The evidence for the big bang theory is redshift. How life appeared on Earth
- Translation
How a feature based on observation of cosmic inflation could herald the scientific revolution of the century (March 18, 2014)
Despite the name, The Big Bang Theory is not a bang theory at all. This is the explosion theory.
- Alan Gut
When you think about the beginning of the universe, you probably think of a hot, dense state filled with matter and radiation that expands and cools incredibly quickly (and, by the way, it did). But what cannot be done is to extrapolate back to an arbitrarily hot and dense state. You may think that you can easily go back in time, to a "singularity" with infinite temperature and density, when all the energy of the Universe was compressed into a single point - but this is not true.
One of the remarkable features of the universe is that the radiation that originated at that time still exists. It has undergone reflections from charged particles during the time of the Universe, which was young, hot and ionized (and this lasted for 380,000 years). When the universe became electrically neutral (when matter first formed neutral atoms), the radiation left over from the Big Bang rushed in a straight line, uninterrupted by this neutral matter. 
As the universe expanded - due to the fact that the energy of radiation is determined by the wavelength - these wavelengths were stretched along with the expansion of space, and the energy has since dropped quite a lot. But it helps us a lot, because it gives material for observations.
And if we could see and measure these waves, they would give us a glimpse into the early Universe! And so, in the 1960s, Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson discovered this residual glow from the Big Bang - radiation that travels evenly in all directions, only a few degrees higher absolute zero- and in it, scientists immediately recognized the microwave cosmic background radiation that they had been looking for for so long!
After 50 years, we have made incredible progress. We were able to not only measure energy spectrum of this radiation, but also to measure the tiny temperature fluctuations inherent in it, as well as their scale, their relationship with each other and how this all relates to the evolution of the Universe.
In particular, we learned what the universe looked like at 380,000 years old, what it is made of, and how interacting matter affected radiation on its 13.8 billion year journey to our eyes.
But there is something else that can give us information about these things: we can study not only the energy and temperature of light, but also its polarization. Let me explain.
Basically, light is electromagnetic wave. So it's made up of oscillating electric and magnetic fields perpendicular to each other, it has a particular wavelength (determined by the energy), and it travels at the speed of light.
Flying past charged particles, bouncing off the surface, interacting with other electromagnetic phenomena, electrical and magnetic fields react with their environment.
Initially, the resulting light should be unpolarized, but a huge number of things cause it to be polarized in a variety of ways. In other words, light, which usually has randomly oriented electric and magnetic fields, can experience interactions that result in their preferred orientation. And now she will be able to tell us a lot of informative things about who the light interacted with in its history.
The polarization effect of microwave background radiation was first discovered in the past decade using the WMAP satellite, and more are expected from the Planck observatory in the future. best results(but this type of research, it should be noted, is very difficult to implement). The polarization that makes light look "radial" is called the E-mode of polarization (for electric fields), and the one that makes the light "twist" is called the B-mode of polarization (for magnetic fields).
Most of the observed effects are due to the billions of light years of matter that the light has passed through; we call it "foreground". It has had to travel all the way in all directions since the Era of Radiation to reach our eyes today.
But a tiny, tiny part of the polarization must have come down to us from earlier times. You see, before the Big Bang—before the universe could be described at all as hot, dense, and filled with matter and radiation—the universe simply expanded exponentially; it was a period of cosmic inflation. At that time, the universe was dominated by the energy inherent in empty space itself - energy in an amount much greater than is present in it today.
At this time, quantum fluctuations - inherent in space itself - were stretched out across the universe, and provided the original density fluctuations that gave birth to today's universe.
But only in regions where inflation has ended, and where this energy inherent in space is converted into matter and radiation, and the Big Bang happens.
And in these regions - where inflation has ended - we get the Universe, much larger than its observable section. This is the idea behind the multiverse, which is why we think we most likely live in it.
And what about this inflation itself? Can we find out anything about her?
You may decide that quantum fluctuations - and the density fluctuations they seed - is all we have. And until recently, I would have told you so. But in theory, inflation generates and gravitational waves which we have not yet been able to find. LISA, a space-based laser interferometer antenna (a project pushed back to the 2030s at best), was our best hope for direct wave detection.
