an essential role.
The conceptual classification of objects is a complex thought process that includes analysis, synthesis, comparison, abstraction, generalization, and grouping.
One and the same real object can be included in both a narrow and a broad class. This makes it possible to single out the basis for the commonality of signs (for example, according to the principle of generic relations).
Visually impaired younger schoolchildren, especially first-graders, as shown by the study by V. A. Lonina, are inferior to their normally seeing peers in terms of the level of mastery of the inclusion (conceptual) classification. They find it difficult to generalize a group of objects, since they are guided by external, common features that do not reflect the belonging of objects to a class. The visually impaired more often have a loss of the principle of classification and a transition to the establishment of situational or functional relationships. The results of such a classification do not correspond to the concept of classes.
Some visually impaired (more typical for first graders) group the objects depicted on the cards for various reasons. One group is distinguished according to the principle of generic affiliation, the other - according to species, the third - according to functional, etc.
The students' verbal generalizations of the selected groups were not always adequate. With a correctly performed grouping of objects, they do not always find the correct verbal generalizations, i.e. the level of verbal generalization may be lower than the subject-practical one. Obviously, visually impaired students have a lower level of conceptual generalizations than normal-seeing peers, for example, the “transport” group is called “walk on the roads”, “walk on the wires”.
The generalizing words used by younger schoolchildren with normal vision when naming the groups they identified are more “conceptual” and reflect belonging to a class.
Low level of proficiency in subject classification among the visually impaired junior schoolchildren, especially first-graders, is confirmed by data characterizing their difficulties in understanding and using the quantifiers "all" and "some". Visually impaired people have more difficulty establishing links that unite a species with a genus (all flowers are plants) than those that unite a subspecies with a genus (all foxes are animals). Logical connections are established somewhat more successfully in the opposite direction - between the genus and the species (some animals are animals), less - between the species and subspecies (some trees are pines). It was difficult for visually impaired students of grade I to understand the connection that united subspecies and genus (some animals are eagles). Fourth graders with visual impairments, in contrast to first graders, performed hierarchical classification much more efficiently. They are twice as likely (67% and 34%) to correctly understand and establish logical commonalities between subspecies, species, and rho.
The explanations given by the students after completing tasks with the quantifiers "all" and "some" showed that even when the correct logical relationships between subspecies and genus are established, visually impaired people find it much more difficult to give correct answers. Inaccurate, incomplete answers assert that foxes belong to the species - animals, the logical inclusion of a subspecies in the species is not understood. (To the question “Why are all foxes animals?” Children answer: “Because they are animals, not birds”; “Because animals are different”; “Because foxes are not birds.”)
The level of proficiency in hierarchical classification was not the same for all visually impaired students. Among the first graders there was one student who correctly completed the subject and hierarchical classification; gave adequate group names and explanations of the logical commonality between subspecies, species, and genus. There were two of them among the fourth graders. but most of first-graders, according to the level of success, performed classifications (subject and hierarchical) at a low level. The fourth graders were generally higher in terms of their level of performance, but remained only slightly above the level of normally seeing first graders with normal vision.
Blindness and low vision, which arose in early childhood or are congenital, are the cause of a number of features of mental development, including the features of the formation and development of mental operations. Visually impaired children first find it difficult to systematically divide an object into parts, to single out the features and properties characteristic of a given object, and then to combine the analyzed elements into a whole. They find it difficult to compare the objects presented to them in certain respects and to draw on the basis of this conclusion. At the same time, fluency in comparison operations is very important for children, in whom deficiencies in visual perception can be compensated for by mental activity that ensures selectivity of visual perception, comprehension of visual information and distraction from many non-essential features.
The identification of common or group essential features of objects requires complex analytical and synthetic activities, which are improved with the education and development of children with visual impairments. During school age, the composition of the identified features changes, which more widely and more fully reflect the connections and relationships between small and large groups (subclasses and classes) of objects, their subordination to each other. Based on similar essential features, small groups are combined into larger, broader groups. Conversely, broader groups are divided into a number of smaller groups on the basis of differences. In cases where visually impaired children cannot find a common feature as a basis for classification, they form groups according to functional or situational features. Species and genus groups are distinguished as adjacent. There are no relations of subordination of the particular to the general, there is no hierarchy.
Word connections in visually impaired children are often one-sided - from the word to the visualization. Therefore, it is necessary to take care of the formation of backward connections in them - from visualization to the word.
Generalization is always associated with concretization, mental selection from the general separate and individual, which involves reliance on direct
sensory experience and visual-practical activity of children with impaired vision (N. S. Kostyuchek, I. S. Morgulis, N. S. Tsarik, etc.). Insufficient concretization can lead to formal verbal assimilation of knowledge. To avoid formalism in the assimilation of knowledge during the educational process, it is necessary to use methods for concretizing mental activity based on the development of observation in students with visual impairment in the implementation of preserved types of perception.
Lack of concretization and depleted sensory experience lead either to an excessive expansion of the scope of concepts, or to their narrowing. High school students usually do not have such disorders. If a student uses such concepts, the judgments will be insufficiently substantiated, which often leads to incorrect conclusions and generalizations.
Not all concepts of visually impaired junior schoolchildren are truly generic, many of them are narrowly specific. But visually impaired younger schoolchildren have sufficient intellectual activity, which allows them to master mental operations, including the operation of classification. However, the period of their formation is somewhat lengthened in time.
There is no direct dependence of the level of formation of mental operations on the state of vision.
Formation of mental operations of analysis, synthesis, comparison, generalization, classification. Improvement of the main components of mental activity. Formation logical thinking. Teaching the ability to reason logically based on the enrichment of children's experience and the development of ideas about the surrounding reality, as well as the ability to present inductive-deductive evidence.
Learning to plan activities and control it with the participation of speech.
The development of analysis, comparison, the ability to identify essential features and mentally generalize them according to the principle of analogy. Teaching children active search activities. Learning to independently determine an essential feature for classification based on it. Formation of specific, generic, specific concepts and general ideas of varying degrees of generalization. To teach children to generalize specific concepts using generic concepts, to generalize concepts through an abstract generic concept, to generalize concepts through highlighting signs of difference and similarity “Name what they are”, (“Name it in one word”, “Decompose pictures”, “Compare objects”, etc. . P.). Learning to mentally establish connections, combine objects, their parts or features (“Complete to the whole”, “Fold the picture”). Formation of the ability to establish cause-and-effect relationships.
Teaching children to understand the allegorical meaning of riddles without the use of visual support (based on gaming and everyday experience).
Formation of auditory-visual and auditory-motor interaction in the process of perception and reproduction of rhythmic structures. Learning to perceive, evaluate rhythms (up to six rhythmic signals) and reproduce them according to speech instructions (without relying on visual perception).
Formation of the concepts of "long" and "short", "loud sound" and "quiet sound" using musical instruments. Teaching children to designate sounds of different duration and volume with graphic signs.
Teaching children to perceive, evaluate unaccented and accentuated rhythmic structures and reproduce them according to the model and according to speech instructions: /// ///; // ///; /–; -/; //– –; - –//; - / - / (where / is a loud blow, - a quiet sound); ___. ; …___; .___.___ (where ___ is a long sound, . is a short sound).
Formation of the sensory-perceptual level of perception (in work with children suffering from dysarthria). Improving sound recognition, directional perception of the sound of speech. Teaching children to listen and hear properly speech material. Formation of a clear auditory image of sound.
main stage speech therapy work at the third stage of education
Main content
Expansion of the passive vocabulary, development of impressive speech in the process of perception and differentiation of grammatical forms of inflection and word-formation models, various types syntactic constructions. Expansion of the volume and refinement of the subject, predicative and adjectival vocabulary of impressive speech in parallel with the expansion of ideas about the surrounding reality and the formation of cognitive activity.
Assimilation of the meaning of new words on the basis of deepening knowledge about objects and phenomena of the surrounding world.
Improving the differentiation in impressive speech of the forms of masculine, feminine and neuter singular and plural nouns, past tense singular and plural verbs, past tense verbs by gender, grammatical forms of adjectives, prepositional constructions. Learning to distinguish between reflexive and irrevocable verbs in impressive speech (“Show me who washes, who washes”, “Show who dresses, who dresses”).
Learning to distinguish in impressive speech verbs in the form of the present, past and future tenses (“Show me where the boy eats”, “Show me where the boy ate”, “Show me where the boy will eat”).
Teaching children to distinguish between prepositions for - in front, for - at, under - because of, for - because of, about - in front of, because of - from under(according to verbal instructions and pictures). Teaching children to distinguish between prepositions with the meaning of location and direction of action ( hanging in the closet - went to the forest) from
using graphics.
Teaching children to understand the meaning of less productive diminutive suffixes. Forming an understanding of the meaning of unproductive suffixes: -nick, -nits-, -ink-, -in-, -ts, -its-, -ets-("Show me
where is the tea, where is the teapot”, “Show me where the sugar is, where is the sugar bowl”, “Show me where the beads are, where is the bead”, “Show me where the grapes are, where are the grapes”). Formation of understanding of suffixes with the meaning "very large": -search-, -in-(“Show me where the nose is, where the nose is”, “Show me where the house is, where the domino is”). Differentiation of diminutive suffixes and suffixes with the meaning "very large" ("Show me where the paw is, where the paw is").
