Environmental monitoring – Information system observations, assessment and forecast of changes in the state environment, created to highlight the anthropogenic component of these changes against the background of natural processes.

Main objectives of environmental monitoring consist in providing the environmental protection and environmental safety management system with timely and reliable information that allows:

Assess indicators of the state and functional integrity of ecosystems and human habitats;

Create prerequisites for determining measures to correct emerging negative situations before damage is caused.

The main tasks of environmental monitoring are:

Source Observation anthropogenic impact;

Observation of anthropogenic impact factors;

Observation of the state of the natural environment and the processes occurring in it under the influence of anthropogenic factors;

Assessment of the actual state of the natural environment;

Forecast of changes in the state of the natural environment under the influence of factors of anthropogenic impact and assessment of the predictive state of the natural environment.

Environmental monitoring of the environment can be developed at the level of an industrial facility, city, district, region, territory, republic as part of a federation.

When developing an environmental monitoring project, the following information is required:

Sources of pollutants entering the environment - emissions of pollutants into the atmosphere by industrial, energy, transport and other facilities; wastewater discharges into water bodies; surface washouts of pollutants and biogenic substances into the surface waters of land and sea; the introduction of pollutants and biogenic substances onto the earth's surface and (or) into the soil layer together with fertilizers and pesticides in agricultural economic activity; places of burial and storage of industrial and municipal waste; technogenic accidents leading to the release of hazardous substances into the atmosphere and (or) the spill of liquid pollutants and hazardous substances, etc.;

Pollutant transports are atmospheric transport processes; transfer and migration processes in the aquatic environment;

Processes of landscape-geochemical redistribution of pollutants - migration of pollutants along the soil profile to the level of groundwater; migration of pollutants along the landscape-geochemical conjugation, taking into account geochemical barriers and biochemical cycles; biochemical circulation, etc.;

Data on the state of anthropogenic emission sources - the power of the emission source and its location, hydrodynamic conditions for the release of emissions into the environment.

Global Environmental Monitoring System - this network of observations of the sources of influence and the state of the biosphere already covers the entire globe. The Global Environmental Monitoring System (GEMS) was created by the joint efforts of the world community (the main provisions and goals of the program were formulated in 1974 at the First Intergovernmental Monitoring Meeting). The top priority was organization of monitoring of environmental pollution and the impact factors causing it.

The monitoring system is implemented at several levels, which correspond to specially developed programs:

Impact (study of strong impacts on a local scale - I);

Regional (manifestation of the problems of migration and transformation of pollutants, the combined impact of various factors characteristic of the economy of the region - R);

Background (on the basis of biosphere reserves, where any economic activity is excluded - F).

When choosing pollutants for observation, their priority is determined depending on the observation environment (Appendix 2).

In the zone of influence of emission sources, systematic monitoring of the following objects and parameters of the environment is organized.

1. Atmosphere: chemical and radionuclide composition of the gaseous and aerosol phase of the air sphere; solid and liquid precipitation (snow, rain) and their chemical and radionuclide composition; thermal and humidity pollution of the atmosphere.

2. Hydrosphere: chemical and radionuclide composition of the environment surface water(rivers, lakes, reservoirs, etc.), groundwater, suspended matter and sediment data in natural drains and reservoirs; thermal pollution of surface and ground waters.

3. Soil: chemical and radionuclide composition of the active soil layer.

4. Biota: chemical and radioactive contamination of agricultural land, vegetation, soil zoocenoses, terrestrial communities, domestic and wild animals, birds, insects, aquatic plants, plankton, fish.

5. Urbanized environment: chemical and radiation background of the air environment of settlements; chemical and radionuclide composition of food products, drinking water etc.

6. Population: characteristic demographic parameters (population size and density, birth and death rates, age structure, morbidity, level of congenital deformities and anomalies); socio-economic factors.

Systems for monitoring natural environments and ecosystems include means of observation: the ecological quality of the air environment, the ecological state of surface waters and aquatic ecosystems, the ecological state of the geological environment and terrestrial ecosystems.

Observations within the framework of this type of monitoring are carried out without taking into account specific emission sources and are not related to their zones of influence. The basic principle of organization is natural-ecosystem.

The objectives of observations carried out as part of the monitoring of natural environments and ecosystems are:

Assessment of the state and functional integrity of the habitat and ecosystems;

Identification of changes in natural conditions as a result of anthropogenic activities in the territory;

Study of changes in the ecological climate (long-term ecological state) of the territories.

In the territory Russian Federation there are a number of systems for monitoring environmental pollution and the state natural resources.

The concept of environmental monitoring Monitoring is a system of repeated observations of one or more elements of the natural environment in space and time with specific goals and in accordance with a pre-prepared program Menn 1972. The concept of environmental monitoring was first introduced by R. Clarifying the definition of environmental monitoring by Yu.