But even without LISA, gravitational waves can be detected indirectly. Although gravitational waves and light travel at the same speed, light slows down as it passes through a medium. This happens even in such a rarefied medium as intergalactic and interstellar space! And because gravitational waves don't slow down—they're only affected by the curvature of spacetime—they overtake light and cause polarization themselves!
In general, it is the deformations of space-time on certain scales that stretch the waves of light in a certain way as they travel from the Big Bang to our eyes.
Specifically, the characteristic features of gravitational waves should show up as B-mode polarization, and they should leave a specific pattern at large scales.
Although the Planck observatory should see and confirm this, the team working at the South Pole got ahead of him: BICEP2!
On scales of about 1.5 degrees, the polarization B-mode is quite obvious, and it has already been declared open, albeit with a significance of 2.7σ (note: at these scales, the significance is 5.2σ, but they need to convince everyone that this level of detection did not appear due to a combination of foreground and taxonomy). 2.7σ means that there is a 2% chance that this detection is false and will disappear with more data. But in the world of science, this is a fairly high probability, so for now, this discovery should not be considered a fait accompli.
If the discovery stands the test, it will be a very serious event. This is what we need to measure, and not only to find out if there was inflation (most likely it was), but to find out which inflation model describes the Universe?
Planck, releasing the first results last year, found nothing at all.
There are several common types inflation that could occur: in particular, if the value of r in these graphs turns out to be zero, this will be in favor of the “small fields” model, and if it turns out to be something huge (for example, 0.2, judging by these results), this will be a proof of the "large fields" model.
Is this a clear result? No. We need much better statistics to declare this a discovery - we can't accept these results and say "yes, these are primordial gravitational waves left over from pre-inflation" as we need better evidence. 2.7σ is not bad, but in the cruel world of physics, we need a confirmed result of 5σ. The wastebasket of the history of physics is full of "discoveries" with 3σ, which disappeared with the arrival of new data.
We know that there was inflation; the origins of the structure in the Universe - its current appearance, its appearance 13.8 billion years ago, and anywhere in between, has already told us this. But there is a possibility, and the first hints, that gravitational waves could also remain. And if it turns out that we really saw them, we will have to get confirmation of this in the next few years. But if an observation becomes insignificant as data is collected, this does not mean that the inflation model is wrong, only that it does not produce the strongest B-modes.
It's not a "discovery" yet, but a hint that we may have stumbled upon something amazing: the first hint of how our universe was born. If he proves correct, it will be the discovery of the century. But if the new data disproves it - which it may well do - it does not mean that the inflation model is wrong; this means that the gravitational waves from inflation are smaller than the most optimistic models predicted.
But whether it is real or not, we will still learn a little more about how our entire Universe appeared.
Update: Readers have reported in the comments to the original article that the paper mentions a significance greater than 5σ. In particular, they are looking at a certain section of the angular scale, where they actually see a signal with a significance of 5.2σ.
Could focus be the answer? This is the only component that can be eliminated - if I understand the work correctly, of course - with a significance of only 2.7σ.
See for yourself.
The significance of the result is no greater than that of the most likely source of uncertainty, and even if r may be zero, it is very important to rule out this possibility. In the work, it may have been excluded, but it did not seem to me that this was done clearly and clearly. However, I'm very interested to see how it all develops! If they exclude focusing as well as synchrotron emission, the 5σ limit will be met, and this will already mean a Nobel Prize!
On March 17, 2014, scientists at the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics announced the discovery of a B-mode at r = 0.2. However, a later analysis (published September 19, 2014) by another group of researchers using data from the Planck observatory showed that the BICEP2 result can be fully attributed to galactic dust.
The big bang is supported by many facts:
It follows from Einstein's general theory of relativity that the universe cannot be static; it must either expand or contract.
The farther away a galaxy is, the faster it is moving away from us (Hubble's law). This indicates the expansion of the universe. The expansion of the universe means that in the distant past the universe was small and compact.
The Big Bang model predicts that the cosmic microwave background radiation should appear in all directions, with a blackbody spectrum and a temperature of about 3°K. We observe the exact spectrum of a black body with a temperature of 2.73°K.
Relic radiation uniformly up to 0.00001. A slight unevenness must exist to explain the uneven distribution of matter in today's universe. Such unevenness is also observed in the predicted size.