Improving understanding of the meaning of prefixes in-, you-, at-, on- and their differences. Forming an understanding of the meanings of prefixes s-, y-, under-, from-, -for-, over-, re-, before- and their distinction (“Show where the boy enters the house and where he leaves the house”, “Show where the bird flies out of the cage, and where it flies up to the cage, flies into the cage, flies over the cage”). Teaching children to understand logical and grammatical constructions: comparative ( A fly is bigger than an elephant, an elephant is bigger than a fly); inversions ( Kolya was hit by Vanya. Who is the fighter?); active ( Vanya drew Petya); passive ( Petya is drawn by Vanya).
Improving the understanding of questions on the plot picture, on the read fairy tale, story (using illustrations).
Formation of subject, predicative and adjective vocabulary of expressive speech. Improving the vocabulary of expressive speech, clarifying the meaning of words denoting the names of objects, actions, states, signs, properties and qualities. Semantization of vocabulary (disclosure of the semantic side of the word, not only based on visualization, but also through already learned words).
Consolidation in the dictionary of expressive speech of numerals: one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten.
Improving the onomasiological and semasiological aspects of the lexical structure of expressive speech.
Teaching children the ability to select words with the opposite ( strong - weak, stand - run, far - close) and similar ( cheerful - joyful, jump - jump, sad - sad) value.
Teaching children to use words denoting material ( wood, metal, glass, fabric, plastic, rubber).
Teaching children to comprehend figurative expressions in riddles, explain the meaning of sayings.
Formation in children of the ability to use words: denoting personal characteristics ( honest, honesty, modest, modesty, cunning, cunning, lazy, laziness); with emotive meaning ( joyful, indifferent, grief, smirk); polysemantic words ( chair leg - mushroom leg, child's eye - eye of a needle, sand spit - long braid
girl).
Improving the skill of conscious use of words and phrases in accordance with the context of the statement.
Formation of grammatical stereotypes of inflection and word formation in expressive speech. Improving the skills of using singular and plural forms of masculine, feminine and neuter nouns in nominative case and indirect cases (without a preposition and with a preposition). Fixing the correct use of indeclinable nouns in expressive speech.
Improving the skills of using verbs in the form of the indicative mood of the singular and plural of the present tense, forms of gender and number of verbs of the past tense, perfective and imperfective verbs. Teaching the correct use and distinction in expressive speech of reflexive and non-reflexive verbs ( washes - washes, dresses - dresses, combs - combs).
Improving the skills of agreeing adjectives with masculine, feminine and neuter singular and plural nouns in the nominative and oblique cases. Improving the skills of using phrases, including cardinal numbers (two and five) and a noun.
Improving discrimination skills in expressive speech of prepositions for - in front, for - at, under - from under, for - because of, about - in front of, because of - from under and prepositions with the meaning of location and direction of action.
Teaching children the correct use of nouns formed with unproductive suffixes (-nits-, -ink-, -nick, -in, -ts-, -its-, -ets-).Improving the skill of differentiation in the expressive
the speech of nouns formed with the help of diminutive suffixes and suffixes with the meaning "very large".
Improving the skills of using verbs formed with the help of prefixes ( in-, you-, on-, at-, s-, y-, under-, from-, for-, over-, pre-, up-).
Improving the skills of using possessive adjectives formed with the help of suffixes -in-, -and-(without alternation) and relative adjectives with suffixes -ov-, -ev-, -n-, -an-, -enn-.
Teaching the correct use of possessive adjectives with a suffix -And-(with alternation): a wolf is a wolf, a hare is a hare, a bear is a bear. Teaching children to use quality adjectives formed with suffixes -iv-, -chiv-, -liv-, -ovat-, -enk- (beautiful, smiling, rainy, cunning, white).
Usage training comparative degree adjectives formed synthetically (using suffixes -her(s), -e: whiter, whiter, higher more or less: more pure, less pure) way.
Teaching children to use the superlative degree of adjectives formed by synthetic (using suffixes -eysh-, -aysh-: highest, smartest) and analytical (using the words most, most: the highest, the highest) way.
Teaching children the selection of single-root words ( winter - winter, winter hut, winter, wintering, wintering).
Teaching children the formation of compound words ( snowfall, meat grinder, black-eyed, witty).
Improving the skill of independent use of grammatical forms of the word and word-formation models.
Formation of the syntactic structure of the sentence. Developing the skill to correctly build simple common sentences, sentences with homogeneous members, the simplest types of compound and complex sentences.
Teaching children to use complex sentences using subordinating unions because, if, when, since (We need to take an umbrella, because it is raining outside. The flowers will dry up if they are not watered. When the rain stops, we will go for a walk. Since Petya was ill, he did not go to kindergarten.).
Formation of coherent speech. Development of skills in compiling descriptive stories (based on toys, paintings, topics from personal experience).
Training in the compilation of various types of texts (description, narration, with elements of reasoning) while maintaining the integrity and coherence of the statement. Teaching children creative storytelling based on creative imagination using representations stored in
memory and previously acquired knowledge. Formation of the ability to clearly build a storyline, use means of communication, realize structural organization text.
Correction of violations of the phonetic side of speech. Clarification of the pronunciation of vowels and consonants of early ontogenesis. Formation of the correct articulation of absent or impaired pronunciation of consonant sounds of late ontogenesis, their automation and differentiation in various phonetic conditions (in work with children suffering from dysarthria, the localization of the lesion, the nature of the violation of muscle tone are taken into account).
Formation of the ability to carry out auditory and auditory pronunciation differentiation of sounds that were not disturbed in pronunciation, and later - sounds with which correctional work was carried out.
Development of simple forms of phonemic analysis (selection of a stressed vowel at the beginning of a word, isolation of a sound in a word, determination of the last and first sound in a word).
Improving the skill of phonemic analysis and synthesis of sound combinations (such as AU) and words (like mind).
Improvement of phonemic representations.
Formation of the ability to carry out complex forms of phonemic analysis: determine the location of a sound in a word (beginning, middle, end); sequence and number of sounds in words ( poppy, house, soup, porridge, puddle, closet, cat and others) - taking into account the phased formation of mental actions (according to P. Ya. Galperin).
Teaching children the implementation of phonemic synthesis. Improvement of phonemic representations (by pictures and by representations).
Acquaintance of children with the concepts of "word" and "syllable" (as part of the word).
Formation in children: awareness of the principle of the syllabic structure of a word (on the basis of words whose pronunciation and spelling are the same); the ability to hear vowels in a word, name the number of syllables, determine their sequence; form words from given syllables: two-syllable words consisting of direct open syllables ( fox, Masha), from open and
closed syllables ( castle, meadow), three-syllable words consisting of direct open syllables ( raspberry, ditch), monosyllabic words ( cheese, house).
Improving the skills of reproducing words of various sound-syllabic structures (isolated and in a phonetic context) without confluence and with the presence of one confluence of consonants. Learning to correctly reproduce the sound-syllabic structure of words presented in isolation and in context: two- and three-syllable words with several confluences of consonants ( flower bed, mug, swarthy, satellite, snowflake, gooseberry, screwdriver); four-syllable words without a confluence of consonants ( button, corn, cobweb, piglet, lark, bicycle).
Improving the skill of conscious use of various intonational structures of sentences in expressive speech (in various
situations of communication, in theatrical games).
Correction of movement disorders of the articulatory apparatus, respiratory and voice functions. Development of oral praxis in the process of performing special articulatory exercises. Development of volume, strength, accuracy, coordination of arbitrary articulatory movements. Formation of a motor program in the process of voluntary switching from one articulatory element to another and when performing simultaneously organized movements.
Formation and consolidation of the diaphragmatic type of physiological breathing. Formation of speech breathing. Teaching the ability to perform a calm, short breath (without puffing out your cheeks, without raising your shoulders) and a smooth long exhalation without speech accompaniment (exercises "Drive the ball into the goal", "Blow out the candle", "Snowflakes", etc.) and with speech accompaniment (on material of vowel sounds and their combinations, isolated deaf fricative consonants [Ф], [Х], [С], [Ш], [Ш], syllables with consonant sounds). Gradual lengthening of speech exhalation when pronouncing words (first few-syllable, then multi-syllable, first with stress on the first syllable, then with a change in the place of stress). Gradual lengthening of speech expiration during the spread of the phrase ( Birds. The birds are flying. The birds are flying high. Birds fly high in the sky. Birds fly high in the blue sky.).
Improving the basic acoustic characteristics of the voice (strength, pitch, timbre) in special voice exercises and independent speech(in work with children suffering from dysarthria, removing voice constriction and teaching free voice delivery). Strengthening the soft attack of the voice.
Literacy education. Formation of motivation for schooling.
Introduction to the concept of "offer". Learning how to draw up graphic sentence diagrams (a simple two-part sentence without a preposition, a simple sentence of three or four words without a preposition, a simple sentence of three or four words with a preposition).
Learning to draw up graphic schemes of syllables, words.
