Spheres of application of the literary language. Literary language and its properties

Literary language is called the historically developed processed form of the existence of the language of the people or the national language. Literary language as the highest form of language is characterized by richness of vocabulary, orderliness of grammatical structure, developed system of styles, strict observance of spelling and punctuation rules. variance, not tied to styles and communicative areas. The literary language is standardized and codified, i.e. fixed in dictionaries and grammars modern language.

The norm of the literary language is stable and conservative. “The essence of any literary language,” wrote L.V. Shcherba, “is in its stability, in its traditional character.” Norm of the literary language

combines into a single whole all the varieties of a given language, its stylistic richness, its historical variants and dialectal and professional deviations. In this sense, literary

the standard norm represents the general vernacular. Therefore, the strengthening and dissemination of the standard of the literary language is a matter of special concern to society. The role of the school is great in strengthening the literary norm. The norm of the literary language is based on the language usage (i.e.

to mass and regular word usage) and the approval of this word usage by the educated "part of society. Being a concrete historical phenomenon, the norm of the literary language changes, moves from the old to the new quality. Literary language literally means written language The languages ​​of nationalities, as already mentioned, can have a literary and written form.The development of a unified statehood and

culture requires a written language. This is how literary-written languages ​​arise in slave-owning, feudal, capitalist and socialist societies. Writers play an important role in establishing and spreading the literary norm. Thus, the history of the Russian literary language was embodied in the works of Lomonosov and Fonvizin, Karamzin. The great role of writers in the approval and dissemination of the literary norm, and literature - in public life sometimes leads to the idea that literary language- this is the language of fiction, which, of course, is wrong. The language of a work of art, firstly, contains not only literary-normalized speech, but also individual style the author and the speech of the characters that are created by the author. Stylized literary texts and characters' speech suggest a departure from the norm, the creation of an individual style and expressive text. The second difference between the language of fiction and the literary language is that the latter is not only a means of artistic reflection of reality and emotional impact; literary language is a tool

communication also in the sphere of social and political life and science. The literary language is multifunctional, and this creates literary language styles designed for different areas of communication and expression of different types of messages. . An example of a literary and written language that arose in a slave-owning society is the ancient Greek and Latin languages. The Latin nation and its language arise in the course of the conquest (starting from the middle of the 7th century BC) by the Roman Republic of Italy. Medieval Latin differed significantly from Latin ancient era. How dead language Latin is still used in Catholic worship, medicine and some other natural sciences.

10. Historical variability of language. Synchrony and diachrony .

Synchrony- it is like a horizontal cut, i.e. the state of the language at the moment as a ready-made system of interrelated and interdependent elements: lexical, grammatical and phonetic, which have value, or significance (valeur de Saussure), regardless of their origin, but only in the strength of relationships between themselves within the whole - the system. diachrony- this is the path in time that each element of the language makes separately, changing in history. Thus, according to de Saussure, synchrony is connected with the system, but removed from the relations of time, while diachrony is connected with time, but removed from the relations of the system. In other words: “... diachrony is considered as a field of single phenomena, and language as a system is studied only in the field of synchrony. In other words, the development of a language is depicted as a change only in separate individual phenomena, and not as a change in the system, while the system is studied only in its givenness at a certain moment ... ”language should be studied and understood as a system not only in its present, but also in its past, i.e., to study its phenomena both in connection with each other and in development at the same time, noting in each state of the language phenomena receding into the past, and phenomena emerging against the background of stabilized phenomena normal for the given state of the language.

11. Individualistic hypotheses of the origin of language .

Among the conditions in which language arose were factors related to evolution human body, and factors associated with the transformation of the primitive herd into society. So

a great many statements about the origin of language can be divided into two main groups: 1) biological theories, 2) social theories.

Biological theories explain the origin of language by the evolution of the human body - the sense organs, the speech apparatus and the brain. The positive thing about these theories is that they consider the emergence of language as the result of a long development of nature, thereby rejecting the one-time (divine) origin of language. Among biological theories, two are best known - onomatopoeia and interjection.

Onomatopoeic and interjection theories. The onomatopoeic theory explains the origin of language by the evolution of hearing organs that perceive the cries of animals (especially domestic ones). Language arose, according to this theory, as an imitation of animals (neighing of horses, bleating of sheep) or as an expression of an impression about a named object. Onomatopoeic words have sounds and forms that already exist in the language. That's why a duck screams for a Russian quack quack

(quacks) for an Englishman quack-quack (quack), for French kan-kan (sapsapeg), but for the Dane pan-pan (rapper). There are different and sublingual words with which a person refers to the home

animal such as pig, duck, goose. Interjectional (or reflex) theory explains the origin of language by the experiences that a person experiences. The first words, according to this theory, are involuntary cries, interjections, reflexes. They emotionally expressed pain or joy, fear or hunger. In the course of further development, cries acquired a symbolic meaning, obligatory for all members of this community. If in the onomatopoeic theory the external world (animal sounds) was the impetus, then the interjection theory considered the stimulus for the appearance of words inner world living being, his emotions. Common to both theories is the recognition, along with the sound language, of the presence of a sign language that expressed more rational concepts. Onomatopoeic and interjection theories put the study of the origin of the mechanism of speech, mainly in psychophysiological terms, at the forefront. Ignoring the social factor in these theories led to a skeptical attitude towards them: the onomatopoeic theory began to be jokingly called the “wow-wow theory”, and the interjection - “tfu-tfu theory”. Indeed, in these theories the biological side of the issue is exaggerated, the origin of language is considered exclusively in terms of the origin of speech. It does not take into account with due attention the fact that man and human society are emerging, essentially different from the animal and its herd.

biological theories.