The Big Bang theory predicts the observed amount of primordial hydrogen, deuterium, helium and lithium. No other models can do this.
The Big Bang theory predicts that the universe changes over time. Due to the finiteness of the speed of light, observation at long distances allows us to look into the past. Among other changes, we see that when the universe was younger, quasars were more common and stars were bluer.
There are at least 3 ways to determine the age of the universe. I will describe below:
*Age chemical elements.
*Age of the oldest globular clusters.
*Age of the oldest white dwarf stars.
*The age of the universe can also be estimated from cosmological models based on the value of the Hubble Constant, as well as the densities of matter and dark energy. This model-based age is currently 13.7 ± 0.2 billion years.
Experimental measurements are consistent with model-based ages, which contribute to our confidence in the Big Bang model.
To date, the COBE satellite has mapped the background radiation with its wavelike structures and amplitude fluctuations over several billion light-years from Earth. All of these waves are highly magnified images of those tiny structures that started the Big Bang. The size of these structures was even smaller than the size of subatomic particles.
The new MAP (Microwave Anisotropy Probe) satellite, which was sent into space last year, is also dealing with these problems. Its task is to collect information about the microwave radiation left over from the Big Bang.
Light reaching the Earth from distant stars and galaxies (regardless of their location relative to the Solar System) has a characteristic redshift (Barrow, 1994). Such a shift is due to the Doppler effect - an increase in the length of light waves with a rapid removal of the light source from the observer. Interestingly, this effect is observed in all directions, which means that all distant objects move from the solar system. However, this is by no means because the Earth is the center of the universe. Rather, the situation can be described by comparison with a balloon painted with polka dots. As the balloon inflates, the distance between the peas increases. The universe is expanding, and this has been happening for a long time. Cosmologists believe that the universe was formed within one minute 10-20 billion years ago. She "flew out in all directions" from one point, where matter was in a state of unimaginable concentration. This event is called the Big Bang.
The decisive evidence in favor of the Big Bang theory was the existence of background cosmic radiation, the so-called cosmic microwave background radiation. This radiation is a residual sign of the energy released at the beginning of the explosion. CMB radiation was predicted in 1948 and experimentally recorded in 1965. It is microwave radiation, which can be detected anywhere in space, and creates a background for all other radio waves. The radiation has a temperature of 2.7 degrees Kelvin (Taubes, 1997). The omnipresence of this residual energy confirms not only the fact of the emergence (and not the eternal existence) of the Universe, but also the fact that its birth was explosive.
If we assume that the Big Bang happened 13500 million years ago (which is confirmed by several facts), then the first galaxies arose from giant gas accumulations about 12500 million years ago (Calder, 1983). The stars of these galaxies were microscopic accumulations of highly compressed gas. The strong gravitational pressure in their cores initiated fusion reactions that convert hydrogen into helium with a side emission of energy (Davies, 1994). As stars age, the atomic mass of the elements within them increases. In fact, all elements heavier than hydrogen are products of the existence of stars. More and more heavy elements were formed in the red-hot furnace of the stellar core. It was in this way that iron and elements with a lower atomic mass appeared. Once the early stars had used up their "fuel", they could no longer resist the forces of gravity. Stars contracted and then exploded in supernovae. During the explosion of supernovae, elements with an atomic mass greater than that of iron appeared. The inhomogeneous intrastellar gas left behind by early stars became building material from which new solar systems. Accumulations of this gas and dust were partly formed as a result of the mutual attraction of particles. If the mass of the gas cloud reached a certain critical limit, gravitational pressure triggered the process of nuclear fusion and a new one was born from the remains of the old star.
The evidence for the Big Bang model comes from a wealth of observed data that is consistent with the Big Bang model. None of this evidence for the Big Bang scientific theory is not definitive. Many of these facts are consistent with both the Big Bang and some other cosmological models, but taken together, these observations show that the Big Bang model is the best model of the universe today. These observations include:
The blackness of the night sky - Olber's paradox.
Hubble Law - Law linear dependence distance from the redshift value. This data is very accurate for today.
Homogeneity is clear evidence that our location in the universe is not unique.
Space isotropy is very clear data showing that the sky looks the same in all directions to within 1 part in 100,000.
Time dilation on the brightness curves of supernovae.