Development of language analysis and synthesis, preparation for mastering elementary spelling rules: separate spelling of words in a sentence, a dot (exclamation, question marks) at the end of a sentence, the use of a capital letter at the beginning of a sentence.
Acquaintance with block letters A, U, M, O, P, T, K, E, N, X, S, F, B, D, D, C, L, I, C, Z, W, F, W, R, C, H (without the use of alphabetic names).
Teaching graphic writing.
Compiling, typing and reading:
- combinations of two letters denoting vowel sounds ( AU),
-combinations of vowels with a consonant in the reverse syllable ( UT),
- combinations of consonants with a vowel in a direct syllable ( MA),
- monosyllabic words of the CGS type ( CAT),
- two-syllable and three-syllable words consisting of open syllables ( PAPA, ALICE),
- two-syllable and three-syllable words consisting of open and closed syllables ( CASTLE, SPIDER, SPIDER),
-two-syllable words with a confluence of consonants ( JOKE),
- three-syllable words with a confluence of consonants ( CABBAGE),
- sentences of two to four words without a preposition and with a preposition ( Ira is small. Ira has a ball. Rita washed the frame. Zhora and Roma played.).
Teaching children syllable-by-syllable continuous reading of words, sentences, short texts.
EDUCATIONAL AREA
"Social and communicative development"
The content of the educational area "Social and communicative development" at the third stage of education is aimed at the comprehensive development of the skills of play activities in children with TD, their further familiarization with the generally accepted norms and rules of relationships with peers and adults, including moral ones, at enriching primary ideas about gender and family affiliation.
During this period, in corrective and developmental work with children, adults create and expand familiar educational situations aimed at stimulating the need for children to cooperate, in cooperative actions with peers in all types of activities, work continues to enhance speech activity, to further accumulate children's vocabulary.
The nature of the tasks to be solved makes it possible to structure the content of the educational area "Social and communicative development" at the third stage of education, as well as at the previous ones, in the following sections:
6. Ideas about the world of people and man-made materials.
7. Safe behavior in everyday life, society, nature.
8. Labor.
Educational activities within the scope of "Social and communicative development" are carried out by educators, integrating its content with the topics of speech therapy work conducted by a speech therapist.
joint educational activities teachers with children with TNR at the third stage of education involves the following areas of work: further formation of children's ideas about the diversity of the world of people around them and man-made materials; education of the right attitude towards people, towards things, etc.; teaching ways of behavior in society, reflecting the desires, opportunities and preferences of children. In the process of clarifying ideas about themselves and the world around them, speech activity is activated in children, vocabulary expands.
During this period, within the framework of this educational area, much attention is paid to the formation of intellectual and motivational readiness in children for schooling. In older children preschool age cognitive interest (intellectual, volitional and emotional components) is actively developing. Adults, carrying out joint activities with children, pay attention to what types of activities they are interested in, stimulate their development, create a subject-developing environment based on the needs of each child.
Active participants in the educational process in the field of "Social and communicative development" are the parents of children, as well as all specialists working with children with severe speech disorders.
A game
At the third stage of teaching children with TNR, the main attention is paid to the improvement of game actions and the exact implementation of game rules in didactic and outdoor games and exercises.
In this period great importance acquires the creation of a subject-developing environment and attracting children to creative games. educators
organize role-playing and theatrical games with children, providing indirect guidance to them. Elements of a plot-role-playing and plot-didactic game, theatrical games, mobile, didactic games are actively involved in classes with children in all areas of correctional and developmental work.
At the third stage of education, children are actively involved in theatrical activities: the performing skills of children are improved (under the guidance of teachers and independently); the theatrical and gaming experience of children is enriched (due to the development of different types of directorial theatrical play and dramatization play).
director games are carried out using a table three-dimensional and flat theater, poster theater on a flannelograph, carpet liner or magnetic board, finger theater, bibabo puppet theater, mitten theater, origami theater, etc. In director's games, children use different objects (spoons, clothespins, puppets, figurative toys, etc.).
Dramatization games are playing out literary works with full or partial costume.
More complex texts are chosen for performances, fantasy becomes the basis of the theatrical game, which subsequently makes it possible to use such psycho-corrective technologies as fairy tale therapy, puppet therapy, etc. When teaching children, fairy tales are used, rich in dialogues, replicas, which gives the child the opportunity to learn a variety of expressive verbal and non-verbal facilities.
During this period, children learn to independently organize familiar outdoor games. Team and sports games are being introduced, which require greater clarity, accuracy in completing tasks, group cohesion and developed motor skills. (The content of working with children using outdoor games is presented in the section "Physical development" - the section "Physical culture".)
At the third stage of education of children with SPD, the importance of didactic games, which are actively used in general developmental and
speech therapy work. A special role is given to didactic games in the process of formation in children of general functional and specific mechanisms of speech activity. (The content of working with children using didactic games is presented in different sections of the program.)
Working with children of older preschool age involves the active use of game therapy techniques with elements of doll therapy, sand therapy, art therapy, etc. Classes on psychotherapeutic methods (work with child aggression, fears, anxiety) are conducted by
a teacher-psychologist, coordinating them with the teachers of the group and parents.
Role-playing games
Pedagogical guidelines:
- arouse in children an interest in creative games, a desire to play new game and fill the familiar game with new content;
- encourage children to use in games the knowledge gained during excursions, observations, acquaintance with fiction, picture material, folk art, historical information,
cartoons, etc.;
- to consolidate role-playing actions in accordance with the content of the game and the ability to transfer these game actions to situations that are thematically close to the familiar game;
- provide children with the opportunity to play out stories, play roles in accordance with their desires and interests;
- to teach children to use various natural objects and their models, substitute objects in games that are new in content;
- to support the desire of children to make attributes for the game, to teach them this;
- develop the imagination of children in the course of mobile, role-playing and theatrical games with the help of imaginary actions;
- to form the ability of children to model various buildings from large and small building material, which can be used in the process of building-constructive, plot-role-playing and theatrical games;
- to teach children to create an imaginary game situation, take on a role and act in accordance with it, showing appropriate emotional reactions during the game;
- to consolidate the cooperative skills of children during the game, to show partnerships, mutual assistance, mutual support;
- to teach children to reflect their life experience in games, to get involved in games and game situations at the request of an adult, other children or on their own;
- to teach children to play didactic games, forming their skills as organizers and hosts of games;
- in the process of gaming activity, to form speech, intellectual, emotional and physical readiness for learning in
school.
Main content
Preparing for the game (together with children): making game attributes ( integration with the "Labor" section).
Construction-constructive games followed by playing the plots of games, etc. ( ).
Creation of a game subject-developing environment that encourages children to supplement the games proposed by the teacher, as well as independently deploy games in the play corner. Self-construction of a bus, fire engine, ship, train from game and household items (soft modules, large building kit, chairs, serving tables) for further play ( integration with the educational area " cognitive development» - section «Design»).
Independent games of children and games with the participation of adults on various topics, contributing to the enrichment of the social experience of preschoolers. Playing storylines, connecting two or three storylines into a single game, for example, "Family" and "Vehicles", "Shop" and "Mail" ( integration with the sections "Ideas about the world of people and man-made materials", "Safe behavior in everyday life, society, nature", "Labor").
Organization and conduct of plot-didactic games (with indirect guidance from adults): "ABC of traffic", "ABC of fire safety", etc. (integration with the section "Safe behavior in everyday life, society, nature").
Game situations in which it becomes necessary to change the storyline in certain conditions(these conditions are set by an adult or one of the children on the recommendation of a teacher), for example, during the games "Space", "ABC of fire safety", " Ambulance" and etc.
Role-playing games unfolding in several plans: "Builders and engineers", "Theater", "We create", etc.
Games on small trampolines (“Fairy Tale”, Jeep”, “Lukomorye”). Helping children in organizing a role-playing game using non-standard gaming equipment (“We are going to visit in a jeep”, “Fairy Tale Theatre”, etc.) ( integration with the educational area "Physical development" -
cases "Physical culture").
Purpose: study of mental operations in younger students (Tarakanova A.A., 2015)
A source: in the process of developing a methodology for studying mental operations, the techniques and methods presented in the works of T.G. Bogdanova, T.V. Kornilova (1994), L. Bright (1997), D. Wexler (1993), A. Germakovska (2000), T.V. Egorova (1969), R.I. Lalayeva (1993, 1990, 2000), A.R. Luria (1956), L.G. Milostivenko (1995), L.F. Tikhomirova, A.V. Basova (1995).
1. Study of analysis and synthesis.
1.1. Simultaneous analysis and synthesis research.
A - 1.1. The study of simultaneous analysis and synthesis on non-verbal material.
A - 1.1.1. Sample C. Borel-Maisonny.
Material: 3 sets of 5 series with the image of a semicircle and a dash in different spatial arrangement.
Instruction: Draw a series of images from semi-ovals and lines.
Evaluation of results:
Each set is rated as follows:
4 b - the task was completed without violations;
3 b - the mistakes made were independently found and corrected by the subjects;
2 b - there are 1 - 2 errors;
1b - only individual series are correctly drawn;
0 b - lack of correctly copied series, refusal to complete the task.