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Lecture #14

Environmental monitoring

1. The concept of environmental monitoring
2. Tasks of environmental monitoring
3. Monitoring classification
4. Assessment of the actual state of the environment (sanitary and hygienic monitoring, environmental)
5. Forecast and assessment of the predicted state

1. The concept of environmental monitoring

Monitoring is a system of repeated observations of one or more elements of the natural environment in space and time with specific goals and in accordance with a pre-prepared program (Menn, 1972). The need for detailed information about the state of the biosphere has become even more obvious in recent decades due to serious negative consequences caused by uncontrolled human exploitation of natural resources.

To detect changes in the state of the biosphere under the influence of human activity, an observation system is needed. Such a system is now commonly referred to as monitoring.

The word "monitoring" entered the scientific circulation from the English-language literature and comes from the English word " monitoring " comes from the word " monitor ", which has English language the following meaning: monitor, device or device for monitoring and constant control over something.

The concept of environmental monitoring was first introduced by R. Menn in 1972. at the UN Stockholm Conference.

In our country, one of the first to develop the theory of monitoring was Yu.A. Israel. While clarifying the definition of environmental monitoring, Yu.A.Izrael back in 1974 focused not only on observation, but also on forecasting, introducing the anthropogenic factor as the main cause of these changes into the definition of the term “environmental monitoring”. Monitoring environmenthe calls the system of observations, assessment and forecast of anthropogenic changes in the state of the natural environment. (Fig.1) . The Stockholm Conference (1972) on the environment marked the beginning of the creation of global systems for monitoring the state of the environment (GEMS / GEMS).

Monitoring includes the followingmain directions activities:

• Observations of factors affecting the natural environment and the state of the environment;
• Assessment of the actual state of the natural environment;
• Forecast of the state of the natural environment. And an assessment of this state.

Thus, monitoring is a multi-purpose information system for observing, analyzing, diagnosing and predicting the state of the natural environment, which does not include environmental quality management, but provides the necessary information for such management (Fig. 2.).

Information system / monitoring / management

Rice. 2. Block diagram of the monitoring system.

2. Tasks of environmental monitoring

1. Scientific and technical support for observation, assessment of the forecast of the state of the environment;
2. Monitoring the sources of pollutants and the level of environmental pollution;
3. Identification of sources and factors of pollution and assessment of the degree of their impact on the environment;
4. Assessment of the actual state of the environment;
5. Forecast of changes in the state of the environment and ways to improve the situation. (Fig.3.) .

The essence and content of environmental monitoring consists of an ordered set of procedures organized in cycles: N 1 - observations, O 1 - estimate, P 1 - forecast and Y 1 - management. Then the observations are supplemented with new data, on a new cycle, and then the cycles are repeated on a new time interval H 2, O 2, P 2, U 2, etc. (Fig. 4.) .

Thus, monitoring is a complex structure, cyclically functioning and developing in time in a spiral constantly operating system.

Rice. 4. Scheme of functioning of monitoring in time.

3. Classification of monitoring.

1. By the scope of observation;
2. By objects of observation;
3. According to the level of contamination of objects of observation;
4. According to factors and sources of pollution;
5. Observation methods.

According to the scale of observation

Level name monitoring	Monitoring Organizations
Global	Interstate monitoring system environment
National	State system for monitoring the environment of the territory of Russia
Regional	Territorial, regional environmental monitoring systems
Local	City, district environmental monitoring systems
Detailed	Environmental monitoring systems for enterprises, deposits, factories, etc.

Detailed Monitoring

The lowest hierarchical level is the level of detailedenvironmental monitoring, implemented within the territories and on the scale of individual enterprises, factories, individual engineering structures, economic complexes, deposits, etc. Systems of detailed environmental monitoring are the most important link in the system of a higher rank. Their integration into a larger network forms a local level monitoring system.

Local monitoring (impact)

It is carried out in heavily polluted places (cities, settlements, water bodies, etc.) and is focused on the source of pollution. V

Due to the proximity to sources of pollution, all the main substances that make up emissions into the atmosphere and discharge into water bodies are usually present in significant quantities. Local systems, in turn, are combined into even larger ones - regional monitoring systems.

Regional monitoring

It is carried out within a certain region, taking into account the natural character, type and intensity of technogenic impact. Regional environmental monitoring systems are combined within one state into a single national monitoring network.

National monitoring

Monitoring system within one state. Such a system differs from global monitoring not only in scale, but also in that the main task of national monitoring is to obtain information and assess the state of the environment in the national interest. In Russia, it is carried out under the leadership of the Ministry of Natural Resources. Within the framework of the UN environmental program, the task was set to unite national monitoring systems into a single interstate network - the "Global Environmental Monitoring Network" (GEMS)

Global Monitoring

The purpose of GEMS is to monitor changes in the environment on Earth as a whole, on a global scale. Global monitoring is a system for tracking the state and forecasting possible changes in global processes and phenomena, including anthropogenic impact on the biosphere as a whole. GEMS deals with global warming, ozone layer problems, forest conservation, droughts, etc. .