The observations above fit both the Big Bang and the Stationary Model, but many observations support the Big Bang better than the Stationary Model:
Dependence of the number of radio emission sources and quasars on brightness. It shows that the universe has evolved.
The existence of black-body relic radiation. This shows that the universe evolved from a dense, isothermal state.
Change Trelikt. with a change in the redshift value. This is a direct observation of the evolution of the universe.
Abundances of Deuterium, 3He, 4He, and 7Li. The content of all these light isotopes is in good agreement with the predicted reactions occurring in the first three minutes.
Finally, the anisotropy of the CMB angular intensity of one part per million corresponds to the Big Bang model with dominant dark matter, which has gone through an inflationary stage.
Accurate measurements carried out with the help of the COBE satellite confirmed that the cosmic microwave background radiation fills the Universe and has a temperature of 2.7 degrees Kelvin. This radiation is recorded from all directions and is quite homogeneous. According to the theory, the universe is expanding and therefore must have been denser in the past. Consequently, the radiation temperature at that time should be higher. Now this is an indisputable fact.
Chronology:
* Planck time: 10-43 seconds. Through this interval time gravity can be considered as a classical background on which particles and fields develop, obeying the laws of quantum mechanics. The area about 10-33 cm across is homogeneous and isotropic, Temperature T=1032K.
* Inflation. In Linde's chaotic inflationary model, inflation starts at Planck time, although it can start when the temperature drops to the point where the symmetry of the Grand Unified Theory (GUT) suddenly collapses. This occurs at temperatures between 1027 and 1028K 10-35 seconds after the Big Bang.
* Inflation ends. The time is 10-33 seconds, the temperature is still 1027 - 1028K as the vacuum energy density that accelerates inflation is converted into heat. At the end of inflation, the rate of expansion is so great that the apparent age of the universe is only 10-35 seconds. Due to inflation, a homogeneous region from the Planck time has a diameter of at least 100 cm, i.e. has increased by more than 1035 times since the Planck time. However, quantum fluctuations during inflation create areas of inhomogeneity with low amplitude and random distribution having the same energy in all ranges.
* Baryogenesis: The slight difference in reaction rates for matter and antimatter results in a mixture of about 100,000,001 protons for every 100,000,000 antiprotons (and 100,000,000 photons).
* The universe grows and cools until 0.0001 second after the Big Bang and a temperature of about T=1013 K. Antiprotons annihilate with protons, leaving only matter, but with a very large number of photons for every surviving proton and neutron.
* The Universe grows and cools down to a moment of 1 second after the Big Bang, temperature T=1010 K. Weak interactions are frozen out at a proton/neutron ratio of about 6. The homogeneous area reaches a size of 1019.5 cm by this moment.
* The universe grows and cools down to 100 seconds after the Big Bang. The temperature is 1 billion degrees, 109 K. Electrons and positrons annihilate to form more photons, while protons and neutrons combine to form deuterium (heavy hydrogen) nuclei. Most of deuterium nuclei combines to form helium nuclei. Ultimately, there is about 3/4 hydrogen, 1/4 helium by mass; the deuterium/proton ratio is 30 parts per million. For every proton or neutron, there are about 2 billion photons.
* A month after the BV, the processes that convert the radiation field to the radiation spectrum of a completely black body weaken, now they lag behind the expansion of the Universe, so the CMB spectrum retains information related to this time.
* Matter density compared to radiation density 56,000 years after BV. Temperature 9000 K. Dark matter inhomogeneities can begin to shrink.
* Protons and electrons combine to form neutral hydrogen. The universe becomes transparent. Temperature T=3000 K, time 380,000 years after BV. Ordinary matter can now fall on dark matter clouds. The cosmic microwave background has been traveling freely from this time until the present, so the anisotropy of the cosmic microwave background gives a picture of the universe at that time.
* In 100-200 million years after the BV, the first stars are formed, and with their radiation again ionize the Universe.
* The first supernovae explode, filling the universe with carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, silicon, magnesium, iron, and so on, all the way to Uranus.
* Galaxies are formed as clouds of dark matter, stars and gas gathered together.
* Clusters of galaxies form.
* 4.6 billion years ago the Sun and the solar system formed.
* Today: Time 13.7 billion years after the Big Bang, temperature T=2.725 K. The homogeneous region today is at least 1029 cm across, which is larger than the observable part of the universe.
