Modern fundamental science. Fundamental and applied sciences

Basic sciences is a system of knowledge about the deep properties of objective reality. These sciences create theories that explain all the processes taking place in this world. The fundamental sciences include: mathematical, natural (astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology, anthropology, etc.), social (economics, sociology, political science, law, etc.) and humanitarian sciences(philology, psychology, philosophy, cultural studies, etc.).

Applied Sciences is a system of knowledge with a pronounced practical orientation. Applied sciences include technical sciences, agronomy, medicine, pedagogy, etc. All sciences are divided into four main groups: natural, technical, public (social) and humanitarian.

Differentiation and integration of sciences

Mankind has gone through three stages of development of science: natural philosophy, analytical science and differentiation of science, and is currently entering the fourth stage - science integration. The formation of natural philosophy continued until the 15th century. Since the 15th century, analytical sciences have appeared. Since the 19th century, with the accumulation of information, in the private sciences there has been differentiation of sciences. This process continues at the present time. As a result of the differentiation of sciences, astronomy and celestial mechanics first arose, then the mechanics of terrestrial processes, then the doctrine of heat. Nowadays, the science of nature is expanding due to the emergence of interdisciplinary sciences, such as biochemistry, physical chemistry, chemical physics, biophysics, geophysics, etc. All studies of nature can be represented as a huge network connecting numerous branches of physical, chemical and biological sciences.

What are fundamental and applied sciences? The answer to this question can be found by considering the structure of modern scientific knowledge. It is diverse, complex and covers thousands of different disciplines, each of which is a separate science.

Science and its understanding in the modern world

The whole history of mankind is evidence of a constant search. This ongoing process pushed a person to develop various forms and ways of knowing the world, one of which is science. It is she who, acting as a component of culture, allows a person to “get acquainted” with the world around him, to know the laws of development and ways of existence.

By acquiring scientific knowledge, a person discovers endless possibilities for himself, allowing him to transform the reality around him.

The definition of science as a special sphere of human activity leads to an understanding of its main task. The essence of the latter is the systematization of existing and the so-called production of new knowledge about reality, human environment, about various aspects of this reality. Such a concept of science allows us to present it as a kind of system that includes many elements connected by a common methodology or worldview. The components here are various scientific disciplines: social and humanitarian, technical, natural and others. Today there are more than ten thousand.

Approaches to the classification of sciences

The diversity and complexity of the entire system of science determines the consideration of its features from two sides, such as:

• practical applicability;
• subject community.

In the first case, the whole set of scientific disciplines can be conditionally divided into two large groups: fundamental and applied sciences. If the latter are directly related to practice and are aimed at solving any specific problems, then the former, acting as a kind of basis, are guidelines in the formation of a general idea of ​​the world.

In the second, referring to the content side that characterizes the disciplines based on three subject areas (man, society and nature), three are distinguished:

• natural, or, as they say, natural science, which studies various aspects of nature, these are physics, chemistry, biology, mathematics, astronomy, etc.;
• public or social, studying various aspects public life(sociology, political science, etc.);
• humanitarian - here the object is a person and everything connected with him: his culture, language, interests, rights, etc.

The essence of the differences between sciences

Let us consider what underlies the division into applied and fundamental sciences.

The former can be represented as a certain system of knowledge with a well-defined practical orientation. They are aimed at solving any specific problems: increasing crop yields, reducing morbidity, etc.
In other words, applied sciences are those whose research results have a clear and, as a rule, practical goal.

The fundamental sciences, being more abstract, serve higher purposes. Actually, their name speaks for itself. The system of this knowledge forms the foundation of the entire building of science, gives an idea of ​​the scientific picture of the world. It is here that the concepts, laws, principles, theories and concepts that form the basis of applied sciences are created.

The problem of the ambivalence of science

Applied sciences, acting as a solution to specific problems, are often not devoid of some duality in their final results. On the one hand, new knowledge is a stimulus for further progress, it significantly expands human capabilities. On the other hand, they also create new, sometimes intractable problems, having a negative impact on a person and the world around him.