By objects of observation

1. atmospheric air
2. in settlements;
3. different layers of the atmosphere;
4. stationary and mobile sources of pollution.
5. Ground and surface water bodies
6. fresh and salt water;
7. mixing zones;
8. regulated water bodies;
9. natural reservoirs and streams.
10. Geological environment
11. soil layer;
12. soils.
13. Biological monitoring
14. plants;
15. animals;
16. ecosystems;
17. Human.
18. Snow monitoring
19. Background radiation monitoring.

The level of contamination of objects of observation

1. Background (basic monitoring)

These are observations of environmental objects in relatively clean natural areas.

2. Impact

Oriented to the source of pollution or a particular polluting effect.

By factors and sources of pollution

1. Gradient monitoring

This is the physical impact on the environment. These are radiation, thermal effects, infrared, noise, vibration, etc.

2. Ingredient monitoring

This is the monitoring of a single pollutant.

By methods of observation

1. Contact methods

2. Remote methods.

4. Assessment of the actual state of the environment

Assessment of the actual state is a key direction in the framework of environmental monitoring. It allows you to determine trends in changes in the state of the environment; the degree of trouble and its causes; helps to make decisions on the normalization of the situation. Favorable situations that indicate the presence of ecological reserves of nature can also be identified.

The ecological reserve of a natural ecosystem is the difference between the maximum allowable and the actual state of the ecosystem.

The method for analyzing the results of observations and assessing the state of the ecosystem depend on the type of monitoring. Usually, the assessment is carried out according to a set of indicators or according to conditional indices developed for the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere. Unfortunately, there are no unified criteria even for identical elements of the natural environment. For example, consider only a few criteria.

In sanitary and hygienic monitoring, they usually use:

1) comprehensive assessments of the sanitary condition natural objects according to the set of measured indicators (table 1) or 2) pollution indices.

Table 1.

Comprehensive assessment of the sanitary state of water bodies based on a combination of physical, chemical and hydrobiological indicators

The general principle for calculating pollution indices is as follows: first, the degree of deviation of the concentration of each pollutant from its MPC is determined, and then the obtained values ​​are combined into a total indicator that takes into account the impact of several substances.

Let us give examples of the calculation of pollution indices used to assess atmospheric air pollution (AP) and surface water quality (SWQ).

Calculation of the air pollution index (API).

V practical work use a large number of different APIs. Some of them are based on indirect indicators of atmospheric pollution, for example, on the visibility of the atmosphere, on the transparency coefficient.

Various ISAs, which can be divided into 2 main groups:

1. Single indices of atmospheric pollution by one impurity.

2. Comprehensive indicators of atmospheric pollution by several substances.

TO single indices relate:

The coefficient for expressing the impurity concentration in MPC units ( a ), i.e. the value of the maximum or average concentration, reduced to MPC:

a = Сί / MACί

This API is used as a criterion for atmospheric air quality by individual impurities.

Repeatability (g ) concentrations of impurities in the air above a given level by post or by K posts of the city for the year. This is the percentage (%) of cases when the specified level is exceeded by single values ​​of the impurity concentration:

g = (m / n ) ּ100%

where n - the number of observations for the period under review, m - the number of cases of exceeding one-time concentrations at the post.

ISA (I ) a separate impurity - quantitative characteristic the level of atmospheric pollution by a separate impurity, taking into account the hazard class of the substance through standardization for SO hazard 2 :

I \u003d (C g / MPCs) Ki

where I is an impurity, Ki - constant for various classes dangers of bringing to the degree of harmfulness of sulfur dioxide, C d is the average annual impurity concentration.

For substances of different hazard classes Ki is accepted:

Hazard Class
Ki value

API calculation is based on the assumption that at the MPC level all harmful substances have the same effect on humans, and with a further increase in concentration, the degree of their harmfulness increases at a different rate, which depends on the hazard class of the substance.

This API is used to characterize the contribution of individual impurities to the total level of atmospheric pollution over a given period of time in a given territory and to compare the degree of atmospheric pollution by various substances.

TO complex indices relate:

The Comprehensive Urban Air Pollution Index (CIPA) is a quantitative measure of the level of air pollution generated by n substances present in the atmosphere of the city:

KIZA=

where II - unit index of air pollution by the i-th substance.

The complex index of air pollution by priority substances - a quantitative characteristic of the level of air pollution by priority substances that determine air pollution in cities, is calculated similarly to the KIZA.

Calculations of the natural water pollution index (WPI)can also be done in several ways.

Let us give as an example the calculation method recommended normative document, which is an integral part of the Rules for the Protection of Surface Waters (1991) - SanPiN 4630-88.