There was a big bang! Here is what, for example, Academician Ya.B. Zel'dovich in 1983: "The Big Bang theory at the moment does not have any noticeable shortcomings. One might even say that it is just as firmly established and true as it is true that the earth revolves around the sun. Both theories occupied a central place in the picture of the universe of their time, and both had many opponents who argued that the new ideas embedded in them were absurd and contrary to common sense. But such speeches are not able to prevent the success of new theories.
Radio astronomy data indicate that in the past, distant extragalactic radio sources radiated more than they do now. Therefore, these radio sources evolve. When we are now observing a powerful radio source, we should not forget that we have before us its distant past (after all, today radio telescopes receive waves that were emitted billions of years ago). The fact that radio galaxies and quasars evolve, and the time of their evolution is commensurate with the time of existence of the Metagalaxy, is also considered in favor of the Big Bang theory.
An important confirmation of the "hot universe" follows from a comparison of the observed abundance of chemical elements with the ratio between the amount of helium and hydrogen (about 1/4 helium and about 3/4 hydrogen) that arose during the initial thermonuclear fusion.
Abundance of light elements
The early universe was very hot. Even if protons and neutrons collided and formed heavier nuclei, their time of existence was negligible, because already at the next collision with another heavy and fast particle, the nucleus again decayed into elementary components. It turns out that about three minutes should have passed since the moment of the Big Bang before the Universe cooled down so much that the energy of collisions softened somewhat and elementary particles began to form stable nuclei. In the history of the early universe, this marked the opening of a window of opportunity for the formation of nuclei of light elements. All the nuclei formed in the first three minutes inevitably decayed; later, stable nuclei began to appear.
However, this primary formation of nuclei (the so-called nucleosynthesis) at the early stage of the expansion of the Universe did not last very long. Shortly after the first three minutes, the particles flew so far apart that collisions between them became extremely rare, and this marked the closing of the nuclear fusion window. In that short period primary nucleosynthesis as a result of collisions of protons and neutrons formed deuterium (a heavy isotope of hydrogen with one proton and one neutron in the nucleus), helium-3 (two protons and a neutron), helium-4 (two protons and two neutrons) and, in a small amount, lithium-7 (three protons and four neutrons). All heavier elements are formed later - during the formation of stars (see Evolution of stars).
The Big Bang theory allows us to determine the temperature of the early Universe and the frequency of particle collisions in it. As a consequence, we can calculate the ratio of the number of different nuclei of light elements at the primary stage of the development of the Universe. Comparing these predictions with the actually observed ratio of light elements (corrected for their formation in stars), we find an impressive agreement between theory and observations. In my opinion, this is the best confirmation of the Big Bang hypothesis.
In addition to the two proofs above (microwave background and the ratio of light elements), recent work (see inflationary stage of the expansion of the universe) has shown that the fusion of Big Bang cosmology and modern theory elementary particles resolves many cardinal questions of the structure of the Universe. Of course, problems remain: we cannot explain the very root cause of the universe; it is not clear to us whether at the time of its inception the current physical laws. But more than enough convincing arguments in favor of the Big Bang theory have been accumulated to date.
NASA astrophysicists have made an important scientific discovery - they have experimentally confirmed the inflationary theory of the evolution of the Universe.
Scientists are convinced that they "touched" the events of about 14,000,000,000 years ago. In continuation of three years of continuous observations of the cosmic background in the microwave range, they were able to "catch" the light left (relic) from the first moments of the life of the Universe. These discoveries were made using the WMAP (Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe) apparatus.
Astrophysicists study the Universe at that moment of its existence, when its age was about one trillionth of a second, that is, almost immediately after the Big Bang. It was at this moment in the tiny Universe that the beginnings of future hundreds of millions of galaxies appeared, from which stars and planets later formed over hundreds of millions of years.
The leading postulate of the inflationary theory is as follows: after the Big Bang, which gave rise to our Universe, in an incredibly short period of time - a trillionth of a second - it turned from a microscopic object into something colossal, many times greater than the entire observable part of the cosmos, that is, it underwent inflation.
"The results are in favor of inflation," said Charles Bennett (Johns Hopkins University), who announced the discovery. "It's amazing that we can even say anything about what happened in the first trillionth of a second of the existence of the universe," he said.