Finding the average score for 3 sets.
The maximum score is 4.
A - 1.1.2. Determining the differences between 2 similar plot pictures.
Material: two story pictures, differing only in individual elements.
Instructions: There are two similar pictures. Find as many differences between them as you can.
Evaluation of results:
1 point for each difference.
The maximum score is 25.
A - 1.1.3. Raven test. Finding the right inserts.
Material: Raven tests.
Instructions: The mouse gnawed a hole in the rug. What patch should I choose to fix the rug?
Evaluation of results:
Each assignment is scored as follows:
2 b - the task is performed without violations;
1 b - performs the task correctly, but looks at the picture for a long time, comments in words;
0 b - incorrect execution of the task.
The maximum score is 2.
A - 1.1.4. Folding figures.
The “Folding Figures” test reveals the ability to correlate parts and a whole. The decision of the test is connected with the formation of an ideal standard. However, the ideal image of the figure is not sufficient for success. The image must be recreated practically, adequately correlating separate parts in the structure of the whole. Heuristic components of thinking are included in the test execution.
Material: four cut pictures of subtest 10 of the Veksler Method.
A - 1.1.5. A selection of paired cards depicting geometric shapes.
Material: a set of eight cards (4 pairs) with 5 geometric shapes different in shape and color. For example, a red circle, a blue triangle, a green square, a yellow oval, a black rectangle on one card.
The researcher places the cards scattered in front of the subjects.
Instructions: Look carefully and find pairs of identical cards.
In case of difficulty, the researcher takes one card and invites the child to find the same one.
Evaluation of results:
3 b - the task was completed without difficulty within 25 seconds or faster;
2b - the task is completed correctly, but the execution time is more than 25 seconds.
1 b - uses the application method, the program and organization of actions suffer;
0 b - incorrect execution of the task, refusal to complete the task.
The maximum score is 3.
A - 1.1.6. Division of the circle into 5 parts.
Material: drawn circle (R=4 cm).
Instructions: Divide the circle into 5 approximately equal parts.
Evaluation of results:
4 b - divides the circle into 5 approximately equal parts;
3 b - divides the circle into 5, but unequal parts;
2 b - divides the circle not into 5. but into approximately equal parts (for example, into 3, 4, 6 parts);
1 b - divides the circle not into 5 and not into equal parts;
0 b - the equality and number of parts are grossly violated, refusal to complete the task.
The maximum score is 4.
A - 1.1.7. Cubes of Koos.
Material: Koos cubes - subtest 6 of the Wexler Method.
A - 1.1.8. Test “Labyrinths”
Material: subtest 12 of the Wexler Method.
A - 1.1.9. Perception and understanding of a picture with a ridiculous plot.
Material: a picture with a ridiculous plot.
A picture is laid out in front of the child.
Instruction: A cheerful artist has drawn a funny picture. Look carefully and say what is right and what is wrong in the picture.
Evaluation of results:
4 b - independently, quickly and correctly finds all the "mistakes" of the artist;
3 b - correctly performs the task, but the pace of work is slowed down;
2 b - the pace of the task is slow, 1-2 “mistakes” of the artist are missed;
1 b - most of the “mistakes” are not named;
0 b - does not understand the meaninglessness of the plot, refusal to complete the task.
The maximum score is 4.
B - 1.1. The study of simultaneous analysis and synthesis on verbal material.
B - 1.1.1. Recognition of objects by given signs.
Instructions: Name an object about which you can say:
a) black, quadrangular, made of wood;
b) white, sweet, hard;
c) oblong, green, edible;
d) yellow, oblong, sour.
Evaluation of results: 1 point for each correctly named item.
The maximum score is 4.
B - 1.1.2. Making sentences from these words.
Material: 5 sets of cards with words written on them, the words of each set can be used to make a sentence; the number of words in sets increases from three to seven.
Instructions: Make a sentence out of these words.
Evaluation of results:
3 word sentence:
4 b -<7 cек, грамматически правильно построено;
3 b - 7-11 sec, grammatically correct;
2 b - >11,<16,5 сек, грамматически правильное;
1 b -! 6.5 seconds or more, grammatically correct;
4 word sentence:
4 b -<4 сек, грамматически правильное;
3 b - 4-8 sec, grammatically correct;
2 b - >8,<17,5 сек, грамматически правильное;
1 b - 17.5 seconds or more, grammatically correct;
0 b - the sentence is grammatically incorrect.
5 word sentence:
4 b -<14 сек, грамматически правильное;
3 b - 14-18 sec, grammatically correct;
2 b - >18,<24 сек, грамматически правильное;
1 b - 24 seconds or more, some grammatical inaccuracies;
6 word sentence:
4 b -<23 сек, грамматически правильное;
3 b - 23-27 sec, grammatically correct;
2 b - >27,<35 сек, грамматически правильное;
1b - 34 seconds or more, some grammatical errors;
0 b - the sentence is grammatically incorrect.
7 word sentence:
4 b -<45 сек, грамматически правильное;
3 b - 45-50 sec, grammatically correct;
2 b - >50,<60 сек, грамматически правильное;
1 b - >60 sec, some grammatical inaccuracies;
0 b - grammatically incorrect sentence.
Finding the average score for 5 sentences.
The maximum score is 4.
B - 1.1.3. Finding the missing elements of letters.
Material: the game "The letter is broken."
The experimenter shows the child a letter that is missing one element.
Instruction: Say which letter is broken. Find the missing element.
Evaluation of results.
Each of the 3 robes is evaluated as follows:
4 b - the task is performed without violations;
3 b - correctly finds the missing element of the letter, but examines it for a long time, comments on it with words; names the letter only after selecting the missing element;
2b - does not immediately recognize the letter, when choosing the missing element, uses the “trial and error” method, but independently correctly composes and names the letter;
1b - after the help of the experimenter, he names the letter, but finds it difficult to find the missing element of the letter;
0 b - does not cope with the task, does not recognize the letter; refusal of the task.
Finding the average score based on the results of 3 tests.
The maximum score is 4.
1.2. Study of Successive Analysis and Synthesis
A - 1.2. The study of successive analysis and synthesis on non-verbal material.
A - 1.2.1. Test “Sequential pictures”.
Material: 11 series of pictures of subtest 4 of Veksler's Methods. The first 4 series are cut pictures, the rest are a short story.
A - 1.2.2. Inclusion of a plot picture in a series.
Material: a series of plot pictures.
The child is offered an incomplete series of plot pictures. One of the pictures is located separately.
Instructions: Look carefully at the pictures. They show one case. But one of the pictures accidentally fell out. Where should it be placed?
Evaluation of results:
2 b - slow pace of action, prolonged viewing of pictures, uncertainty;
1 b - uses the “trial and error” method;
0 b - incorrect execution of the task, failure.
The maximum score is 3.
A - 1.2.3. Investigation of problem solving for the search for regularities in the construction of series. Raven's method.
Material: drawings with figures interconnected by a certain pattern. One figure is missing, and below it is given among 4-5 other figures.
Instructions: Find what figure is missing. Why?
Evaluation of results:
Each of the three tasks is scored as follows:
3 b - correctly performs the task, there is purposefulness and a program of action, the regularity of the arrangement of the figures is explained;
2 b - slow pace of actions, long viewing of the picture, use of the "trial and error" method, difficulties in explaining the regularity of the location of the figures;
1 b - the missing figure is determined correctly, but the pattern of the arrangement of the figures is explained incorrectly or not explained at all;
0 b - incorrect execution of the task, refusal to complete.
Finding the average score for 3 tasks.
The maximum score is 3.
A - 1.2.4. Arithmetic test
Material: subtest "Arithmetic" of Veksler's Methods.
A - 1.2.5. Comparison of means of transport on the basis of speed.
Material: a set of pictures depicting means of transport (bike, tractor, car, plane, rocket).
The experimenter places 5 pictures in front of the subjects.
Instructions: Look carefully at the pictures, compare them. Arrange the items in order of increasing speed.
After completing the task, the question is asked: How to call all these objects in one word?
Evaluation of results:
4 b - correct, purposeful performance of the task; the generalizing concept is correctly named;
3 b - the task was completed correctly, but the pace of work is slow, it takes a long time to look at the pictures, shifts them from place to place, or the generalizing concept is named inaccurately;
2 b - uncertainty when performing a task, makes mistakes when naming a generalizing concept;
1 b - makes one mistake when performing the task, does not name a generalizing concept;
0 b - the task is performed incorrectly, refusal to complete the task.
The maximum score is 4.
B - 1.2. The study of successive analysis and synthesis on verbal material.
B - 1.2.1. Isographs. Reading words made up of letters of different fonts.
Material: isographs.
Instructions: Read the words, pointing to the letters with a pointer.
Evaluation of results.
Each of the 27 samples is scored as follows:
4 b - correct reading of the isograph without the help of the experimenter;
3b - correct decoding of the isograph, after a little help from the experimenter, all the letters of the word were found;
2 b - the word is named correctly, but individual letters were not found even after the help of the experimenter;
1b - with the intensive help of the experimenter, more than half of the letters were found, although the word was not named;
0 b - the isograph is not deciphered, less than half of the letters were found.