Serving someone's private interests, obtaining super profits, applied sciences in the hands of man violate the harmony created by the Creator: they negatively affect health, inhibit or stimulate natural processes, replace natural elements with synthetic ones, etc.

This part of science causes a very controversial attitude towards itself, since such service to human needs at the expense of nature carries a significant threat to the existence of the planet as a whole.

The ratio of applied and fundamental in science

The possibility of a clear division of the sciences into the above groups is disputed by some researchers. They substantiate their objections by the fact that any sphere of scientific knowledge, starting its way from goals that are very far from practice, can ultimately transform into a predominantly applied area.

The development of any branch of science takes place in two stages. The essence of the first is the accumulation of knowledge to a certain level. Overcoming it and moving on to the next one is marked by the possibility of carrying out some type of practical activity on the basis of the information received. The second stage consists in further development acquired knowledge and its application in any particular industry.

The point of view accepted by many, relating the results of fundamental science to new knowledge, and applied science to their practical application, is not entirely correct. The problem is that here there is a substitution of the result and the goal. After all, often new knowledge is possible thanks to applied research, and the discovery of hitherto unknown technologies can be the result of fundamental ones.

The fundamental differences between these components of science are the properties of the results obtained. In the case of applied research, they are predictable and expected, but in fundamental research they are unpredictable and can “overturn” already established theories, which gives rise to much more valuable knowledge.

Correlation between humanities and social sciences

This subject area of ​​scientific knowledge pays attention to the problems of man, studying him as an object from various angles. However, there is still no unity on what sciences to classify as humanities. The reason for these disagreements can be considered social disciplines, which are also related to a person, but only from the standpoint of considering him in society. According to a number of sciences, a person without society cannot be formed in the full sense of the word. An example of this is the children who found themselves and grew up in a pack of animals. Having missed an important stage of their socialization, they could not become full-fledged people.

The way out of this situation was the combined name: social and humanitarian knowledge. It characterizes a person not only as an individual subject, but also as a participant in social relations.

Social and humanitarian knowledge in the applied aspect

The number of scientific disciplines that form this subject area is significant: history, sociology, political science, psychology, philosophy, economics, philology, theology, archeology, cultural studies, jurisprudence, etc. All these are the humanities. Applied aspects of many of them appeared as they were developed. Such disciplines as sociology, psychology, political and legal sciences were most clearly manifested in this capacity. They were fundamental and became the basis for practical ones. In the social and humanitarian sphere, applied sciences include: applied psychology, political technologies, legal psychology, criminalistics, social engineering, management psychology, etc.

Legal sciences and their role in the development of applied knowledge

This branch of scientific knowledge also contains fundamental and applied sciences. Here the section between them can be traced simply. There is a fundamental discipline - the theory of state and law. It contains the main concepts, categories, methodology, principles and is the basis for the development of all jurisprudence as a whole.

On the basis of the theory of state and law, all other disciplines develop, including applied legal sciences. Their appearance is based on the use of so-called non-legal knowledge from various areas: statistics, medicine, sociology, psychology, etc. This combination at one time opened up new opportunities for a person in ensuring the rule of law.

The list of legal disciplines that form the applied sciences is quite large. It includes criminology, forensic science, legal psychology, forensic medicine, forensic statistics, legal informatics, forensic psychology, and others. As you can see, here the applied sciences include not only purely legal disciplines, but mainly those that do not belong to jurisprudence.

Tasks of applied science

Speaking about this area of ​​scientific knowledge, it should be noted that, like the fundamental one, it is designed to serve a person and solve his problems. Actually, this is what applied sciences do. In a broad aspect, their tasks should be formed as a social order of society that allows solving urgent problems. However, in practice, given the specific nature of applied problems, everything is seen differently.

As already noted, the development of applied sciences can be built on the basis of fundamental ones. The existing close, almost genetic connection between them does not allow to draw a clear boundary here. And therefore, the tasks of applied sciences are due to the improvement of fundamental research, which are as follows:

• the possibility of discovering unknown facts;
• systematization of the received theoretical knowledge;
• formulation of new laws and discoveries;
• the formation of theories based on the introduction of new concepts, concepts and ideas into science.