Apparently, in the first trillionths of a second after the explosion, the expansion rate of the Universe was higher than the speed of light, and the time that has passed since the expansion of the Universe from the size of a few atoms to a stable spherical shape is measured in very small quantities. This hypothesis was first put forward in the 1980s.
"How do we know what was in the Universe at the time of its creation? The cosmic microwave background is a real treasure trove of information about the past of our Universe. The light radiation that has come down to us accurately indicates the facts of the development of the Universe," says Dr. Gary Hinshaw, NASA Goddard Space Center.
The inflationary theory itself exists in several versions, astronomer Nikolai Nikolaevich Chugai (Institute of Astronomy of the Russian Academy of Sciences) tells NewsInfo.
“There is no complete theory of this, but there are only some assumptions about how it happened. But there is one “prediction” that follows from the fact that quantum fluctuations (from Latin fluctuatio - fluctuation; random deviations physical quantities from their average values on microscopic scales) predict a certain spectrum of perturbations, that is, the distribution of the amplitude of these perturbations depending on the length of the scale on which this perturbation develops. You can imagine a wavy line with different wavelengths in the figure, and if you have one amplitude for large-scale ones, and another for small-scale ones, you say that the spectrum of these disturbances is not flat," explains Nikolai Chugai.
Until about the 1970s, there was a standard picture of the Big Bang, according to which our universe began from a very dense hot state. Thermonuclear fusion of helium took place - this is one of the confirmations of the model of the hot Universe. In 1964, the relic (residual) radiation was discovered, for which the Nobel Prize was received. Relic radiation comes to us from very distant regions. In the process of expansion, the radiation that fills big universe, cools down.
“This property is similar to when a balloon bursts and becomes cold,” explains Nikolay Chugay. “The same thing happens when the spray breaks out of your can, and you can feel how the can cools down.”
“The detection of this radiation (it is now cold - only 3 degrees) was decisive evidence of the hot phase of the Universe. But this model is not complete,” the astronomer believes. “It does not explain everything. And most importantly, it does not explain the fact that the Universe is homogeneous on all scales. Wherever we look - we see almost identical galaxies with the same density of these galaxies in units of volume. Everywhere it is approximately the same structure. Since these distant points of the Universe do not interact, it turns out strange - from the point of view of a physicist - how they are do not interact and do not know anything about each other, relatively speaking? And, nevertheless, the Universe is arranged in these distant points in the same way. And this should mean for a physicist that once these distant parts of the Universe were in contact. That is, they were part of the whole, in which perturbations spread and these perturbations were smoothed out. That is, once the universe that we see now on a large scale was physically unified - the signal alales and disturbances from these distant points had time to pass and spread out the disturbances that arose there.
Today we are just observing this homogeneity at distant points of the Universe in opposite regions of the sky as absolutely identical in density - relict radiation, which we observe with absolutely the same intensity and brightness. "No matter where you look," says Dr. Chugay.
"And this means that the Universe was absolutely homogeneous - isotropic. This initial inflationary stage allows you to "prepare" such a homogeneous universe. Another advantage of the inflationary phase is not only that it prepared a homogeneous universe, but also that so-called quantum fluctuations (density perturbation on microscopic length scales) have been associated with quantum nature of our world (at the level of elementary particles)," concluded Nikolai Chugai.
Listen to the sounds of a simulated Big Bang.
Materials used in the article:
2. Ringside Seat to the Universe "s First Split Second 3. Russian media
Why do scientists believe that the universe began with an explosion?
Astronomers present three very different lines of reasoning that provide a solid foundation for this theory. Let's look at them in more detail.
Discovery of the expansion of the universe. Perhaps the most compelling evidence for the Big Bang theory comes from a remarkable discovery made by the American astronomer Edwin Hubble in 1929. Prior to this, most scientists considered the universe to be static - unmoving and not changing. But Hubble found that it is expanding: clusters of galaxies are blown apart from one another, just as fragments are scattered in different directions after a cosmic explosion (see the "Hubble Constant and the Age of the Universe" section in this chapter).
It is obvious that if some objects fly apart, then once they were closer to each other. By tracing the expansion of the universe back in time, astronomers have concluded that about 12 billion years ago (give or take a few billion years) the universe was an incredibly hot and dense formation, the release of enormous energy from which was caused by an explosion of colossal force.