1. Onomatopoeic theory

Did you try to substantiate the principles of the onomatopoeic theory at the end!? early 18th century Leibniz (1646-1716). The great German thinker argued as follows: there are derivative, late languages, and there is a primary language, a "root" language, from which all subsequent derivative languages ​​were formed. According to Leibniz, onomatopoeia took place primarily in the root language, and only to the extent that "derivative languages" developed further the foundations of the root language did they develop the principles of onomatopoeia at the same time. To the extent that derived languages ​​moved away from the root language, their word production turned out to be less "naturally onomatopoeic" and more and more symbolic. Leibniz also ascribed quality to certain sounds. True, he believed that the same sound can be associated with several qualities at once. So, the sound l, according to Leibniz, can express something soft (leben to live, lieben to love, liegen to lie), and something completely different. For example, in the words lion (lion) lynx (lynx), loup (wolf) sound l does not mean something gentle. Here, perhaps, a connection is found with some other quality, namely with speed, with running (Lauf).

Accepting onomatopoeia as the principle of the origin of language, as the principle on the basis of which the "gift of speech" arose in man, Leibniz rejects the significance of this principle for the subsequent development of language. The disadvantage of the onomatopoeic theory is the following: the supporters of this theory consider language not as a social, but as a natural (natural) phenomenon.

2. Theory of the emotional origin of language and the theory of interjections

Its most important representative was JJ Rousseau (1712-1778). In a treatise on the origin of languages, Rousseau wrote that "passions caused the first sounds of the voice." According to Rousseau, "the first languages ​​were melodious and passionate, and only later did they become simple and methodical." According to Rousseau, it turned out that the first languages ​​were much richer than the subsequent ones. But civilization has corrupted man. That is why language, according to Rousseau, has deteriorated from being richer, more emotional, more direct, and has become dry, rational and methodical.

The emotional theory of Rousseau received a peculiar development in the 19th and 20th centuries and became known as the theory of interjections.

One of the defenders of this theory, the Russian linguist Kudryavsky (1863-1920), believed that interjections were a kind of first human words. Interjections were the most emotional words in which the primitive man put different meanings depending on a particular situation. According to Kudryavsky, in interjections, sound and meanings were still inextricably linked. Subsequently, as interjections turned into words, the sound and meanings diverged, and this transition of interjections into words was associated with the emergence of articulate speech.

Soyial origin theories:

1. Theory of sound cries

This theory arose in the 19th century in the writings of vulgar materialists (Germans Noiret, Bücher). It boiled down to the fact that language arose from the cries that accompanied collective work. But these labor cries can only be a means of rhythmizing labor, they do not express anything, not even emotions, but are only external, technical means at work.

2. Social contract theory

From the middle of the 18th century, the theory of the social contract appeared.

The essence of this theory is that in the later stages of the development of the language it is possible to agree on certain words, especially in the field of terminology.

But it is quite obvious that, first of all, in order to "agree on a language", one must already have a language in which one "agrees".

3. The human origin of the language

The German philosopher Herder spoke of the purely human origin of language.

Herder believed that human language arose not to communicate with other people, but to communicate with oneself, to realize one's own self. If a person lived in complete solitude, then, according to Herder, he would have a language. Language was the result of "a secret agreement that the soul of man entered into with itself."

There are also other theories about the origin of the language. For example, the theory of gestures (Geiger, Wundt, Marr). All references to supposedly purely "sign languages" cannot be supported by facts; gestures always act as something secondary for people who have a spoken language. There are no words among gestures, gestures are not connected with concepts.

It is also unlawful to derive the origin of the language from analogues with the mating songs of birds as manifestations of the instinct of self-preservation (Ch. Darwin), especially from human singing (Rousseau, Jespersen). The disadvantage of all the theories listed above is that they ignore language as a social phenomenon.

4. Labor theory of Engels

Special attention should be paid to Engels' labor theory.

In connection with the labor theory of the origin of language, one should first of all mention

F. Engels' unfinished work "The Role of Labor in the Process of the Transformation of Apes into Humans". In the Introduction to the Dialectic of Nature, Engels explains the conditions for the emergence of language:

“When, after a thousand-year struggle, the hand finally differentiated from the legs and a straight gait was established, then man separated from the monkey, and the foundation was laid for the development of articulate speech ...” Vertical gait was in human development a prerequisite for the emergence of speech, and a prerequisite for the expansion and development of consciousness .

The revolution that man introduces into nature consists, first of all, in the fact that human labor is different from that of animals, it is labor with the use of tools, and, moreover, manufactured by those who should own them, and thus progressive and social labor. . No matter how skillful architects we consider ants and bees, they do not know what they say: their work is instinctive, their art is not conscious, and they work with the whole organism, purely biologically, without using tools, and therefore there is no progress in their work .

The freed hand became the first human tool, other tools of labor developed as an addition to the hand (stick, hoe, rake); still later, the man shifts the burden of labor onto the elephant. Camel, horse, and he manages them, finally. The technical engine appears and replaces the animals.

In short, people who were being formed came to the point that they had a need to say something to each other. Need created its own organ: the undeveloped larynx of the monkey was slowly but steadily transformed by modulations for more and more developed modulation, and the organs of the mouth gradually learned to pronounce one articulate sound after another. "Thus, language could only arise as a collective property necessary for mutual understanding. But not as an individual property of this or that incarnated individual.

Engels writes: "First, work, and then articulate speech, were the two most important stimuli under the influence of which the human brain gradually turned into a human brain."