In turn, applied sciences use the acquired knowledge for the following purposes:

• development and implementation of new technologies;
• design of various devices and fixtures;
• study of the influence of chemical, physical and other processes on substances and objects.

The list will continue as long as man and science exist as a special form of cognition of reality. But the main task of applied science is seen as its service to humanity and its needs.

Applied problems of the humanities

These disciplines center around the individual and society. Here they perform their specific tasks, due to their subject matter.

The development of applied sciences is possible both with the priority of the practical component, and with the theoretical one. The first direction is widespread and covers various branches of scientific knowledge, which have already been mentioned.

Regarding the second direction, it should be noted that applied theoretical sciences are built on completely different foundations. Here are the foundations:

• hypotheses;
• patterns;
• abstractions;
• generalizations, etc.

The complexity of this type of knowledge lies in the fact that it assumes the existence of a special type of constructs - abstract objects that are linked together by theoretical laws and are aimed at studying the essence of phenomena and processes. As a rule, such methods of cognition of reality are resorted to by philosophy, economics, sociology, political and legal sciences. In addition to theoretical foundations, they can also use empirical data, as well as the apparatus of mathematical disciplines.

Fundamental science is a science whose goal is to create theoretical concepts and models, the practical applicability of which is not obvious 1. The task of fundamental sciences is the knowledge of the laws that govern the behavior and interaction of the basic structures of nature, society and thinking. These laws and structures are studied in their "pure form", as such, regardless of their possible use. Fundamental and applied science have different methods and subject of research, different approaches and angle of view on social reality. Each of them has its own quality criteria, its own techniques and methodology, its own understanding of the functions of a scientist, its own history and even its own ideology. In other words, their own world and their own subculture.

Natural science is an example of fundamental science. It is aimed at understanding nature, such as it is in itself, regardless of what application its discoveries will receive: space exploration or pollution. environment. And natural science does not pursue any other goal. This is science for science's sake; knowledge of the surrounding world, the discovery of the fundamental laws of being and the increment of fundamental knowledge.

The immediate goal of the applied sciences is the application of the results of the fundamental sciences to solve not only cognitive, but also practical problems. Therefore, here the criterion of success is not only the achievement of truth, but also the measure of satisfaction of the social order. As a rule, fundamental sciences are ahead of applied sciences in their development, creating a theoretical reserve for them. In modern science, applied sciences account for up to 80-90% of all research and appropriations. Indeed, fundamental science is only a small part of the total scientific research.

Applied science is a science aimed at obtaining a specific scientific result, which is currently or potentially used to meet private or public needs. 2. An important role is played by developments that translate the results of applied sciences into the form of technological processes, structures, social engineering projects. For example, the Perm system of labor collective stabilization (STK) was initially developed within the framework of fundamental sociology, relying on its principles, theories, and models. After that, it was concretized, given it not only a finished form and a practical form, but the deadlines for implementation, the financial and human resources necessary for this, were determined. At the applied stage, the STK system was repeatedly run in a number of enterprises of the USSR. Only after that did she get the appearance practical program and was ready for wide distribution (development and implementation stage).

Basic research includes experimental and theoretical research aimed at obtaining new knowledge without any specific purpose related to the use of this knowledge. Their result is hypotheses, theories, methods, and so on. Basic Research may end with recommendations on the organization of applied research to identify opportunities for the practical use of the results obtained, scientific publications, etc.

The US National Science Foundation defines fundamental research as follows:

Basic research is a part of research activity aimed at replenishing the general body of theoretical knowledge ... They do not have predetermined commercial goals, although they can be carried out in areas that are of interest or may be of interest to business practitioners in the future.

Fundamental and applied sciences are two completely different types of activity. In the beginning, and this happened in ancient times, the distance between them was insignificant and almost everything that was discovered in the field of fundamental science immediately or in short time found application in practice. Archimedes discovered the law of the lever, which was immediately used in military and engineering. And the ancient Egyptians discovered geometric axioms, literally without leaving the ground, since geometric science arose from the needs of agriculture. Gradually the distance increased and today it reached its maximum. In practice, embodies less than 1% of the discoveries made in pure science. In the 1980s, Americans conducted an evaluation study (the purpose of such studies is to assess the practical significance of scientific developments and their effectiveness). For more than 8 years, a dozen research groups have analyzed 700 technological innovations in the weapons system. The results stunned the public: 91% of inventions have prior applied technology as their source, and only 9% have achievements in the field of science. Moreover, only 0.3% of them have a source in the field of pure (fundamental) research.