Discovery of the cosmic microwave background. In the 1940s, physicist Georgy Gamow realized that the Big Bang must have produced powerful radiation. His collaborators also suggested that the remnants of this radiation, cooled by the expansion of the universe, may still exist.
In 1964, Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson from AT&T Bell Laboratories, scanning the sky with a radio antenna, found a faint uniform crackle. What they first thought was radio interference turned out to be a faint "rustling" of radiation left over from the Big Bang. This is a homogeneous microwave radiation penetrating all outer space (it is also called relic radiation). The temperature of this cosmic microwave background(cosmic microwave background) is exactly what astronomers would expect it to be (2.73° Kelvin) if cooling has been uniform since the Big Bang. For their discovery A. Pentzias and R. Wilson in 1978 received Nobel Prize in physics.
The abundance of helium in space. Astronomers have found that in relation to hydrogen, the amount of helium in space is 24%. And nuclear reactions inside stars (see Chapter 11) don't go long enough to create that much helium. But there is just as much helium as theoretically should have been formed during the Big Bang.
As it turned out, the Big Bang theory successfully explains the phenomena observed in space, but remains only a starting point for studying initial stage development of the universe. For example, this theory, despite its name, does not put forward any hypotheses about the source of "cosmic dynamite" that caused the Big Bang.
52. The number of planets in the solar system - _____
53. What is the main factor guiding evolutionary change?
Natural selection
fixture
Variability
54. What was the name given to the complex of ideas about micro- and macroevolution in the 20th century?
Synthetic theory of evolution
Gay Earth theory
Darwinism
55. What is the name of the biological science of the heredity and variability of organisms and methods of managing them?
Genetics
eutectic
Cybernetics
56. Who, based on the study of plant mutations, established the laws of their heredity and variability?
G. Mendel
A. Weisman
N.I. Vavilov
57. The synthetic theory of evolution structurally consists of theories of micro- and macroevolution. Features of microevolution is that it (2)
1. Available for direct observation
2. excludes the possibility of direct experiment
3. goes v continuation of tens and hundreds of millions of years
4. ends with speciation
58. A methodological approach to the question of the origin of life, based on the idea of the primacy of structures capable of elemental metabolism with the participation of enzymes, is called.
1. co-evolution
2. holobiosis
3. biogenesis
4. genobiosis
59. The cosmic microwave background radiation, discovered in the 70s of the 20th century, is an observational confirmation of the model:
1. contracting universe
2. stationary state of the universe
3. pulsating universe
4. Big bang
60. There are several main stages in the process of the emergence of life on Earth. The first one:
1. Abiogenic synthesis of low molecular weight organic compounds from inorganic
2. Emergence of self-reproducing molecules
3. Concentration of organic compounds and formation of biopolymers
4. The emergence of photosynthesis
61. According to the synthetic theory of evolution (2):
1. there is randomness in evolution, since mutational variability is random
2. The main driver of evolution is natural selection
3. evolution has an undirected reversible character
4. evolution goes through expedient changes in the body
62. The general theory of relativity predicts the existence of supermassive objects in the Universe, near which (at a distance of the gravitational radius) (2):
1. space and time become relative
2. time practically stops for an observer from the outside
3. radiation cannot leave them
4. time changes direction
63. Cosmology is the science of (about)
1. The universe as a whole, its properties and evolution
2. the origin and development of celestial bodies
3. the origin of life and mind in the universe
4. devices of the solar system
64. Factor contributing to the release of the first organisms from water to land:
1. formation of soils from rocks
2. lowering the temperature of the Earth
3. strong ultraviolet radiation
4. the appearance of the ozone layer
65. According to modern scientific ideas, our Universe arose from:
1. products of the explosion of the previous universe
2. quantum fluctuations of the physical vacuum
3. cold absolute emptiness
4. matter created by God
66. The following provisions (2) correspond to hereditary variability:
1. is reversible
2. is a material for natural selection
3. is adaptive
4. the appearance of new traits is determined by a change in the genotype
67. Factors of the Darwinian mechanism of evolution are (2):
1. variability
2. natural selection
3. population waves
4. insulation
68. The theory of the hot Universe (the Big Bang theory) is confirmed by the discovery of what it predicted:
1. CMB filling the Universe
2. accelerating expansion of the universe
3. receding galaxies
4. world ether
69. The American scientist S. Miller in 1953 synthesized a number of amino acids by passing an electric charge through a mixture of gases that presumably constituted the primary earth's atmosphere. Specify which gas was absent in the Earth's primary atmosphere:
2. oxygen
4. carbon dioxide
70. The principles of universal evolutionism include the following
provisions(2):