As a result of studying the material in this chapter, the student should:

know

• the main mechanisms of functioning and development trends of the modern Russian language;
• norms of modern literary language;
• conditions for the existence of linguistic variability;
• criteria for stylistic differentiation of linguistic features of functional styles;
• logical foundations for the preparation and editorial editing of texts of professional and socially significant content;

be able to

• to differentiate normative and non-normative linguistic facts at all levels of the language;
• compose and edit texts of various functional styles;
• evaluate the dynamic phenomena of the functioning of the system of the modern Russian language;
• identify and analyze units various levels language system;
• determine the functions of language and related phenomena;

own

• various ways of verbal and non-verbal communication, communication skills;
• criteria for differentiating linguistic units in the context of style;
• various stylistic means of communication in professional and pedagogical activities;
• methods and ways of preparing and editing the text;
• the skills of analyzing the linguistic phenomena of the modern Russian language from the synchronous and diachronic points of view.

Russian literary language as the highest form of the national language. Signs of the literary language. Oral and written forms of the national language

Modern Russian is one of richest languages peace. The high merits of the Russian language are created by its huge vocabulary, wide polysemy of words, richness of synonyms, inexhaustible treasury of word formation, numerous word forms, peculiarities of sounds, stress mobility, clear and harmonious syntax, variety of stylistic resources.

It is necessary to distinguish between concepts Russian national language and literary Russian.

National language- the language of the Russian people - covers all spheres of speech activity, regardless of education, upbringing, place of residence, profession of people speaking it; includes dialects, jargons, i.e. The Russian national language is heterogeneous: it contains special varieties of the language. So, an intelligent, educated person uses words and expressions familiar to him, and an uneducated and rude person uses a set of other speech means. The speech of an academician or a journalist is not like the speech of a village old woman who speaks the local dialect. A tender mother chooses the most affectionate, sincere words for her baby, and an irritated kindergarten teacher or an angry father speaks to a mischievous person in a different way ... They all use the same, common Russian language. In contrast, literary language is a narrower concept; it is a language processed by masters of the word, scientists, public figures.

Concept definition

The most striking, in our opinion, detailed definition of the literary language is given by K. S. Gorbachevich in his study guide for teachers of the "Norms of the Modern Russian Literary Language", which has gone through more than one edition: "The literary language is called the historically established highest (exemplary, processed) form of the national language, which has a rich lexical fund, an ordered grammatical structure and a developed system of styles" .

The basic properties of the modern Russian literary language are:

• 1) the ability to express all the knowledge accumulated by mankind in all fields of activity; the semantic universality of the language, which determines its polyvalence, i.e. use in all speech areas;
• 2) its general obligatoriness norms as exemplary for everyone who owns and uses it, regardless of social, professional and territorial affiliation;
• 3) stylistic richness based on the presence of various options for designating the same semantic units (with or without additional shades) and means for special meanings that are relevant only in certain speech situations.

Literary norm called a set of rules governing the use of words, pronunciation, spelling, the formation of words and their grammatical forms, the combination of words and the construction of sentences. In the literary language, all aspects of the national language are processed and normalized: vocabulary, pronunciation, writing, word formation, grammar. Accordingly, there are lexical, pronunciation, spelling, word-formation and grammatical norms.

Literary norms are formed over the long history of the language: the most commonly used ones are selected from the national language means, which in the minds of the speakers are evaluated as the most correct and obligatory for all. Literary and linguistic norms are enshrined in dictionaries, reference and educational literature. They are mandatory for radio and television, mass media, entertainment and public events. Literary and linguistic norms are the subject and purpose schooling Russian language, as well as teaching linguistic disciplines in universities.

The norm is one of the most important conditions for stability, unity and originality of the national language. However, it would be wrong to think that the literary norm is immovable: it develops and changes over time, and the degree mobility norms are not the same at different language levels. Orthoepic norms (literary pronunciation and stress) have undergone significant changes throughout the 20th century. Grammar norms (rules for the formation of words, phrases and sentences) turned out to be more stable. Their fluctuations are manifested in the occurrence options, some of which reflect the norm, while others are perceived as colloquial (or in other cases as colloquial, roughly colloquial). For example, in plural noun forms are used: tractors - tractors, contracts are contracts. Such variants indicate fluctuations in the norm and are often transitional from an obsolete norm to a new one.

Many generations of Russians were engaged in the development of literary and linguistic norms. educated people. MV Lomonosov, Η. M. Karamzin, A. S. Pushkin and other classics of Russian literature of the 19th–20th centuries. The norm is not a figment of the imagination of linguists, it is not created in the offices of dictionary compilers. The rules that determine the exemplary use of linguistic means are derived from linguistic practice: “Creating a language,” wrote V. G. Belinsky, “is impossible, because it is created by the people; philologists only discover its laws and bring them into a system, and writers only create on it according to these laws."

The literary norm has the most important social significance, protecting the national language from introducing everything random, private into it. Without firmly established language norms, people would not understand each other well. Thus, the modern Russian literary language is opposed to non-standardized linguistic facts, which currently include:

• 1) phenomena of a dialectal nature: "Poluzhie, cf. Meadow along the river. Det ordered me to go kasit on paluzha. Brother Karova walked on paluzha, they found Tom. Bras."; " Slime and slime. Glaze, w. Code sklizota, children roll on the streets. N-z. Wablivahu used to have strong mucus. Klim."; "She worked, w. Lifting lid, barrier that closes the cellar. She was such a heavy creature, no matter what she lifted, but she had a flu. Klim." ;
• 2) obsolete words – historicisms as the names of pre-existing objects and phenomena, archaisms as the former names of existing objects and phenomena. See, for example, in the work of D. M. Balashov "Mr. Veliky Novgorod": survive"("Vyzhli, vyzhlitsa, vyzhlovka - a search, hound dog; a dog leading a pack is called a vyzhlovka, they run to her voice");
• 3) vocabulary special purpose: "Seaside,-th, -os (special). Away from the coast high seas"; "Foraging,-a. m. 2. The degree of fattening of livestock (special) ";
• 4) slang words (army, journalistic, youth, criminal jargon). See, for example, "Dictionary of computer slang": " glitch – program crash. Coffin – computer case. Victim – the computer is in the hands of the “teapot”. Carlson – fan, computer cooler. Paskudnik A person who programs in Pascal. plastosui – drive. nourished – power unit. Armpit- mouse pad. give a fuck- make a photocopy. Program- a state of higher satisfaction from doing programming";
• 5) vernacular as a kind of irregular speech that does not have a local characteristic (unlike dialects), but has specific features in the area:
  • a) phonetics (vowel contraction, increased volume, stretching intonation, simplification syllabic structure, contraction of consonant combinations, etc.);
• 6) morphology and word formation (alignment of a group of cases or a conjugation system by analogy; different from the literary language grammatical meaning gender of nouns; declension of indeclinable nouns);
• c) vocabulary and lexical semantics (the presence of nominations that are absent in the literary language; the use of words in a meaning that is not characteristic of the literary language);
• d) syntax (special syntactic constructions).

For example, the token creature in the meaning of "2. An unworthy, vile person. (simple, contempt.)" is recorded in a modern lexicographic source. The stylistic marks indicated in parentheses indicate, firstly, that this unit belongs to vernacular, which is not included in the literary language; secondly, that she has the status of contemptuous. lexeme mare in the same source it has an obnoxious meaning: "2. trans. About a tall, clumsy woman (simple. neglected)" . In the named meaning given word negatively evaluative, ns is not part of the literary language, is dismissive. Nomination bitch (= "bitch") in the meaning "2. Scoundrel, scoundrel (simple, swearing)" includes a negative evaluative component; from a stylistic point of view, the word is not part of the literary language, it is abusive.

Terminology issues

It should be borne in mind that vernacular in this sense does not coincide with the term "literary vernacular" widely used in linguistics, which "is included in colloquial literary speech, constitutes the" lower "part, directly connected with the entire" ocean "of non-literary speech elements." At the same time, vernacular "asserts the most important function of literary vernacular in the structure of the literary language - the implementation and maintenance of vital for the latest connections with folk colloquial speech ".

The Russian literary language functions in the forms oral and written speech. Both of these speech forms use the same units of language, but in different ways. Since oral speech and written speech are designed for different perception, they differ in lexical composition and syntactic constructions.

Target oral speech - the speed of transmission and perception of certain content. This speech is addressed directly to the interlocutor and is designed for auditory perception. She uses colloquial everyday, colloquial, sometimes dialectal vocabulary and phraseology. Its syntax is characterized by the frequent use of simple and incomplete sentences; word order is not always normal. In oral speech, compound constructions are more often used than complex subordinate constructions; participial and participle phrases are rarely used.

Most often, oral speech is dialogic, but it is also used in lectures, reports, speeches; then it has a monologue character, and in terms of vocabulary and syntax it approaches writing. At the disposal of oral speech, in addition to lexical and grammatical means, there are also auxiliary means of conveying thoughts: facial expressions, gestures, intonation, pauses, and the possibility of repetition.

Written speech differs from the oral language primarily by a complex system of graphics and spelling, through which this or that content is transmitted. In lexical and grammatical terms, it is characterized by strict adherence to the literary norms of the language - a special selection of vocabulary and phraseology, a well-developed syntax. In writing, book vocabulary is widely used: official business, scientific, public and journalistic. The syntax of written speech is characterized by complex and complicated constructions; great importance have word order, strict sequence, harmony in the presentation of thoughts. The written form of speech is distinguished by preliminary reflection of statements, editorial processing of the text, which can be performed by the author himself. This determines the accuracy and correctness of the written form of speech.

Modern Russian literary language is the highest form Russian language. In this combination, "modern literary" first of all requires clarification of the term "literary". The expression "literary language" means "bookish", standardized language, which is associated with the concepts of "literacy" and "book education".

Literary language is the language of culture; works of art and scientific works are created in the Russian literary language, it is the language of the theater, school, newspapers and magazines. At the same time, it is used at home, at work, etc.

The main feature of the literary language is normalization. The norm arises in tradition, forming over a long period of time. Subsequently, the norm is codified, fixed in the set of rules, grammar. The means of codification are dictionaries and reference books on the literary language, textbooks of the modern Russian literary language, scientific linguistic research that sets the norm. The means of codifying the literary language can also be an example of people who are impeccably fluent in literary speech (writers, artists, announcers), and works of high cultural authority (artistic, scientific, journalistic). Everyone who knows the literary language acts as its codifier, responsible for the fate of the Russian literary language.

Literary language has two forms: oral and written. The difference between the oral form of the literary language and the written one is not only that the latter is written down. Written speech uses other structural forms and means of expression, different from oral ones.

These differences have developed historically. Until the 18th century in language practice, only Russian colloquial speech existed. written language in Russia there was Old Church Slavonic, but this introduced significant problems in the communication of people, incl. and in public administration. The first to discover this contradiction and noted in his scientific works M.V. Lomonosov.

The modern Russian language is a complex system that is studied and described from various angles. First of all, from the side of the device and from the side of functioning. If we consider the Russian language from the side of the device, several levels will be distinguished:

Phonetic level

Morpheme level

Lexico-semantic level

Grammar-syntactic level

It should also be noted that the Russian language exists in several forms. The literary language plays a leading role.

The Russian literary language is a form of the historical existence of the national Russian language, taken by its speakers as an exemplary one.

Any language is a system of means of expression. The literary language can be defined as a historically established system of commonly used units that have undergone a long cultural processing and comprehension in the texts of authoritative masters of the word, in the scientific description of the language in grammars, as well as in the communication of educated native speakers of the national language.