Fundamental science deals exclusively with the increment of new knowledge, applied science - only with the application of proven knowledge. The acquisition of new knowledge is the vanguard of science, the approbation of new knowledge is its rearguard, i.e. substantiation and verification of once obtained knowledge, the transformation of current research into the "hard core" of science. Practical application is the activity of applying the knowledge of the "hard core" to real life problems. As a rule, the "hard core" of science is displayed in textbooks, manuals, methodological developments and all sorts of guides.

One of the main features of fundamental knowledge is its intellectuality. As a rule, it has the status of a scientific discovery and is a priority in its field. In other words, it is considered exemplary, reference.

Fundamental knowledge in science is a relatively small part of the experimentally tested scientific theories and methodological principles or analytical techniques that scientists use as a guiding program. The rest of knowledge is the result of current empirical and applied research, a collection of explanatory models, accepted so far as hypothetical schemes, intuitive concepts and so-called "trial" theories.

The foundation of classical physics used to be Newton's mechanics, and the whole mass of practical experiments at that time was based on it. Newton's laws served as a "hard core" of physics, and current research only confirmed and refined existing knowledge. Later, the theory of quantum mechanics was created, which became the foundation modern physics. She explained physical processes in a new way, gave a different picture of the world, operated with other analytical principles and methodological tools.

Fundamental science is also called academic because it develops mainly in universities and academies of sciences. A university professor may work part-time in commercial projects, even work part-time in a private consulting or research firm. But he always remains a university professor, looking a little down on those who are constantly engaged in marketing or advertising surveys, not rising to the discovery of new knowledge, who have never published in serious academic journals.

Thus, sociology, which deals with the increment of new knowledge and in-depth analysis of phenomena, has two names: the term " fundamental sociology” indicates the nature of the knowledge obtained, and the term “academic sociology” indicates a place in the social structure of society.

Fundamental ideas lead to revolutionary change. After their publication, the scientific community can no longer think and study in the old way. Worldview attitudes, theoretical orientation, the strategy of scientific research, and sometimes the very methods of empirical work are transformed in the most radical way. Before the eyes of scientists, as it were, a new perspective opens up. Huge sums of money are spent on fundamental research, because only they, in case of success, albeit quite rare, lead to a serious shift in science.

Fundamental science has as its goal the knowledge of objective reality such as it is in itself. Applied sciences have a completely different goal - to change natural objects in the direction necessary for man. It is applied research that is directly related to engineering and technology. Basic research is relatively independent of applied research.

Applied science differs from fundamental (and it is necessary to include theoretical and empirical knowledge in it) practical orientation. Fundamental science deals exclusively with the increment of new knowledge, applied science - exclusively with the application of proven knowledge. The acquisition of new knowledge is the avant-garde or periphery of science, the approbation of new knowledge is its substantiation and verification, the transformation of current research into the "hard core" of science, the application is the activity of applying the knowledge of the "solid core" to practical problems. As a rule, the "hard core" of science is displayed in textbooks, teaching aids, methodological developments and all kinds of manuals.

The translation of fundamental results into applied developments can be carried out by the same scientists, different specialists, or special institutes, design bureaus, implementation firms and companies are created for this. Applied research includes such developments, at the "output" of which there is a specific customer who pays a lot of money for the finished result. Therefore, the end product of applied developments is presented in the form of products, patents, programs, etc. It is believed that scientists whose applied developments are not bought should reconsider their approaches and make their products competitive. Such requirements are never put forward to representatives of fundamental science.