Finding the average score based on the results of 27 tests.
The maximum score is 4.
B - 1.2.2. Series continuation.
The experimenter presents the child with a series of letters arranged in a certain sequence.
Instruction: In this row, the letters are arranged in a certain sequence. Guess what order the letters are in and continue the row.
Evaluation of results.
Each of the 7 tasks is scored as follows:
4 b - the beginning of the activity is preceded by an understanding of the principle of the task, the activity is not affected by random urges;
3b - the beginning of the activity is preceded by an understanding of the principle of the task, the activity is not affected by random impulses, but the pace is slowed down, the implementation is difficult;
2 b - the principle of completing the task is not sufficiently clear, there is a tendency to transfer past experience in finished form to the task being solved at the moment;
1b - the chosen mode of action is stereotyped, deviates from the stereotype only with the intensive help of the experimenter, the influence of random impulses on activity is insignificantly manifested;
0 b - does not perform the task, refusal of activity.
Finding the average score for tasks 1-4 and the average score for tasks 5-7. Total score \u003d average score for tasks 1-4 +2 x for the average score for tasks 5-7.
The maximum score is 12.
B - 1.2.3. Finding a place for a letter.
Material: on a card in a row, letters are arranged in a certain sequence, on a separate card - a letter for which you need to find a place in a row.
Instructions: In front of you is a series of letters arranged in a certain sequence. You need to consider the row from left to right, as you read. Try to guess in what order the letters lie and between which of them it is necessary to put the letter that you are holding in your hands.
Evaluation of results:
1 point for each correctly completed task.
The maximum score is 3.
2. Study of the comparison operation
A - 2. Study of the comparison operation on the material of pictures.
Material: 4 story pictures depicting the seasons.
Pictures are laid out in front of the child.
Instructions: Look at the pictures. How are they similar? What is the difference?
Evaluation of results:
similarity.
4 b - seasons, at least 6 identical objects present in all pictures;
3 b - at least 6 identical objects;
2 b - at least 3 identical objects and seasons;
1 b - seasons or at least 3 identical objects;
0 b - no similarity found.
Differences.
4 b - “different seasons”, all the most significant differences between the pictures are named, i.e. distinguishing features of the seasons;
3 b - “different seasons”, but individual differences are not named;
2 b - difficulties in completing the task, naming, first of all, insignificant differences, or only “different seasons”;
1b - highlights only 1-2 least significant differences between the pictures;
0 b - refusal to complete the task.
Finding the average score for two indicators.
The maximum score is 4.
B - 2. Study of the comparison operation on verbal material.
B - 2.1. How are the words similar?
Material: series of three words.
Instructions: Look carefully at the words and say how they are similar.
Evaluation of results.
4 b - correctly highlights the general, names at least three common features, including at the phonetic, grammatical and syllabic level;
3 b - correctly highlights the general, but names at least three features related only to the phonetic level, or according to one feature from two levels;
2 b - highlights among the general signs 1-2 the least significant;
1 b - names one sign;
0 b - does not find something in common in a series of words, rejection of the task.
Finding the average score based on the results of 6 series.
The maximum score is 4.
B - 2.2. Similarity test.
Material: subtest “Resemblance” of the Wexler Method.
B - 2.3. Simple analogies.
Material: technique "Simple analogies".
The researcher offers the child to choose the right word from the proposed list, based on the relationship (analogy) between the words included in the task.
Instruction: I will tell you a sentence, and you complete it by choosing one of the given words.
If unsuccessful, the researcher gives the correct answer and offers the next suggestion.
Evaluation of results:
1 point for each correct answer.
The maximum score is 3.
Abstraction research.
A - 3. The study of abstraction on non-verbal material.
A - 3.1. Finding the location of the picture.
Material: 2 sets of seven pictures. The number of objects in the pictures of each of the sets increases in accordance with the natural series of numbers from 1 to 7.
6 cards with pictures are laid out in front of the child so that they form a horizontal row of pictures lying at an equal distance from each other. The experimenter gives a picture with the image of 5 objects to the subject.
Instructions: There is a ROW of pictures on the table in front of you (the word “row” is emphasized by the voice). They are in a certain order. You need to consider the row from left to right, as you read. Think and try to guess in what order the pictures are and between which of them you need to put the picture that you are holding in your hands.
If the task is completed incorrectly, the student is invited to consider a new row of pictures (second set):
You didn't do the job right. Before you a new ROW of pictures. Here the pictures are also arranged in a certain order and the row must be viewed from left to right, as you read. Try to find a place in this row for the same picture.
If the second variant of the task is performed correctly, return to the first variant.
Evaluation of results:
4 b - correct, confident, purposeful implementation of the first version of the task;
3 b - the first version of the task was completed incorrectly, but the second version was completed correctly; when returning to the first version of the task, corrects the mistake made;
2 b - in the first version of the task, the picture is located correctly, but when solving, the reliance is not on a quantitative sign, but on some other, the second version of the task is performed incorrectly;
1 b - the first variant of the task is executed incorrectly, but the second variant is correct, when returning to the first variant, it does not deviate from the erroneous initial decision;
0 b - incorrect performance of both the first and second options of the task, the subject is not able to change his decision after the negative reinforcement that accompanied his initial decision; refusal to complete the task.
The maximum score is 4.
A - 3.2. Test Missing Parts”.
Material: test “Missing Details” of the Wexler Method.
B - 3. The study of abstraction on verbal material.
B - 3.1. Finding a letter in a square.
Material: square with diagonals.
Instructions: The letters are hidden in the square. Here is the letter “X” (the experimenter shows the child the letter in a square). Find the rest of the hidden letters in the square.
Evaluation of results:
4 b - finds 8 or more letters;
3 b - finds 5-7 letters;
2 b - finds 3-4 letters;
1 b - finds less than three letters;
0 b - does not find any letters; refusal to complete the task.
The maximum score is 4.
B - 3.2. "Two words in brackets." Determination of the ability to highlight the essential features of the subject.
Material: a series of words, 5 of which are given in brackets, and one - before the brackets.
Instructions: Find in brackets two words that are most important for the word before the brackets.
Evaluation of results:
3 b - the task is performed without difficulty, both words in brackets are correctly found, the actions are confident, purposeful;
2 b - slow pace of work, actions are uncertain, but the task is completed correctly;
1 b - correctly finds one word;
0 b - finds words incorrectly, refusal of the task.
The maximum score is 3.
4. Generalization research
A - 4. The study of generalization on non-verbal material.
A - 4.1. The study of the process of generalization of subject material by generic affiliation. Methodology "Fourth extra" (1 option).
Material: 10 cards, each of which depicts 4 objects (3 of them belong to one generic group and one to a different generic group).
Directions: Name the items in the picture. What item is redundant? Why is this item redundant?
Evaluation of results.
Each of the 10 samples was evaluated as follows:
4 b - correct execution of the test, adequate reproduction of 4 species concepts, the judgment includes both necessary generic concepts;
3 b - correct execution of the test, adequate reproduction of 4 species concepts, correct reproduction of only one generic concept, and the second is not called exactly;
2 b - correct execution of the test, difficulties in reproducing specific concepts, one of the generic concepts is replaced by a functional definition, or it is called incorrectly or not called at all;
1 b - difficulties in performing the test, inaccuracies in the reproduction of species concepts, both generic concepts are replaced by functional definitions;
0 b - incorrect execution of the sample, refusal to complete the task.
The average score is found based on the results of 10 tests.
The maximum score is 4.
A - 4.2. The study of the process of generalization based on the selection of a common for a group of objects, not a generic feature. Methodology "The fourth extra" (2 option).
Material: 10 cards. Each card has 4 objects, three of which have a common feature (for example, glass and wood objects, northern and southern animals, winter and summer sports, etc.).
Instructions: Name an extra item. Why is this item redundant?
Evaluation of results.
Each of the 10 samples is evaluated as follows:
4 b - the grouping of objects is made according to the principle provided for in the development of the methodology;
3 b - the grouping of objects is done correctly, but the principle is not explained, or it is explained incorrectly;
2b - the grouping was done correctly after the experimenter's prompt;
1b - classification of objects is carried out in accordance with the instructions, but for reasons not provided by the experimenter, the experimenter's prompt is not effective;
0 b - incorrect performance of the task contrary to the instructions, refusal to complete the task.
Finding the average score based on the results of 10 tests.
The maximum score is 4.
A - 4.3. Test "Encryption".
Material: test “Encryption” of the Veksler Method.
B - 4. Study of the operation of generalization on verbal material.
B - 4.1. Study of the ability to divide objects into classes according to a given basis.
Material: words: table, cup, chair, plate, kettle, wardrobe, sofa, spoon, stool, armchair, pan.
Instructions: underline the name of the furniture with one line, the name of the dishes with two lines.
Evaluation of results:
3 b - the task is performed purposefully, confidently, correctly;
2 b - one mistake was made;
1 b - 2 errors were made;
0 b - more than 2 errors were made, the task was abandoned.
The maximum score is 3.
B - 4.2. The study of the ability to give a generalizing concept of a series of words.
Material: 20 series of words.