The national language is formed on the basis of the national language, which ensures its relative stability.

The national language is a socio-historical category that denotes the language that is the means of communication of the nation and acts in two forms - written and oral.

However, there is a constant relationship between the literary form of a language and its non-literary variant.

The literary language is constantly replenished and updated at the expense of folk colloquial speech. And dialects and vernacular are constantly exposed to the influence of the literary language.

The socio-cultural purpose of the literary Russian language is to be a means of communication for native speakers of the literary language and to be the main means of expressing national culture.

The meaning of the term "language". The main functions of the language.

Language is a sign system that correlates conceptual content and typical sound (writing). Distinguish:

human languages ​​(subject of study of linguistics):

natural human languages,

artificial languages ​​for human communication (for example, Esperanto),

deaf sign languages,

formal languages

computer languages ​​(for example, Algol, SQL),

animal languages

Languages ​​are studied by linguistics (linguistics). Sign systems in general are the subject of study of semiotics. The influence of language structure on human thinking and behavior is studied by psycholinguistics.

Language is a multifunctional phenomenon. All functions of language are manifested in communication. The following functions of the language are distinguished:

communicative (or communication function) - the main function of the language, the use of language to convey information;

constructive (or mental) - the formation of the thinking of the individual and society;

cognitive (or accumulative function) - the transfer of information and its storage;

emotional-expressive - expression of feelings, emotions;

voluntarily (or invocative-incentive function) - the function of influence;

metalinguistic - explanations by means of the language of the language itself;

phatic (or contact-setting);

ideological function - the use of a particular language or type of writing to express ideological preferences. For example, the Irish language is used mainly not for communication, but as a symbol of Irish statehood. The use of traditional writing systems is often perceived as cultural continuity, and the transition to the Latin script as modernizing.

omadative (or formative reality) - the creation of realities and their control;

metalinguistic. In relation to all sign systems, language is an instrument of explanation and organization. The point is that the metalanguage of any code is formed in words.

nominative - a person's belief in the name

denotative, representative - information transfer, presentation

conative - orientation to the addressee;

aesthetic - the sphere of creativity;

axiological - value judgment (good / bad).

The concept of "national language" and "literary language".

National language- the form of the existence of the language in the era of the existence of the nation, a complex systemic unity, including the literary language, dialects, jargons, vernacular and slang.

The concept of a national language is not generally accepted: for example, S. B. Bernshtein denied any linguistic content behind this concept, understanding it as a purely ideological construct. On the contrary, V. V. Vinogradov National Language defended the linguistic reality of the national language as a hierarchical integrity, within which a regrouping of linguistic phenomena takes place - in particular, the pushing of dialects further and further to the periphery:

Only in the era of the existence of developed national languages, especially in a socialist society, does the literary language, as the highest standardized type of the national language, gradually supplant dialects and interdialects and become, both in oral and written communication, the spokesman of the true national norm.

The formation of the national language goes in the direction of the formation and strengthening of the language norm, the acquisition by the literary language (due to its positions in governing, educational and cultural institutions, starting from a certain period associated with the idea of ​​the nation) of a priority position in relation to regional dialects, as well as, in a number of cases, in the struggle to supplant a foreign language that dominates culture and/or politics (Latin, Church Slavonic, languages ​​of metropolitan countries in former colonies). The colloquial form of the national language, which is based on one or more dialects, according to some experts, is already formed under the influence of the literary language.

Literary language- a processed form of the national language, which has, to a greater or lesser extent, written norms; the language of all manifestations of culture, expressed in verbal form.

Literary language is always the result of collective creative activity. The idea of ​​the “fixedness” of the norms of the literary language has a certain relativity (for all the importance and stability of the norm, it is mobile in time). It is impossible to imagine a developed and rich culture of the people without a developed and rich literary language. This is the great social significance of the very problem of literary language.

There is no consensus among linguists about the complex and multifaceted concept of the literary language. Some researchers prefer to talk not about the literary language as a whole, but about its varieties: either the written literary language, or the colloquial literary language, or the language of fiction, etc.

Literary language cannot be identified with the language of fiction. These are different, though related concepts.

Literary language is the property of all who own its norms. It functions in both written and spoken forms. The language of fiction (the language of writers), although it usually focuses on the same norms, contains a lot of individual, not generally accepted. In different historical epochs and different peoples the degree of similarity between the literary language and the language of fiction turned out to be unequal.

Literary language - mutual language the writing of one or another people, and sometimes several peoples - the language of official business documents, school education, written and everyday communication, science, journalism, fiction, all manifestations of culture, expressed in verbal form, more often written, but sometimes oral. That is why the written and bookish and oral and colloquial forms of the literary language differ, the emergence, correlation and interaction of which are subject to certain historical patterns.

Written and spoken varieties of the literary language.

Book language is an achievement and heritage of culture. He is the main custodian and transmitter of cultural information. All types of indirect (distant) communication are carried out by means of the book language. Scientific works, fiction and educational literature, diplomatic and business correspondence, newspaper and magazine products and much more cannot be imagined without the literary language. Its functions are enormous and with the development of civilization they become even more complicated. The modern Russian literary language is a powerful communication tool. It has all the means necessary for the various purposes of communication, and above all for the expression of abstract concepts and relations. The complex connections traced by scientists and writers in the material and spiritual world are described in scientific language. Oral, colloquial speech is not suitable for this: it is impossible to pass from mouth to mouth syntactically cumbersome texts, saturated with special terminology and complex in meaning. The property of book and written speech to preserve the text and thereby enhance the ability of the literary language to be a link between generations is one of the main properties of the book language.