First, the measured concentrations of pollutants are grouped according to the limiting signs of harmfulness - LPV (organoleptic, toxicological and general sanitary). Then, for the first and second (organoleptic and toxicological LPV) groups, the degree of deviation (A i ) actual concentrations of substances ( C i ) from their MPC i , the same as for atmospheric air ( A i = C i / MPC i ). Next, find the sum of the indicators A i , for the first and second groups of substances:

where S is the sum of A i for substances regulated by organoleptic ( S org ) and toxicological ( S tox ) LPV; n - number of summarized indicators of water quality.

In addition, to determine the WPI, the value of oxygen dissolved in water and BOD are used. 20 (general sanitary LPV), bacteriological indicator - the number of lactose-positive Escherichia coli (LPKP) in 1 liter of water, smell and taste. The water pollution index is determined in accordance with the hygienic classification of water bodies according to the degree of pollution (Table 2).

Comparing the corresponding indicators ( S org , S tox , BOD 20 etc.) with evaluation ones (see Table 2), determine the pollution index, the degree of pollution of the water body and the water quality class. The pollution index is determined by the most stringent value of the estimated indicator. So, if according to all indicators the water belongs to the I quality class, but the oxygen content in it is less than 4.0 mg/l (but more than 3.0 mg/l), then the WPI of such water should be taken as 1 and attributed to the II class quality (moderate degree of pollution).

Types of water use depend on the degree of water pollution in a water body (Table 3).

Table 2.

Hygienic classification of water bodies according to the degree of pollution (according to SanPiN 4630-88)

Table 3

Possible types of water use depending on the degree of pollution of the water body (according to SanPiN 4630-88)

Degree of pollution	Possible use of a single object
Permissible	Suitable for all types of water use of the population with virtually no restrictions
Moderate	Indicates the danger of using a water body for cultural and domestic chains. Use as a source of domestic and drinking water supply without reducing the level: chemical pollution at water treatment facilities can lead to initial symptoms of intoxication in a part of the population, especially in the presence of substances of the 1st and 2nd hazard classes
High	Unconditional danger of cultural and domestic water use at a water body. It is unacceptable to use it as a source of domestic and drinking water supply due to the difficulty of removing toxic substances in the process of water treatment. Drinking water can lead to the appearance of symptoms of intoxication and the development of separated effects, especially in the presence of substances of the 1st and 2nd hazard classes.
Extremely high	Absolute unsuitability for all types of water use. Even short-term use of water in a water body is dangerous for public health

In the services of the Ministry of Natural Resources of the Russian Federation, to assess water quality, they use the method of calculating WPI only by chemical indicators, but taking into account more stringent fishery MPCs. At the same time, not 4, but 7 quality classes are distinguished:

I - very pure water (WPI = 0.3);

II - pure (WPI = 0.3 - 1.0);

III - moderately polluted (WPI = 1.0 - 2.5);

IV - polluted (WPI = 2.5 - 4.0);

V - dirty (WPI = 4.0 - 6.0);

VI - very dirty (WPI = 6.0 - 10.0);

VII - extremely dirty (WPI over 10.0).

Assessment of the level of chemical contamination of the soilis carried out according to the indicators developed in geochemical and geohygienic studies. These indicators are:

• concentration factor chemical(TO i ),

K i \u003d C i / C fi

where C i is the actual content of the analyte in the soil, mg/kg;

C fi – regional background content of the substance in the soil, mg/kg.

In the presence of MPC i for the soil type under consideration, K i determined by the multiplicity of exceeding the hygienic standard, i.e. according to the formula

K i = С i / MPC i

• total pollution index Z c , which is determined by the sum of the chemical concentration coefficients:

Zc \u003d ∑ K i - (n -1)

Where n is the number of pollutants in the soil, K i - concentration factor.

An approximate rating scale for the danger of soil pollution in terms of the total indicator is presented in Table. 3.

Table 3

Danger		Change in health
admissible	 16	low level morbidity in children, minimum functional deviations
moderately dangerous	16-32	an increase in the overall incidence
dangerous	32-128	an increase in the overall incidence rate; an increase in the number of sick children, children with chronic diseases, disorders of cardio-vascular system
extremely dangerous	 128	an increase in the overall incidence rate; increase in the number of sick children, impaired reproductive function

Environmental monitoring is of particular importance in the global systemmonitoring of the environment and, first of all, in the monitoring of renewable resources of the biosphere. It includes observations of the ecological state of terrestrial, aquatic and marine ecosystems.

As criteria characterizing changes in the state of natural systems, the following can be used: the balance of production and destruction; the value of primary production, the structure of the biocenosis; the rate of circulation of nutrients, etc. All these criteria are numerically expressed by various chemical and biological indicators. Thus, changes in the vegetation cover of the Earth are determined by changes in the area of ​​forests.

The main result of environmental monitoring should be an assessment of the responses of ecosystems as a whole to anthropogenic disturbances.

The response, or reaction of an ecosystem, is a change in its ecological state in response to external influences. It is best to evaluate the reaction of the system by the integral indicators of its state, which can be used as various indices and other functional characteristics. Let's consider some of them:

1. One of the most common responses of aquatic ecosystems to anthropogenic impacts is eutrophication. Therefore, monitoring the change in indicators that integrally reflect the degree of eutrophication of a reservoir, for example, pH 100% , - the most important element of environmental monitoring.