Instruction: I will give you a few words, and you try to give them a common name.
Evaluation of results.
Each series is rated as follows:
3 b - the task is performed correctly, the most accurate generic concept is named;
2 b - a generic concept inaccurate, more general, difficulties in completing a task;
1 b - the generic concept is replaced by a functional definition;
0 b - the generic concept is named incorrectly, refusal of the task.
Finding the average score based on the results of 20 series.
The maximum score is 3.
B - 4.3. Methodology “Fourth extra” (3rd option).
Material: 10 series of words, four words in each series.
Instructions: Find the extra word. Explain why this word is redundant.
Evaluation of results.
Each series of words is scored as follows:
3 b - the task was completed correctly, the principle of generalization and exclusion was explained;
2 b - the task was completed correctly, but the principle of generalization and exclusion was explained inaccurately;
1 b - the extra word is found correctly, but the principle of generalization and exclusion is incorrect or not explained;
0 b - the task was completed incorrectly.
Finding the average score based on the results of 10 series.
The maximum score is 3.
5. Classification study
A - 5. Study of classification on non-verbal material.
A - 5.1. Classification of objects by gender.
Material: a set of pictures depicting objects (clothes and fruits) and animals (one picture each).
Instructions: Arrange the items in groups - what goes with what, and name them. Say which two groups can be combined into one, name the resulting two groups.
Evaluation of results:
4 b - the task is performed purposefully, correctly;
3b - slow paced action, long viewing of pictures, uses the “trial and error” method; or correctly combines two groups, but incorrectly names the basis of classification;
2 b - combines 2 groups incorrectly, singles out an insignificant feature as a basis, explaining it;
1 b - combines 2 groups incorrectly, does not explain the choice of the basis for combining 2 groups;
0 b - classification of items is made on the basis of non-essential features (not at a generalized level), refusal to complete the task.
The maximum score is 4.
A - 5.2. Classification of objects according to similar features.
Material: a set of pictures depicting familiar objects.
The experimenter puts 4 pictures in a row in front of the child (sheep, tree, cow, spikelets). Under these pictures are placed others with the image of objects that are related in meaning to the previous ones (sweater, table, milk, bread).
Instructions: I arrange the pictures in a certain order. Guess why I arranged the pictures like this. Lay out the rest of the pictures.
Evaluation of results:
4 b - the task is performed purposefully, confidently, correctly; explained the principle of action;
3 b - slow pace of action, long viewing of pictures, but performs the task independently; difficulties in explaining the principle of action;
2 b - uses the "trial and error" method, does not explain the principle of operation;
1 b - makes one mistake when performing the task, does not explain the principle of action;
0 b - performs the task incorrectly, refusal of the task.
The maximum score is 4.
B - 5. The study of classification on verbal material.
B - 5.1. The study of the ability to give a verbal description of classes in the finished classification (option 1).
The experimenter offers the child a list of words: vase, ear, cat, mushroom, spruce, feather, table. Further, these words are placed in two columns.
The subject is given three answers.
Instruction: Choose a rule according to which words are divided into columns.
Evaluation of results:
3 b - the task was completed correctly, quickly, confidently;
2b - the task was completed correctly, but asks for instructions again, is unsure, the pace is slowed down;
1 b - the task was completed correctly after prompting;
The maximum score is 3.
B - 5.2. The study of the ability to give a verbal description of classes in the finished classification (option 2).
Material: on the card, the words are arranged in three columns according to the number of syllables.
Instructions: Words are divided according to the number of syllables. Fill in the missing words in the following sentences.
Evaluation of results:
4 b - the task is performed purposefully, confidently, correctly;
3b - uses the “trial and error” method, but when prompted, he catches errors and corrects them on his own;
2 b - 1 mistake was made;
1 b - 2 errors were made;
0 b - the task was performed incorrectly, the help of the experimenter is not effective, the task is refused.
The maximum score is 4.
Processing of the results of the ascertaining research:
The raw score obtained for each test item was translated into a relative score, which is equal to the quotient of dividing the raw score obtained by the child by the maximum possible score for this item. Relative scores varied from 0 to 1.
Tests from D. Wexler's methodology were processed as follows:
1) Baseline scores for subtests were determined. The initial score was the sum of the scores received by the student for the answers to the tasks of this subtest.
2) The subject belonged to the age group. To do this, based on the date of birth of the subject and the date of the test, the age of the subject was calculated as the number of full years and full months at the time of the study.
3) Scale scores were determined for subtests (from 0 to 20 points) according to the table for converting initial scores into scale scores.
4) Scale scores were converted into relative scores. The relative score was obtained by dividing the scale score by the maximum scale score (20 points). Thus, the scores for the tests also changed from 0 to 1.
Conventionally, we have identified four levels of test task execution:
High level - from 0.81 to 1;
The level is above average - from 0.61 to 0.8;
The average level is from 0.41 to 0.6;
Below average level - from 0.21 to 0.4
Low level - from 0 to 0.2.
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Mental operations (thinking operations). Mental activity is carried out in the form of mental operations passing into each other. These include: comparison-classification, generalization-systematization, abstraction-concretization. Thinking operations are mental actions.
Comparison- a mental operation that reveals the identity and difference of phenomena and their properties, allowing for a classification of phenomena and their generalization. Comparison is an elementary primary form of knowledge. Initially, identity and difference are established as external relations. But then, when comparison is synthesized with generalization, ever deeper connections and relationships are revealed, essential features of phenomena of the same class. Comparison underlies the stability of our consciousness, its differentiation.
Generalization. Generalization is a property of thinking, and generalization is the central mental operation. Generalization can be carried out at two levels. The elementary level of generalization is the combination of similar objects according to external features (generalization). But the generalization of the second, higher level, when in a group of objects and phenomena there are significant common features.
Human thinking moves from facts to generalizations and from generalizations to facts. Thanks to generalizations, a person foresees the future, orients himself in a specific situation. Generalization begins to arise already during the formation of representations, but in full form it is embodied in the concept. When mastering concepts, we abstract from the random features and properties of objects and single out only their essential properties.
Elementary generalizations are made on the basis of comparisons, and the highest form of generalizations is made on the basis of isolating the essential-general, revealing regular connections and relationships, that is, on the basis of abstraction.
Abstraction- the operation of the transition from sensory reflection to the selection of individual properties that are essential in any respect (from lat. abstractio- distraction). In the process of abstraction, a person, as it were, "cleanses" the object from side features that make it difficult to study it in a certain respect. Correct scientific abstractions reflect reality deeper and more fully than direct impressions. On the basis of generalization and abstraction, classification and concretization are carried out.
Classification- grouping objects according to essential features. The classification is based on signs that are significant in any respect. Systematization sometimes it allows the choice as a basis of signs of little importance (for example, alphabetical catalogs), but operationally convenient.
At the highest stage of cognition, there is a transition from the abstract to the concrete. Specification(from lat. concretio- fusion) - knowledge of a holistic object in the totality of its essential relationships, theoretical reconstruction of a holistic object. Concretization is the highest stage in the cognition of the objective world.
Cognition starts from the sensory diversity of reality, abstracts from its individual aspects and, finally, mentally recreates the concrete in its essential fullness. The transition from the abstract to the concrete is the theoretical assimilation of reality.
Forms of thinking.
Formal structures of thoughts and their combinations are called forms of thinking. There are three types of thinking - judgment, inference and concept.
Judgment- a certain knowledge about the subject, the assertion or denial of any of its properties, connections and relations. The formation of a judgment occurs as the formation of a thought into a sentence. A judgment is a sentence that asserts the relationship of an object and its properties. Depending on the content of the objects reflected in the judgment and their properties, the types of judgment are distinguished: private and general, conditional and categorical, affirmative and negative.
Judgment expresses not only knowledge about the subject, but also subjective attitude a person to this knowledge, a different degree of confidence in the truth of this knowledge (for example, in problematic judgments like “Perhaps the accused Ivanov did not commit a crime”). Judgments can be systematically combined. The truth of a system of judgments is the subject of formal logic. Psychologically, the connection of an individual's judgments is considered as his rational activity.
The operation of the general, which is contained in the individual, is carried out through conclusions. Thinking develops in the process of constant transitions from the general to the individual and from the individual to the general, that is, on the basis of the relationship of induction and deduction (Fig.).
Determine the starting and ending points of the route of the owner of this suitcase. Analyze the types of inferences you have used.
Deduction- reflection of the general connections of phenomena.
Professor of Medicine at the University of Edinburgh Bell once struck Conan Doyle (the future creator of the image of the famous detective) with his subtle powers of observation. When another patient entered the clinic, Bell asked him:
- Did you serve in the army? - Yes sir! the patient replied.
- In the mountain rifle regiment? “Yes, Mr. Doctor.
Have you recently retired? - Yes sir! the patient replied.