1. Knowledge of the laws of evolution and self-organization allows you to accurately predict the future.
2. In all world processes there are fundamental and unavoidable factors of randomness of uncertainty.
3. Randomness and uncertainty do not play any significant role in the evolution of the Universe and its structures.
4. The past affects the future, but does not determine it.
71. Singularity is:
1. "black hole"
2. superdense matter
3. the initial state of the universe, characterized by infinite mass density and infinite curvature
4. big bang
72. "Redshift" is:
1. lowering the frequencies of electromagnetic radiation coming from stars
2. radiation from red giants
3. change in radiation coming from the nuclei of galaxies
4. special radiation from the most distant stars
73. The synthetic theory of evolution differs from Darwin's theory:
1. recognition of mutation as the main source of variability
2. rejection of the idea of natural selection
3. recognition of the synthetic influence of various factors on the genotype
4. rejection of the idea of struggle for existence
74. Synergetics is the science of transformation:
1. simple systems to complex
2. complex systems into simple ones
3. order into chaos
4. chaos into space
75. The elementary structure of evolution according to modern ideas is:
2. organism
3. population
4. biocenosis
76. The highest department of the central nervous system, with the functions of which a person is associated with memory, mental and speech activity, is:
1. gray matter of the cerebellum
2. medulla oblongata
3. cerebral cortex
4. gray matter of the subcortical centers
77. Properties of mutations:
1. not associated with a change in the genotype
2. hereditary
3. random
4. have an adaptive character
78. Modification variability is characterized by (2):
1. the group nature of the changes
2. inheritance
3. brevity
4. change in genotype
79. The reason for the modification variability of signs is a change ...
1. environmental conditions
4. chromosomes
80. The form of natural selection in which the optimal phenotype for specific conditions becomes preferable in a population is called:
1. stabilizing selection
2. disruptive selection
3. driving selection
4. destabilizing selection
81. DNA monomer is:
1. amino acid
2. phosphoric acid
3.- deoxyribrasa
5. nitrogenous base
6. nucleotide
82. The form of natural selection in which one population is divided into two is called:
1. driving (directional) selection
2. artificial
3. stabilizing
4. disruptive
83. The largest object in Megamir is:
1. metagalaxy
2. star system
4. Universe
84. The significance of mutational variability for evolution is that it:
1. occurs only in males
2. not inherited
3. is inherited
4. occurs immediately a large number individuals
85. The emergence of life on Earth and its biosphere is one of the main problems of modern natural science. The hypothesis that terrestrial life is of cosmic origin is called:
1. creationism
2. hypothesis of biochemical evolution
3. hypothesis of spontaneous generation
4. panspermia hypothesis
86. According to the Big Bang model, all the matter of the Universe at the initial moment was concentrated in an extremely small volume with an infinitely high density. This state is called:
1. singularity
2. bifurcation point
3. chirality
4.complementarity
87. "Black holes" have a number of properties, namely (2):
1. time on the surface of a sphere limited by the gravitational radius stops
2. they are not available for direct observation
3. they emit only in the infrared range
4. rotating at high speed, they emit beams of electromagnetic radiation
88. The founder of cosmological models based on the general theory of relativity was:
1. Einstein;
3. Friedman;
5. Eddington;
6. Lemaître.
89. The laws of planetary motion were established:
1. Giordano Bruno
2. Johannes Kepler;
3. Galileo Galilei;
4. Tycho Brahe;
5. Isaac Newton;
6. Rene Descartes
90. What fundamental principle cannot be dispensed with when constructing the general theory of relativity (Einstein's theory of gravitation)?
1. relativistic principle of relativity;
2. the principle that asserts the correspondence between the mass of a particle and its wave;
3. the principle of identity of heavy and inertial masses ;
3. the principle of relativity to the means of observation.
91. Indicate the time (centenary) of the astronomical discoveries of Copernicus and Bruno.