2. The response to "acid rain" and other anthropogenic impacts may be a change in the structure of biocenoses of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. To assess such a response, various indices of species diversity are widely used, reflecting the fact that for any adverse conditions the diversity of species in the biocenosis decreases, and the number of resistant species increases.

Dozens of such indices have been proposed by various authors. Indices based on information theory have found the greatest use, for example, the Shannon index:

where N - total number of individuals; S - number of species; N i - the number of individuals of the i -th species.

In practice, one does not deal with the abundance of a species in the entire population (in a sample), but with the abundance of a species in a sample; replacing N i /N by n i / n , we get:

The maximum diversity is observed when the numbers of all species are equal, and the minimum - when all species, except for one, are represented by one specimen. Diversity indices ( d ) reflect the structure of the community, weakly depend on the sample size, and are dimensionless.

Yu. L. Wilm (1970) calculated the Shannon diversity indices ( d ) in 22 uncontaminated and 21 polluted sections of different US rivers. In uncontaminated areas, the index ranged from 2.6 to 4.6, and in contaminated areas - from 0.4 to 1.6.

Assessment of the state of ecosystems in terms of species diversity is applicable to any types of impacts and any ecosystems.

3. The reaction of the system can manifest itself in a decrease in its resistance to anthropogenic stresses. As a universal integral criterion for assessing the sustainability of ecosystems, V. D. Fedorov (1975) proposed a function called a measure of homeostasis and equal to the ratio of functional indicators (for example, pH 100% or rate of photosynthesis) to structural (diversity indices).

A feature of ecological monitoring is that the effects of impacts, hardly noticeable when studying an individual organism or species, are revealed when considering the system as a whole.

5. Forecast and assessment of the predicted state

The forecast and assessment of the predicted state of ecosystems and the biosphere are based on the results of environmental monitoring in the past and present, the study of information series of observations and the analysis of trends in changes.

On the initial stage it is necessary to predict changes in the intensity of sources of impacts and pollution, to predict the degree of their influence: to predict, for example, the amount of pollutants in various media, their distribution in space, changes in their properties and concentrations over time. To make such forecasts, data on human activity plans are needed.

The next stage is a forecast of possible changes in the biosphere under the influence of existing pollution and other factors, since changes that have already occurred (especially genetic ones) can act for many more years. An analysis of the predicted state allows choosing priority environmental measures and making adjustments to economic activities at the regional level.

Forecasting the state of ecosystems is a necessary ringing in the management of the quality of the natural environment.

In assessing the ecological state of the biosphere on a global scale by integral features (averaged over space and time), remote observation methods play an exceptional role. Leading among them are methods based on the use of space facilities. For these purposes, special satellite systems are being created (Meteor in Russia, Landsat in the USA, etc.). Synchronous three-level observations with the help of satellite systems, aircraft and ground services are especially effective. They allow obtaining information about the state of forests, agricultural land, sea phytoplankton, soil erosion, urban areas, redistribution of water resources, atmospheric pollution, etc. For example, there is a correlation between the spectral brightness of the planet’s surface and the humus content in soils and their salinity.

Space photography provides ample opportunities for geobotanical zoning; makes it possible to judge the growth of the population by the areas of settlements; energy consumption by the brightness of night lights; clearly identify dust layers and temperature anomalies associated with radioactive decay; fix increased concentrations of chlorophyll in water bodies; detect forest fires and much more.

in Russia since the late 1960s. there is a unified nationwide system for monitoring and control of environmental pollution. It is based on the principle of the complexity of observations of natural environments in terms of hydrometeorological, physicochemical, biochemical and biological parameters. Observations are built on a hierarchical principle.

The first stage is local observation points serving the city, region and consisting of control and measuring stations and a computer center for collecting and processing information (CSI). Then the data goes to the second level - regional (territorial), from where the information is transferred to local interested organizations. The third level is the Main Data Center, which collects and summarizes information on a national scale. For this, PCs are now widely used and digital raster maps are created.

Currently, the Unified State Environmental Monitoring System (EGSEM) is being created, the purpose of which is to issue objective comprehensive information about the state of the environment. USSEM includes monitoring: sources of anthropogenic impact on the environment; pollution of the abiotic component of the natural environment; biotic component of the natural environment.

EGSEM provides for the creation of environmental information services. Monitoring is carried out by the State Observation Service (GOS).

Atmospheric air observations in 1996 were carried out in 284 cities at 664 posts. As of January 1, 1996, the monitoring network for pollution of surface waters of the Russian Federation consisted of 1928 points, 2617 alignments, 2958 verticals, 3407 horizons located on 1363 water bodies (1979 - 1200 water bodies); of these - 1204 watercourses and 159 reservoirs. As part of State monitoring Geological Environment (GMGS) observation network included 15,000 groundwater observation points, 700 observation sites for dangerous exogenous processes, 5 polygons and 30 wells for studying earthquake precursors.