- Were you in Barbados? - Yes sir! said the retired sergeant. Bell explained to the astonished students: this man, being courteous, did not shine his hat at the entrance to the office - the army habit affected, as for Barbados - this is evidenced by his disease, which is common only among the inhabitants of this area.
inductive reasoning- this is a probabilistic conclusion: according to individual signs of some phenomena, a judgment is made about all objects of a given class. Hasty generalization without good reason is a common error in inductive reasoning.
concept- a form of thinking that reflects the essential properties of a homogeneous group of objects and phenomena. The more essential features of objects are reflected in the concept, the more effectively human activity is organized. (Thus, the modern concept of "the structure of the atomic nucleus" made it possible to use atomic energy in practice.)
So, in thinking, the objective essential properties and interconnections of phenomena are modeled, they are objectified and fixed in the form of judgments, conclusions and concepts.
Types of thinking.
Practical-active, visual-figurative and theoretical-abstract - these are the interconnected types of thinking. In the process of historical development, the human intellect was originally formed as a practical intellect. (So, in the course of practical activity, people learned to measure land plots empirically, and then, on this basis, a special theoretical science, geometry, gradually arose.)
Genetically original kind of thinking - visual action thinking; actions with objects play a leading role in it (animals also have this type of thinking in its infancy).
On the basis of visual-effective, manipulative thinking arises visual-figurative thinking. This species is characterized by operating with visual images in the mind.
The highest level of thinking is abstract, abstract thinking. However, here, too, thinking retains a connection with practice.
The type of thinking of individuals can also be divided into predominantly figurative (artistic) and abstract (theoretical). But in different types of activity, one and the same person comes to the fore one or another type of thinking. (Thus, everyday affairs require visual-effective and figurative thinking, and a report on a scientific topic requires theoretical thinking.)
The structural unit of practical (operational) thinking is action; artistic - image; scientific thinking concept.
Depending on the depth of generalization, empirical and theoretical thinking are distinguished. empirical thinking(from Greek. empeiria- experience) gives primary generalizations based on experience. These generalizations are made at a low level of abstraction. Empirical knowledge is the lowest elementary level of knowledge. Empirical thinking should not be confused with practical thinking.
As noted by the famous psychologist V.M. Teplov (“The Mind of a Commander”), many psychologists take the work of a scientist, a theorist, as the only example of mental activity. Meanwhile, practical activity requires no less intellectual effort. The mental activity of the theoretician is concentrated mainly on the first part of the path of cognition - a temporary retreat, a retreat from practice. The mental activity of the practitioner is concentrated mainly on the second part - on the transition from abstract thinking to practice, that is, on that introduction into practice, for the sake of which the theoretical departure is made.
A feature of practical thinking is subtle observation, the ability to focus attention on individual details of an event, the ability to use to solve a particular problem that special and singular that was not completely included in theoretical generalization, the ability to quickly move from thinking to action.
In the practical thinking of a person, the optimal ratio of his mind and will, the cognitive, regulatory and energy capabilities of the individual is essential. Practical thinking is associated with the operational setting of priority goals, the development of flexible plans, programs, great self-control in stressful conditions of activity.
theoretical thinking reveals universal relations, explores the object of knowledge in the system of its necessary connections. Its result is the construction of theoretical models, the creation of theories, the generalization of experience, the disclosure of the patterns of development of various phenomena, the knowledge of which ensures the transformative activity of man. Theoretical thinking, inextricably linked with practice in its origins and final results, has a relative independence - it is based on previous knowledge and serves as the basis for subsequent knowledge.
In the early stages of a child's mental development, as well as in underdeveloped individuals, thinking can be syncretic(from Greek. sinkretisrnos- connection). At the same time, phenomena are connected on the basis of their external similarity, and not essential connections: the connection of impressions is taken for the connection of things.
Depending on the standard-non-standard nature of the tasks being solved and operational procedures, there are algorithmic, discursive, and:
- algorithmic thinking is carried out in accordance with pre-established rules, the generally accepted sequence of actions necessary to solve typical problems;
- discursive(from lat. discursus- reasoning) - thinking based on a system of interrelated inferences - rational thinking;
- — productive thinking, solving non-standard tasks;
- creative thinking is thinking that leads to new discoveries, fundamentally new results.
The structure of mental activity in solving non-standard problems.
Mental activity is divided into reproducing - solving typical problems by known methods (reproductive) and search (productive). Productive mental activity- a thought process aimed at solving a non-standard cognitive task. Mental activity in solving non-standard problems also has a certain structure; it takes place in the form of a sequential series of stages (Fig.).
First stage search cognitive activity - the individual's awareness of the emerging problem situation. Such situations are associated with the unusual nature of the current situation, sudden difficulties in resolving certain issues. The act of thinking in this case begins with the awareness of the inconsistency, ambiguity of the initial conditions of activity, the need for cognitive search. Awareness of the cognitive barrier that has arisen, the insufficiency of available information gives rise to the desire to fill the information deficit. First of all, the need to objectify the unknown is formed - the search for the formulation of the cognitive question begins, finding out what you need to know or be able to do in order to get out of the problem situation that has arisen. The problematic situation, as it were, prompts the subject to the corresponding sphere of knowledge.
The problem in Greek means a barrier, difficulty, and psychologically - awareness of the question to be investigated. It is important to separate the real problem from the pseudo-problem. Problem Statement- the initial link in the interaction of the subject with the object of knowledge. If the problem interacts with the cognitive base of the subject of knowledge, allows him to outline what he is looking for, which he can find through some transformations of the initial conditions, a problem arises. A problem is a structurally organized problem. At the same time, the unknown is sought due to its hidden objective relationships with the known. The cognitive task is subdivided into a system of operational tasks. To define a system of tasks means to single out the starting conditions for cognitive activity in a problem situation.
The transformation of a problematic situation into a problem, and then into a system of operational tasks is the first, initial act of cognitive-search activity.
The division of the main question into a number of hierarchically related questions − formation of a problem solving program. This establishes what can be learned from the available data and what new information is needed to complete the entire search program.
The tasks that a person solves can be simple and complex for him. It depends on the stock of knowledge of the individual, mastering it by ways of solving this class of problems.
Task types are defined by those ways of mental activity that underlie their decision. All cognitive-search tasks according to the objective content are divided into three. class: 1) recognition tasks (determining whether a given phenomenon belongs to a certain class of objects), 2) design tasks, 3) tasks for explanation and proof.
Explanation- the use of methods for establishing the reliability of judgments regarding any phenomena. Most often this is a logical consequence.
Proof- the mental process of asserting the truth of any position (thesis) by a system of other axiomatic judgments. In this case, the initial argument is first sought, and then the system of connecting arguments leading to the final conclusion. Problems of proof are solved by reference to the organization of an object, its inherent stable structural relationships, and the identification of functional relationships between objects.
Thinking tasks are divided into simple and complex. Simple Tasks- tasks are typical, standard. Known rules and algorithms are used to solve them. Intellectual search here consists in identifying the type of task by its identification features, correlating a particular case with a general rule. With the systematic solution of such problems, appropriate intellectual skills and habitual schemes of actions are formed.
TO complex tasks include non-standard, non-standard tasks, to the most difficult- heuristic tasks, tasks with incomplete initial data that arise in multivalued initial situations (for example, when investigating non-obvious crimes). In this case, the primary heuristic action is to expand the information field of the problem by transforming the original information. One of the methods of such a transformation is the fragmentation of the problem into a number of particular problems, formation of a "tree of problems".
The central link in solving a problem is the identification of a principle, a general scheme, and a method for solving it. For this, it is necessary to see the concrete as a manifestation of certain general relationships, to explain the possible causes of the phenomenon by high-probability assumptions - hypotheses. If the task is an information system with its elements mismatched, then the hypothesis is the first attempt to coordinate its elements. On this basis, a person mentally changes the problem situation in various directions.
Hypothesis(from Greek. hipothesis- sentence) - a probabilistic assumption about the essence, structure, mechanism, cause of a phenomenon - the basis of the hypothetical-deductive method of cognition, probabilistic thinking. A hypothesis is used in cases where the causes of a phenomenon are inaccessible to experimental research and only its consequences can be investigated.. The advancement of a hypothesis (version) is preceded by a study of all the signs of the phenomenon available for observation, the preceding, accompanying and subsequent circumstances of the event. Hypotheses (versions) are formed only in certain information situations - in the presence of conceptually comparable inputs, serving as the basis for high-probability assumptions. In various branches of practice, specific features of solving problems by the inductive-hypothetical method arise. Thus, in investigative practice are widely used general and private, specific and typical versions.
Hypotheses arise on the basis of preliminary mental actions with the object of knowledge. Such preliminary hypotheses are called workers. They are characterized by the looseness of M, the assumption of the most unexpected assumptions and their prompt verification.
Here is how P.K. Anokhin mental activity of I.P. Pavlova: “What was striking about him was that he could not work for a minute without a completed working hypothesis. Just as a climber who has lost one point of support immediately replaces it with another, so Pavlov, when one working hypothesis was destroyed, immediately tried to create a new one on its ruins, more consistent with the latest facts ... But a working hypothesis was for him only a stage through which he passed, rising to a higher level of research, and therefore he never turned it into a dogma. Sometimes, thinking hard, he changed assumptions and hypotheses with such speed that it was difficult to keep up with him.
Hypothesis- an information-probabilistic model, a mentally represented system that displays the elements of a problem situation and allows you to transform these elements in order to fill in the missing links of the reconstructed system.