The colloquial variety is used in various types of domestic relations of people, provided that communication is easy. colloquial speech it is not only the form that distinguishes it from book and writing (this is oral and, moreover, predominantly dialogic speech), but also such features as unpreparedness, unplannedness, spontaneity (cf., for example, with reading a report, the text of which is written in advance), the immediacy of I contact between the participants communication.

The colloquial variety of the literary language, unlike the written one, is not subject to purposeful normalization, but it has certain norms as a result of the speech tradition. This kind of literary language is not so clearly divided into speech genres. However, here, too, various speech features can be distinguished - depending on the conditions in which communication takes place, on the relationship of the participants in the conversation, etc. compare, for example, the conversation of friends, colleagues, a conversation at the table, a conversation between an adult and a child, a dialogue between a seller and a buyer, etc.

Functional styles of the modern language, their interaction.

functional styles- these are the varieties of the language, determined by the spheres of human activity and having their own norms of selection and combination of language units. Functional styles are created as a result of the selection of language means, depending on the goals and objectives that are set and solved in the process of communication.

The following functional styles are usually distinguished:

1) scientific,

2) official business,

3) journalistic,

4) colloquial and everyday.

The attachment of words to a certain style is explained by the fact that words that have the same meaning can differ in emotional and stylistic coloring, therefore they are used in different styles (shortage - deficit, liar - liar, squander - squander, cry - complain). In everyday everyday dialogue, characteristic of oral speech, mostly colloquial vocabulary is used. It does not violate the norms of literary speech, but its use is unacceptable in official communication.

Colloquial words are opposed to book vocabulary, which includes words of scientific, technical, journalistic and official business styles. Lexical meaning book words, their grammatical arrangement and pronunciation are subject to the norms of the literary language, deviation from which is unacceptable.

Concreteness of meaning is characteristic of colloquial vocabulary, book vocabulary is predominantly abstract. The terms book and colloquial vocabulary are conditional, book words typical of written speech can also be used orally, and colloquial words can be used in writing.

In the Russian language there is a large group of words used in all styles and characteristic of both oral and written speech. They are called stylistically neutral.

The scientific style is characterized by scientific terminology: pedagogy, society, state, theory, process, structure. Words are used in a direct, nominative sense, there is no emotionality. Sentences are narrative in nature, mostly in direct word order.

A feature of the official business style is a concise, compact presentation, economical use of language tools. Characteristic set expressions are used (with gratitude we confirm; we inform that; in case of appearance, etc.). this style is characterized by the "dryness" of presentation, the lack of expressive means, the use of words in their direct meaning.

The characteristic features of the journalistic style are the relevance of the content, the sharpness and brightness of the presentation, the author's passion. The purpose of the text is to influence the mind and feelings of the reader, listener. A variety of vocabulary is used: terms of literature and art, general literary words, means of speech expressiveness. The text is dominated by detailed stylistic constructions, interrogative and exclamatory sentences are used.

The everyday colloquial style is characterized by the use various types sentences, free word order, extremely short sentences, words with evaluative suffixes (week, darling), figurative means of the language.

scientific style, its features.

Scientific style - a functional style of speech, a literary language, which has a number of features: preliminary consideration of the statement, monologue, strict selection of language means, gravitation towards normalized speech.

Style scientific works is ultimately determined by their content and the goals of scientific communication: to explain the facts as accurately and completely as possible, to show causal relationships between phenomena, to identify patterns of historical development, and so on.

The scientific style has a number of common features that manifest themselves regardless of the nature of certain sciences (natural, exact, humanitarian) and the differences between the genres of expression (monograph, article, report, textbook, course work etc.), which makes it possible to talk about the specifics of the style as a whole. At the same time, it is quite natural that, for example, texts on physics, chemistry, and mathematics differ noticeably in the nature of presentation from texts on philology or history.

The scientific style is characterized by a logical sequence of presentation, an ordered system of communication between parts of the statement, the desire of the authors for accuracy, conciseness, unambiguity while maintaining the saturation of the content.

1. Consistency is presence semantic connections between successive units (blocks) of text.

2. Only such a text has consistency, in which the conclusions follow from the content, they are consistent, the text is divided into separate semantic segments, reflecting the movement of thought from the particular to the general or from the general to the particular.

3. Clarity, as the quality of scientific speech, implies clarity, accessibility. According to the degree of accessibility, scientific, scientific-educational and popular science texts differ in material.

Journalistic style, its features.

Journalistic style is a functional style of speech that is used in the genres: article, essay, reportage, feuilleton, interview, oratory.

Publicistic style serves to influence people and inform them through the media (newspapers, magazines, television, posters, booklets). It is characterized by the presence of socio-political vocabulary, logic, emotionality, appraisal, appeal. In addition to neutral, it widely uses high, solemn vocabulary and phraseology, emotionally colored words, the use of short sentences, chopped prose, verbless phrases, rhetorical questions, exclamations, repetitions, etc. The linguistic features of this style are affected by the breadth of topics: there is a need to include special vocabulary that needs clarification. On the other hand, a number of topics are in the center of public attention, and the vocabulary related to these topics acquires a journalistic coloring. Among such topics, politics, economics, education, healthcare, criminalistics, and military topics should be singled out.

The journalistic style is characterized by the use of evaluative vocabulary, which has a strong emotional connotation (an energetic start, a firm position, a severe crisis).

This style is used in the sphere of political-ideological, social and cultural relations. The information is intended not for a narrow circle of specialists, but for the general public, and the impact is directed not only to the mind, but also to the feelings of the addressee.

The task of speech: 1) to influence the mass consciousness; 2) call to action; 3) communicate information.