Among all the blocks of the USSEM, the most complex and least developed not only in Russia, but also in the world is the monitoring of the biotic component. There is no single methodology for the use of living objects either for assessing or for regulating the quality of the environment. Therefore, the primary task is to determine biotic indicators for each of the monitoring blocks at the federal and territorial levels in a differentiated way for terrestrial, water and soil ecosystems.

To manage the quality of the natural environment, it is important not only to have information about its state, but also to determine the damage from anthropogenic impacts, economic efficiency, environmental protection measures, and own economic mechanisms for protecting the natural environment.

actual condition

environment

The state of the environment

environments

Behind the state

environment

And the factors on

affecting her

Forecast

mark

Observations

Monitoring

observations

Status forecast

Assessment of the actual state

Estimation of the predicted state

Environmental quality regulation

ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING

TASK

PURPOSE

OBSERVATION

GRADE

FORECAST

DECISION-MAKING

STRATEGY DEVELOPMENT

DETECTION

behind the change in the state of the environment

proposed environmental changes

observed changes and identification of the effect of human activity

causes of environmental change associated with human activities

to prevent

negative consequences of human activity

optimal relationship between society and the environment

Fig.3. Main tasks and purpose of monitoring

H 1

About 2

H 2

P 1

About 1

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Of great importance in the organization of rational nature management is the study of the problems of nature management at the global, regional and local levels, as well as the assessment of the quality of the human environment in specific areas, in ecosystems of various ranks.

Monitoring is a system of observations, assessment and forecasting, which makes it possible to identify changes in the state of the environment under the influence of anthropogenic activity.

Along with a negative impact on nature, a person can also have a positive impact as a result of economic activity.

Monitoring includes:

monitoring changes in the quality of the environment, factors affecting the environment;

assessment of the actual state of the natural environment;

forecast of changes in the quality of the environment.

Observations can be carried out on physical, chemical and biological indicators, integrated indicators of the state of the environment are promising.

Types of monitoring. Allocate global, regional and local monitoring. (What underlies such a selection?)

Global monitoring allows you to evaluate state of the art the entire natural system of the Earth.

Regional monitoring is carried out at the expense of the stations of the system, where information about the territories subject to anthropogenic influence flows.

Rational nature management is possible if the information provided by the monitoring system is available and properly used.

Environmental monitoring is a system for monitoring, evaluating and predicting changes in the state of the environment under the influence of anthropogenic impact.

Monitoring tasks are:

Quantitative and qualitative assessment of the state of air, surface water, climate change, soil cover, flora and fauna, control of runoff and dust and gas emissions at industrial enterprises;

Drawing up a forecast on the state of the environment;

Informing citizens about changes in the environment.

Forecast and forecasting.

What is forecasting and forecasting? In various periods of the development of society, the ways of studying the environment have changed. One of the most important "tools" of nature management is currently considered forecasting. Translated into Russian, the word "forecast" means foresight, prediction.

Therefore, a forecast in nature management is a prediction of changes in the natural resource potential and needs for natural resources on a global, regional and local scale.

Forecasting is a set of actions that make it possible to make judgments about the behavior of natural systems and are determined by natural processes and the impact of humanity on them in the future.

The main purpose of the forecast is to assess the expected reaction of the natural environment to direct or indirect human impact, as well as to solve the problems of future rational nature management in connection with the expected states of the natural environment.

In connection with the reassessment of the system of values, the change of technocratic thinking to ecological thinking, there are changes in forecasting. Modern forecasts should be carried out from the standpoint of universal human values, the main of which are a person, his health, the quality of the environment, and the preservation of the planet as a home for humanity. Thus, attention to living nature, to man makes the tasks of forecasting ecological.

Types of forecasts. According to the lead time, the following types of forecasts are distinguished: ultra-short-term (up to a year), short-term (up to 3-5 years), medium-term (up to 10-15 years), long-term (up to several decades ahead), ultra-long-term (for millennia and more). -Lee forward). The lead time of the forecast, i.e. the period for which the forecast is given, can be very different. When designing a large industrial facility with a service life of 100–120 years, it is necessary to know what changes in the environment may occur under the influence of this facility in 2100–2200. No wonder they say: "The future is controlled from the present."

According to the coverage of the territory, global, regional, local forecasts are distinguished.

There are forecasts in specific branches of science, for example, geological, meteorological forecasts. In geography, a complex forecast, which many consider general scientific.

The main functions of monitoring are quality control of individual components of the natural environment and identification of the main sources of pollution. Based on monitoring data, decisions are made to improve environmental situation, constructing new treatment facilities at enterprises that pollute the land, atmosphere and water, changing logging systems and planting new forests, introducing soil-protective crop rotations, etc.