Tasks and functions

The tasks of fundamental science do not include an urgent and indispensable practical implementation (nevertheless, prospectively - epistomologically expedient), which is its fundamental difference from utilitarian theoretical or applied science, which are the same in relation to it. However, the results of fundamental research also find actual application, constantly adjusting the development of any discipline, which is generally unthinkable without the development of its fundamental sections - any discoveries and technologies will certainly rely on the provisions of fundamental science by definition, and in case of contradiction with conventional ideas, not only stimulate modifications of those , but they also need fundamental research for a full understanding of the processes and mechanisms underlying this or that phenomenon - further improvement of the method or principle. Traditionally, fundamental research was correlated with natural science, at the same time, all forms of scientific knowledge are based on systems of generalizations that are their basis; thus all the human sciences have or strive to have an apparatus capable of grasping and formulating the general fundamental principles of research and the methods of their interpretation.

The state, which has sufficient scientific potential and strives for its development, certainly contributes to the support and development of fundamental research, despite the fact that they are often not profitable.

So the second article federal law Russia of August 23, 1996 No. 127-FZ "On Science and State Scientific and Technical Policy" defines fundamental research as follows:

Experimental or theoretical activity aimed at obtaining new knowledge about the basic laws of the structure, functioning and development of a person, society, and the natural environment.

History and evolution

The most striking example of characteristics Fundamental science, of course, can be the history of research related to the structure of matter, in particular, the structure of the atom, the practical implementation of which was found, without exaggeration, only hundreds of years after the birth of the initial ideas of atomism, and dozens after the formation of the theory of the structure of the atom.

In every field of knowledge, a similar process is observed, when from the primary empirical substrate, through a hypothesis, experiment and its theoretical understanding, with their appropriate development and expansion, improvement of methodology, science comes to certain postulates, contributing, for example, to the search and formation of quantitatively expressed provisions, which are the theoretical basis for further theoretical research, and for the formation of problems of applied science.

Improvement of the instrumental base, both theoretical and experimental, - practical, serves (in the correct implementation conditions) to improve the method. That is, any fundamental discipline and any applied direction are capable, to a certain extent, of mutually participating in the development of understanding and solving their independent, but also common tasks: applied science expands the possibilities of research tools as a practical one. and theoretical, fundamental science, which, in turn, by the results of its research, provides a theoretical tool and a basis for the development of applied on the relevant topics. This is one of the main reasons for the need to support fundamental science, which, as a rule, does not have the ability to self-finance.

Errors of interpretation

M. V. Lomonosov warned about the dangers of misunderstanding, and even more so - public coverage of issues related to rather complex scientific problems, in his “Discourse on the duties of journalists when presenting their essays, designed to maintain the freedom of philosophy” ( 1754); These fears do not lose their relevance to this day. They are also fair in relation to the interpretation of the role and significance of the fundamental sciences, which is happening now, - referring research of a different “genre” affiliation to their competence.

A typical situation is when there is a misunderstanding of the terms themselves. fundamental science and fundamental research, - their incorrect use, and when for fundamentality in the context of such use it is worth thoroughness any scientific project. Most of these studies are related to large-scale research within the applied sciences, to large-scale works subordinated to the interests of various branches of industry, etc. Here for fundamentality worth only the attribute significance, and in no way can they be attributed to fundamental- in the sense mentioned above. It is this misunderstanding that gives rise to a deformation of ideas about the true meaning of truly fundamental science (in terms of modern science of science), which begins to be regarded exclusively as “pure science” in the most misleading interpretation, i.e., as science divorced from real practical needs, as serving, for example , corporate egghead problems .

Enough fast development techniques and systemic methods (in relation to the implementation of what was obtained and long ago "predicted" by fundamental science) creates conditions for a different kind of incorrect classification of scientific research, when their new direction, belonging to the field - interdisciplinary, is regarded as a success in mastering the technological base, or vice versa, is presented only in in the form of a line of development - fundamental. While these scientific studies, indeed, owe their origin to the latter, they are more related to applied ones, and only indirectly serve the development of fundamental science.