Vocabulary has a pronounced emotional and expressive coloring, includes colloquial, colloquial and slang elements. Vocabulary, characteristic of the journalistic style, can be used in other styles: in official business, scientific. But in a journalistic style, it acquires a special function - to create a picture of events and convey to the addressee the journalist's impressions of these events.

The concept of "language" of fiction.

The language of fiction is:

1) the language in which works of art are created (its lexicon, grammar, phonetics), sometimes, in some societies, completely different from everyday, everyday ("practical") language; in this sense, I. x. l. - the subject of the history of language and the history of the literary language

2) Poetic language - a system of rules underlying literary texts, both prose and poetry, their creation and reading (interpretation); these rules are always different from the corresponding rules of everyday language, even when, as, for example, in modern Russian, the lexicon, grammar and phonetics of both are the same; in this sense, the language of fiction, expressing the aesthetic function of the national language, is the subject of poetics, in particular historical poetics, as well as semiotics, namely, the semiotics of literature.

In the first sense, the term "fiction" should be understood broadly, including for past historical eras and its oral forms (for example, Homer's poems). A special problem is the language of folklore; in accordance with the second meaning, it is included in the language of fiction.

Conversational style, its features.

Conversational style is a functional style of speech that serves for informal communication, when the author shares his thoughts or feelings with others, exchanges information on everyday issues in an informal setting. It often uses colloquial and colloquial vocabulary.

The usual form of implementation of conversational style is dialogue, this style is more often used in oral speech. It lacks preliminary selection language material.

In this style of speech, extralinguistic factors play an important role: facial expressions, gestures, and the environment.

Conversational style is characterized by emotionality, figurativeness, concreteness, and simplicity of speech. For example, in a bakery, the phrase: “Please, with bran, one” does not seem strange.

The relaxed atmosphere of communication leads to greater freedom in the choice of emotional words and expressions: colloquial words are used more widely (stupid, rotosey, talking shop, giggle, cackle), colloquial (neigh, deadhead, awful, disheveled), slang (parents - ancestors, iron, worldly) .

Colloquial words and phraseological units: vymahal (grew up), electric train (electric train), vocabulary with emotional and expressive coloring (cool, clever, terrible), diminutive suffixes (gray).

Official business style, the scope of its functioning.

Official business style - functional style of speech, environment speech communication in the sphere of official relations: in the sphere of legal relations and management. This area covers international relations, jurisprudence, economics, the military industry, advertising, communication in official institutions, government activities. Among the book styles of the language, the official business style stands out for its relative stability and isolation. Over time, naturally, it undergoes some changes caused by the nature of the content itself, but many of its features, historically established genres, specific vocabulary, phraseology, and syntactic turns give it a generally conservative character.

A characteristic feature of the official business style is the presence in it of numerous speech standards - clichés. If in other styles templated turns often act as a stylistic flaw, then in the official business style in most cases they are perceived as a completely natural belonging to it.

Many types of business documents have generally accepted forms of presentation and arrangement of material, and this, of course, facilitates and simplifies their use. It is no coincidence that in certain cases of business practice, ready-made forms are used that only need to be filled out. Even envelopes are usually inscribed in a certain order (different in different countries, but firmly established in each of them), and this has its advantages for both writers and postal workers. Therefore, all those speech clichés that simplify and speed up business communication are quite appropriate in it.

Peculiarities: Official business style is the style of documents: international treaties, government acts, legal laws, regulations, charters, instructions, official correspondence, business papers, etc.

General features of the official business style.

Despite the differences in content and variety of genres, the official business style as a whole is characterized by a number of common features. These include:

1) conciseness, compactness of presentation, economical use of language tools;

2) the standard arrangement of the material, the often obligatory form (identity card, various kinds of diplomas, birth and marriage certificates, money documents, etc.), the use of clichés inherent in this style;

3) the widespread use of terminology, nomenclature names (legal, diplomatic, military, administrative, etc.), the presence of a special stock of vocabulary and phraseology (official, clerical), the inclusion of complex abbreviated words and abbreviations in the text;

4) frequent use of verbal nouns, denominative prepositions (on the basis of, in relation to, in accordance with, in fact, by virtue of, for purposes, at the expense of, along the line, etc.), complex conjunctions (due to the fact that, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, etc.), as well as various set phrases that serve to connect parts of a complex sentence (in case ...; on the grounds that ...; for the reason that ...; with that the condition that ..., in such a way that ..., the circumstance that ..., the fact that ..., etc.);

5) the narrative nature of the presentation, the use of nominative sentences with enumeration;

6) direct word order in a sentence as the prevailing principle of its construction;

7) tendency to use complex sentences reflecting the logical subordination of some facts to others;

8) almost complete absence of emotionally expressive speech means;

subsystems " Russianliterarylanguage." So, some groups of words language out for...

Lecture 2 literary language and other subsystems of the Russian national language language variability

Lecture

Central Russian dialects developed modernRussianliterarylanguage, That's why his features (akanye  ... group. Universal subsystem national language is an modernRussianliterarylanguage, language edited and coded...

Lecture

To other levels, i.e. subsystems language contemporaryRussianliterarylanguage his phonetic system...

Lecture 1 modern Russian literary language as a subject of study

Lecture

To other levels, i.e. subsystems that form the whole system. Basic levels language are VOCABULARY (including... front row). V contemporaryRussianliterarylanguage there are a number of sound laws that determine the nature his phonetic system...