Monitoring is most often carried out by regional committees for hydrometeorological service through a network of points conducting the following observations: surface meteorological, heat balance, hydrological, marine, etc.

For example, monitoring of Moscow includes constant analysis of the content of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, sulfur dioxide, the amount of nitrogen oxides, ozone and dust. Observations are carried out by 30 stations operating in automatic mode. Information from sensors located at the stations flows to the information processing center. Information about exceeding the MPC of pollutants is received by the Moscow Committee for Environmental Protection and the government of the capital. Both industrial emissions of large enterprises and the level of water pollution in the Moskva River are automatically controlled.

At present, there are 344 water monitoring stations in 59 countries in the world, which form the global environmental monitoring system.

Environmental monitoring

Monitoring(lat. monitor observing, warning) - a complex system of observations, assessment and forecast of changes in the state of the biosphere or its individual elements under the influence of anthropogenic influences

Main tasks of monitoring:

monitoring of sources of anthropogenic impact; monitoring the state of the natural environment and the processes occurring in it under the influence of anthropogenic factors;

forecast of changes in the natural environment under the influence of anthropogenic factors and assessment of the predicted state of the natural environment.

Classifications of monitoring by features:

Control methods:

Bioindication - detection and determination of anthropogenic loads by the reactions of living organisms and their communities to them;

Remote methods (aerial photography, sounding, etc.);

Physical and chemical methods (analysis of individual samples of air, water, soil).

environment. This system is administered by UNEP, a special body for environmental protection at the United Nations.

Types of monitoring. According to the scale of generalization of information, they distinguish: global, regional, impact monitoring.

Global Monitoring- this is monitoring of world processes and phenomena in the biosphere and the implementation of a forecast of possible changes.

Regional monitoring covers individual regions in which processes and phenomena are observed that differ from natural in nature or due to anthropogenic impact.

Impact monitoring is carried out in especially hazardous areas directly adjacent to sources of pollutants.

According to the methods of conducting, the following types of monitoring are distinguished:

Biological (using bioindicators);

Remote (aviation and space);

Analytical (chemical and physico-chemical analysis).

The objects of observation are:

Monitoring of individual components of the environment (soil, water, air);

Biological monitoring (flora and fauna).

A special type of monitoring is basic monitoring, i.e. tracking the state of natural systems, which are practically not superimposed by regional anthropogenic impacts (biosphere reserves). The whole purpose of basic monitoring is to obtain data against which the results obtained by other types of monitoring are compared.

Control methods. The composition of pollutants is determined by methods of physical and chemical analysis (in air, soil, water). The degree of stability of natural ecosystems is carried out by the bioindication method.

Bioindication is the detection and determination of anthropogenic loads by the reactions of living organisms and their communities to them. The essence of bioindication is that certain environmental factors create the possibility of the existence of a particular species. The objects of bioindicative studies can be individual species of animals and plants, as well as entire ecosystems. For example, radioactive contamination is determined by the state of coniferous trees; industrial pollution - for many representatives of the soil fauna; air pollution is very sensitively perceived by mosses, lichens, butterflies.

The species diversity and high abundance or, conversely, the absence of dragonflies (Odonata) on the shore of the reservoir speak of its faunal composition: many dragonflies - the fauna is rich, few - the aquatic fauna is depleted.

If lichens disappear on tree trunks in the forest, then sulfur dioxide is present in the air. The larvae of caddisflies (Trichoptera) are found only in clean water. But the small-scale worm (Tubifex), larvae of chironomids (Chironomidae) live only in heavily polluted water bodies. Many insects, green unicellular algae, and crustaceans live in slightly polluted water bodies.

Bioindication allows timely detection of a not yet dangerous level of pollution and taking measures to restore the ecological balance of the environment.

In some cases, the bioindication method is preferred, since it is simpler than, for example, physico-chemical methods of analysis.

So, British scientists found several molecules in the liver of flounder - indicators of pollution. When the total concentration of life-threatening substances reaches critical values, a potentially carcinogenic protein begins to accumulate in the liver cells. Its quantitative determination is simpler than the chemical analysis of water, and provides more information about its danger to human life and health.

Remote methods are mainly used for global monitoring. For example, aerial photography is an effective method for determining the extent and extent of pollution from oil spills at sea or on land, ie tanker accidents or pipeline ruptures. Other methods in these extreme situations do not provide comprehensive information.

OKB im. Ilyushin, the aircraft builders of the Lukhovitsky Plant designed and built the Il-10Z, a unique aircraft to perform almost any task of state environmental and land monitoring. The aircraft is equipped with control and measuring and telemetry equipment, a satellite navigation system (СPS), a satellite communication system, an interactive on-board and ground-based measuring and recording complex. The aircraft can fly at altitudes from 100 to 3000 m, stay in the air for up to 5 hours, consumes only 10-15 liters of fuel per 100 km, and takes on board two specialists in addition to the pilot. The new Il-103 aircraft of the Aviation Center for Special Ecological Purposes, based at the Myachikovo airfield near Moscow, perform remote monitoring for environmentalists, aviation forest protection, emergency services and oil and gas pipeline transport.