Nanotechnologies can serve as an example of this, the basis of which, relatively recently, in terms of the development of science, was laid, among many other areas of fundamental research, by colloid chemistry, the study of disperse systems and surface phenomena. However, this does not mean that the underlying new technology fundamental research should be completely subordinated to it, absorbing the provision of other directions; when there is a danger of re-profiling into branch research institutions designed to engage in fundamental research of a fairly wide range.

see also

• Interdisciplinary sciences
• Committee of scientific terminology in the field of fundamental sciences

Notes

Literature

• Philosophical encyclopedic Dictionary. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. 1989
• Scientific discovery and its perception. Problems and research. M.: Science. 1971
• Rachkov P. A. Science of Science. Problems, structure, elements. - M.: Moscow University Publishing House. 1974
• Essays on the history and theory of the development of science. Science of Science: Problems and Research. - M.: Thought. 1969
• Smirnov S. G. Problem book on the history of science. From Thales to Newton. - M.: MIROS - MAIK "Science / Interperiodika". 2001 ISBN 5-7084-0210-5 ISBN 5-7846-0067-2
• Wavell W. History of inductive sciences from ancient times to the present in 3 volumes. Translation from the 3rd English edition M. A. Antonovich and A. N. Pypin. St. Petersburg: Edition of the Russian Book Trade. 1867-1869
• Heisenberg V. Horizon steps. - M.: Progress. 1987
• Louis de Broglie. Along the paths of science. - M.: Publishing house foreign literature. 1962
• A brief moment of celebration. How scientific discoveries are made. - M.: Science. 1988 ISBN 5-02-007779-8
• Gadamer H.-G. Truth and method. General edition and introductory article by BN Bessonov. - M.: Progress. 1988 ISBN 5-01-001035-6
• Volkova V. N. Concepts modern natural science: Tutorial. - St. Petersburg: SPbGTU Publishing House. 2006
• Kuznetsov B. G. modern science and Philosophy: Ways of Fundamental Research and Perspectives of Philosophy. - M.: Politizdat. 1981

Links

• Scientific activity of the Russian Academy of Sciences. The main directions of fundamental research. - On the website of the Russian Academy of Sciences
• Organization of fundamental science in the USA and Russia: a subjective view. Interview with physicist, corresponding member of the Russian Academy of Sciences E. E. Son. - on the official website of the Russian Academy of Sciences
• Kuznetsov V.M. Fundamentals of scientific research in animal husbandry. Kirov: Zonal Research Institute of Agriculture of the North-East, 2006
• Simonov K. V. Political analysis - Website of the Russian Internet University for the Humanities
• Basic research. // J. Kendrick "The total capital of the United States and its formation" - on the Forexprom website
• Why is fundamental science needed? Article in Troitsky Variant.

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See what "Fundamental Science" is in other dictionaries:

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Fundamental science is science for the sake of science. It is part of a research and development activity without specific commercial or other practical purposes.

Fundamental science is a science that has as its goal the creation of theoretical concepts and models, the practical applicability of which is not obvious (Titov V.N. Institutional and ideological aspects of the functioning of science // Sotsiol. Issled.1999. No. 8.p.66).

According to the official definition adopted by the Central Statistical Bureau of the Russian Federation:

• Basic research includes experimental and theoretical research aimed at obtaining new knowledge without any specific purpose related to the use of this knowledge. Their result is hypotheses, theories, methods, etc. ...Basic research can be completed with recommendations for setting up applied research to identify opportunities for the practical use of the results obtained, scientific publications, etc.

The US National Science Foundation defines fundamental research as follows:

• Basic research is a part of research activity aimed at replenishing the general body of theoretical knowledge ... They do not have predetermined commercial goals, although they can be carried out in areas that are of interest or may be of interest to business practitioners in the future.

The task of the fundamental sciences is the knowledge of the laws governing the behavior and interaction of the basic structures of nature, society and thinking. These laws and structures are studied in their "pure form", as such, regardless of their possible use.

Natural science is an example of fundamental science. It is aimed at the knowledge of nature, such as it is in itself, regardless of what application its discoveries will receive: space exploration or environmental pollution. And natural science does not pursue any other goal. This is science for science's sake; knowledge of the surrounding world, the discovery of the fundamental laws of being and the increment of fundamental knowledge.

Fundamental and academic science

Fundamental science is often called academic because it develops mainly in universities and academies of sciences. Academic science, as a rule, is fundamental science, science not for the sake of practical applications, but for the sake of pure science. In life, this is often true, but "often" does not mean "always". Basic and academic research are two different things. Cm.