Forming a model-probabilistic image of the event under study, the cognizing subject uses various methods: analogy, interpolation, extrapolation, interpretation, thought experiment.
Analogy(from Greek. analogia- similarity) - the similarity of various phenomena in some respects, on the basis of which a conclusion is made about the possible presence of certain properties in the object under study. The method of analogy contributes to the reflection in our minds of the most common connections and relationships. Objects that are similar in one respect, as a rule, are similar in another. However, by analogy, only probabilistic knowledge can be obtained. Assumptions by analogy should be subject to verification actions. The more objects are similar in essential features, the higher the probability of their similarity in other respects. Different analogy properties and analogy relations.
method interpolation(from lat. interpolation- substitution) for a series of given values, a function of intermediate values \u200b\u200bis found. (So, having established a certain dependence in a numerical sequence, we can fill in the numerical gap: 2, 4, 8, 16, ?, 64.) Problem situations resolved by the interpolation method allow finding logically justified intermediate elements. However, the interpolation method for eliminating the "gap" is possible only under certain conditions: the interpolation function must be sufficiently "smooth" - it must have a sufficient number of derivatives that do not increase too rapidly. With their excessively rapid increase, interpolation becomes more difficult (for example: 2.4, ?, 128).
method extrapolation(from lat. extra- outside and polire- to finish off) tasks are solved that allow the transfer of knowledge about one group of phenomena to another group, generalization of the phenomenon as a whole in its part.
Method interpretations(from lat. interpretatio- interpretation, clarification) means interpretation, disclosure of the meaning of an event.
The general way to solve non-standard problems is probabilistic information modeling. Probabilistic information models link individual aspects of the incident in spatio-temporal and cause-and-effect relationships. When investigating incidents with criminal signs, the following questions are clarified: What actions should have been taken under these conditions? Under what conditions could these actions be carried out? What traces, signs, consequences and where should they have appeared? So, probabilistic modeling is the second necessary step in solving non-standard problems.
Third stage problem solving - hypothesis testing, assumptions. To do this, all possible consequences are derived from the version, which correlate with the available facts. In investigative practice, investigative actions prescribed by law are used: examination of material evidence, inspection of the scene of an incident, interrogation, search, investigative experiment, etc. At the same time, the investigator develops a strategy for investigating this event, establishes a system of necessary investigative actions and a system of tactics in each of them. In this case, the recreating imagination of the investigator is of essential importance - his ability to figuratively represent the dynamics of a real event, those signs of it that must inevitably be reflected in the environment, the ability of the investigator to evaluate and explain the fragments of the phenomenon in the light of the logic of the whole.
If, when putting forward a hypothesis, a version, a thought goes from the particular to the general, then when it is tested, it goes from the general to a system of particular manifestations, that is, it is used deductive method. At the same time, all necessary and possible manifestations of the general in the particular should be analyzed.
On the fourth and final stage problem solving, the obtained results are compared with the initial requirement. Their agreement means creation of a reliable information-logical model the object under study, the solution of the problem. The model is formed as a result of the nomination and verification of such a version, all the consequences of which are really confirmed and give all the facts the only possible explanation.
Creative thinking.
Creative thinking- decision thinking fundamentally new problems leading to new ideas, discoveries. A new idea is always a new look at the interconnections of phenomena. Often a new idea arises on the basis of a new "coupling" of previously known information. (So, A. Einstein, as you know, did not conduct experiments, he only comprehended the available information from a new perspective, re-systematized it.)
New ideas arise on the basis of certain prerequisites in the general development of a particular branch of knowledge. But this always requires a special, non-standard mindset of the researcher, his intellectual courage, the ability to move away from the dominant ideas. Old, classical concepts are always surrounded by a halo of universal recognition and, therefore, prevent the emergence of new views, ideas and theories.
Thus, the geocentric concept of duty prevented the establishment of a scientific view of the motion of the Earth around the Sun; conditioned reflex "arc" I.P. Pavlova for a long time made it difficult to accept the idea of a “ring” put forward by P.K. Anokhin back in 1935.
One of the main components of creative thinking is its imagery, imagination. It is no coincidence that the thought experiment method is so widely used in science. Pyramids, cathedrals, and rockets exist not because of geometry, building mechanics, and thermodynamics, but because they were originally a visible picture in the minds of those who built them.
In creative thinking, the right path to a discovery is sometimes found after it has been made. The initial take-off of thought should not have restrictions! Free consciousness initially embraces everything that can be explained and classified without any need. A fundamentally new phenomenon cannot be understood by means of laws and generalizations known to the subject. All critical stages of cognition are inevitably associated with the “shock of novelty”.
In creativity, the free play of human forces is realized, the creative intuition of a person is realized. Each new discovery, creative act acts as a new recognition by a person of the world around him. Creativity is, as it were, a pulsation of a person's superconsciousness above his consciousness.
Creative individuals are nonconformists: they accept the demands of the environment only to the extent that they coincide with their own positions. Their ideas about life, society, the world around them are non-standard, they are not held captive by dogmas. The intelligence of creative people synthetic- they seek to establish connections in a variety of phenomena. In addition, their thinking divergently— they strive to see the most diverse combinations of the same things. They retain an almost childish ability for surprise and admiration for the rest of their lives, they are sensitive to everything unusual.
Creativity, as a rule, is associated with intuitive, little-conscious processes. Intuition(from lat. intueri- peering) - the ability to directly, without resorting to detailed reasoning, find answers to complex questions, comprehend the truth, guessing about it; a leap of reason unburdened by the fetters of strict reasoning. Intuition is characterized by sudden insight, conjecture; it is connected with the individual's ability to extrapolate, to transfer knowledge to new situations, with the plasticity of his intellect. A "leap of the mind" is possible with a high level of generalization of experience and professional knowledge.
The mechanism of intuition consists in the simultaneous unification of disparate signs of phenomena into a single complex search landmark. This simultaneous coverage of various information distinguishes intuition from logically consistent thinking.
The intuitive act is highly dynamic, it is distinguished by a large number of degrees of freedom in using the initial data of the problem. The leading role in intuition is played by the semantic meanings related to the tasks of this class. (This is the basis of professional intuition.)
Patterns of thinking.
1. Thinking arises in connection with the solution of a problem; the condition for its occurrence is a problem situation - a circumstance in which a person encounters something new, incomprehensible from the point of view of existing knowledge. This situation is characterized lack of initial information, the emergence of a certain cognitive barrier, difficulties to be overcome by the intellectual activity of the subject - the search for the necessary cognitive strategies.
2. The main mechanism of thinking, its general pattern is analysis through synthesis: highlighting new properties in an object (analysis) through its correlation (synthesis) with other objects. In the process of thinking, the object of cognition is constantly “included in ever new connections and, because of this, appears in ever new qualities, which are fixed in new concepts: from the object, in this way, all new content is, as it were, scooped out; it seems to turn every time with its other side, all new properties are revealed in it.
The learning process begins with primary synthesis- perception of an undivided whole (phenomenon, situation). Further, on the basis of the analysis, a secondary synthesis is carried out. When analyzing the initial problem situation, it is necessary to focus on the key initial data that make it possible to reveal hidden information in the initial information. At the same time, signs of possibility-impossibility and necessity are revealed.
In conditions of lack of initial information, a person does not act by trial and error, but uses a certain search strategy - the optimal scheme for achieving the goal. The purpose of these strategies is to cover a non-standard situation with the most optimal general approaches - heuristic search methods. These include: temporary simplification of the situation; the use of analogies, the solution of leading problems; consideration of "extreme cases", reformulation of the requirements of the problem; temporary blocking of some components in the analyzed system; making "jumps" through information gaps.
So, analysis through synthesis is a cognitive "deployment" of the object of knowledge, its study from various angles, finding its place in new relationships, mental experimentation with it.
3. Every true thought must be substantiated by other thoughts, the truth of which has been proven. If there is "B", then there is its base - "A". Requirement soundness of thinking due to the fundamental property of material reality: every fact, every phenomenon is prepared by previous facts and phenomena. Nothing happens without a good reason. The law of sufficient reason requires that in any reasoning, a person's thoughts be internally interconnected, follow one from the other. Each particular thought must be substantiated by a more general thought. Only on the basis of correct generalizations, understanding the typicality of the situation, a person finds a solution to problems.
4. Selectivity(from lat. selectio- choice, selection) - the ability of the intellect select the knowledge necessary for a given situation, to mobilize them to solve the problem, bypassing the mechanical enumeration of all possible options (which is typical for computers). To do this, the knowledge of the individual must be systematized, summarized in a hierarchically organized structure.
5. Anticipation(from lat. anticipatio- anticipation) means anticipation of events. A person is able to foresee the development of events, predict their outcome, schematically represent the most probable outcomes of their actions. Forecasting events is one of the main functions of the human psyche.
6. reflexivity(from lat. reflexio- reflection). The thinking subject constantly reflects - reflects the course of his thinking, evaluates it critically, develops criteria for self-esteem. (Reflection refers to both the self-reflection of the subject and the mutual reflection of communication partners.)
Tests for analytical thinking.