For a long time, there was an opinion among linguists that any literary language is a purely artificial formation. Some scientists compared it even with a greenhouse plant. It was believed that the literary language is far from the living (natural) language and therefore is not of significant interest to science. Now such views are completely obsolete. The literary language, being the product of a long and complex historical development, is organically linked to the folk basis. M. Gorky’s words are often quoted that “the division of the language into literary and folk only means that we have, so to speak, a“ raw ”language and processed by masters” (On how I learned to write, 1928). True, at the same time, they sometimes narrowly represent the circle of people who are called "masters of the word", meaning exclusively writers and scientists. In fact, in the process of processing the national language, there are also public figures, publicists, teachers and other representatives of the Russian intelligentsia. Although, of course, the role of writers and poets in this matter is the most significant.
The literary language is the historically established higher (exemplary, processed) form of the national language, which has a rich lexical fund, an ordered grammatical structure and a developed system of styles. Approaching at different stages of its development, now with the book-written, then with the colloquial-oral form of speech, the Russian literary language has never been something artificial and completely alien to the folk language. At the same time, an equal sign cannot be put between them. Literary language has special properties. Among its main features are the following:

1. the presence of certain norms (rules) of word usage, stress, pronunciation, etc. (moreover, norms are stricter than, say, in dialects), the observance of which is mandatory, regardless of the social, professional and territorial affiliation of native speakers of a given language;
2. striving for sustainability, for the preservation of the common cultural heritage and literary and book traditions;
3. adaptability not only to designate the entire amount of knowledge accumulated by mankind, but also to implement the abstract, logical thinking;
4. stylistic wealth, which consists in the abundance of functionally justified variant and synonymous means, which makes it possible to achieve the most effective expression of thought in various speech situations.

Of course, these properties of the literary language did not appear immediately, but as a result of a long and skillful selection of the most accurate and weighty words and phrases, the most convenient and expedient grammatical forms and constructions. This selection, carried out by masters of words, was combined with creative enrichment and improvement of their native language.

The most amazing and wise thing that humanity has created is language.

Literary language is the main means of communication between people of the same nationality. It is characterized by two main properties: processing and normalization.

The processing of the literary language arises as a result of a purposeful selection of all the best that is in the language. This selection is carried out in the process of using the language, as a result of special studies by philologists and public figures.

Normalization - the use of language means, regulated by a single universally binding norm. The norm as a set of rules of word usage is necessary to preserve the integrity and comprehensibility of the national language, to transfer information from one generation to another. If there were no single language norm, then changes could occur in the language, in which people living in different parts of Russia would cease to understand each other.

The main requirements that a literary language must meet are its unity and general intelligibility.

The modern Russian literary language is multifunctional and is used in various fields of human activity.

The main ones are: politics, science, culture, verbal art, education, everyday communication, interethnic communication, press, radio, television.

If we compare the varieties of the national language (vernacular, territorial and social dialects, jargon), the literary language plays a leading role. It includes the best ways to designate concepts and objects, express thoughts and emotions. There is a constant interaction between the literary language and non-literary varieties of the Russian language. This is most clearly seen in the sphere of colloquial speech.

In the scientific linguistic literature, the main features of the literary language are highlighted:

1) processing;

2) stability;

3) mandatory (for all native speakers);

4) normalization;

5) the presence of functional styles.

Russian literary language exists in two forms - oral and written. Each form of speech has its own specifics.

The Russian language in the broadest sense is the totality of all words, grammatical forms, pronunciation features of all Russian people, that is, all those who speak Russian as their native language. The more correct and accurate the speech, the more accessible it is for understanding, the more beautiful and expressive it is, the stronger it affects the listener or reader. To speak correctly and beautifully, you need to follow the laws of logic (consistency, evidence) and the norms of the literary language, observe the unity of style, avoid repetition, take care of the harmony of speech.

The main features of Russian literary pronunciation have developed precisely on the basis of the phonetics of Central Russian dialects. Nowadays, dialects are being destroyed under the pressure of the literary language.

2. The multifunctionality of the Russian literary language. The difference in the functions of the literary language and the language of fiction

The basis of the culture of speech is the literary language. It constitutes the highest form of the national language. It is the language of culture, literature, education, mass media.

The modern Russian language is multifunctional, that is, it is used in various fields of human activity. The means of the literary language (lexicon, grammatical constructions, etc.) are functionally delimited by their use in various fields of activity. The use of certain language means depends on the type of communication. The literary language is divided into two functional varieties: colloquial and bookish. In accordance with this, colloquial speech and book language are distinguished.

In oral colloquial speech, there are three styles of pronunciation: full, neutral, colloquial.

One of the most important properties of the bookish language is the ability to preserve the text and thus serve as a means of communication between generations. The functions of the bookish language are numerous and become more complex with the development of society. When highlighting the styles of the national language, many varieties are taken into account, covering the language material from “high”, bookish elements to “low”, vernacular. What functional styles is the bookish language divided into?

Functional style is a kind of bookish language that is characteristic of a certain area of ​​human activity and has a certain

ny originality in the use of linguistic means. There are three main styles in the book language - scientific, official and publicistic.

Along with the listed styles, there is also the language of fiction. It belongs to the fourth functional style of the bookish language. However, artistic speech is characterized by the fact that all linguistic means can be used here: words and expressions of the literary language, elements of vernacular, jargons, territorial dialects. The author uses these means to express the idea of ​​the work, to make it expressive, to reflect the local color, etc.

The main function of artistic speech is influence. Used exclusively in works of art. Also, such speech has an aesthetic function, as an evaluation function is a communicative one. Fiction acts as an assessment of the surrounding world and an expression of attitude towards it.

Rhyme, rhythm are the distinctive features of speech. The tasks of artistic speech are to influence the feelings and thoughts of the reader, listener, to arouse empathy in him.

The recipient is usually anyone. Conditions of communication - participants in communication are separated by time and space.

Language means of artistic speech (words in a figurative sense, emotionally figurative words, specific words (not birds, but thunder), interrogative, exclamatory, incentive sentences, with homogeneous members.