Physical and chemical methods are used to monitor individual components of the natural environment: soil, water, air. These methods are based on the analysis of individual samples.

Soil monitoring provides for the determination of acidity, loss of humus, salinity. Soil acidity is determined by the value of the pH value (pH) in aqueous solutions soil. The pH value is measured using a pH meter or potentiometer. Humus content is determined by oxidizability organic matter. The amount of oxidizing agent is estimated by titrimetric or spectrometric methods. Soil salinity, i.e., the content of salts in them, is determined by the value of electrical conductivity, since it is known that salt solutions are electrolytes.

Water pollution is determined by chemical (COD) or biochemical (BOD) oxygen consumption - this is the amount of oxygen consumed for the oxidation of organic and inorganic substances contained in contaminated water.

Atmospheric pollution is analyzed by gas analyzers, which provide information on the concentration of gaseous pollutants in the air. “Multicomponent” analysis methods are used: C-, H-, N-analyzers and other devices that give continuous time characteristics of air pollution. Automated devices for remote analysis of atmospheric pollution, combining a laser and a locator, are called lidars.

Environmental quality assessment

What is evaluation and evaluation?

An important area of ​​monitoring research is the assessment of the quality of the environment. This direction, as you already know, has received priority in modern nature management, since the quality of the environment is associated with the physical and spiritual health of a person.

Indeed, they distinguish between a healthy (comfortable) natural environment, in which a person's health is normal or improving, and unhealthy, in which the state of health of the population is disturbed. Therefore, in order to preserve the health of the population, it is necessary to monitor the quality of the environment. Environmental quality- this is the degree of compliance of natural conditions with the physiological capabilities of a person.

There are scientific criteria for assessing the quality of the environment. These include standards.

Environmental quality standards. Quality standards are divided into environmental and production-economic.

Ecological standards establish maximum permissible norms of anthropogenic impact on the environment, the excess of which threatens human health, is detrimental to vegetation and animals. Such norms are established in the form of maximum permissible concentrations of pollutants (MPC) and maximum permissible levels of harmful physical effects (MPL). Remote controls are installed, for example, for noise and electromagnetic pollution.

MPC is the amount of a harmful substance in the environment, which for a certain period of time does not affect human health and does not cause adverse consequences for its offspring.

Recently, when determining MPC, not only the degree of influence of pollutants on human health is taken into account, but also the impact of these pollutants on natural communities as a whole. Every year more and more MPCs are set for substances in the air, soil, and water.

Industrial and economic environmental quality standards regulate the environmentally safe mode of operation of a production, utility, and any other facility. The production and economic environmental quality standards include the maximum allowable emission of pollutants into the environment (MAE). How to improve the quality of the environment? Many experts think about this problem. Environmental quality control is carried out by a special state service. Measures to improve the quality of the environment. They are combined into the following groups. The most important are technological activities, which include the development modern technologies providing integrated use of raw materials and waste disposal. The choice of fuel with a lower combustion product will significantly reduce emissions of substances into the atmosphere. This is also facilitated by the electrification of modern production, transport and everyday life.

Sanitation measures contribute to the treatment of industrial emissions through various designs of treatment plants. (Are there treatment facilities at the nearest enterprises in your locality? How effective are they?)

The set of measures that improve the quality of the environment includes architectural planning activities that affect not only physical but also spiritual health. They include dust control, rational placement of enterprises (they are often taken out of the territory of a settlement) and residential areas, landscaping of populated areas, for example, with modern urban planning standards, cities with a population of one and a half million people need 40-50 m2 of green space , be sure to highlight in locality sanitary protection zones.

TO engineering and organizational measures include reducing parking at traffic lights, reducing the intensity of traffic on congested highways.

To legal measures include the establishment and observance of legislative acts to maintain the quality of the atmosphere, water bodies, soil, etc.

Requirements related to the protection of nature, improvement of the quality of the environment are reflected in state laws, decrees, and regulations. World experience shows that in the developed countries of the world, the authorities solve problems related to improving the quality of the environment through legislative acts and executive structures, which, together with the judicial system, are called upon to ensure the implementation of laws, finance large environmental projects and scientific developments, control enforcement of laws and financial costs.

There is no doubt that the improvement of the quality of the environment will be carried out through economic activities. Economic measures are associated, first of all, with the investment of funds in the shift and the development of new technologies that ensure energy and resource saving, and reduce emissions of harmful substances into the environment. The means of state tax and price policy should create the conditions for Russia's inclusion in the international system for ensuring environmental safety. At the same time, in our country, due to the economic downturn, the volume of introduction of new environmental technologies into the industry has significantly decreased.

educational measures are aimed at the formation of an ecological culture of the population. The quality of the environment largely depends on the formation of new value and moral attitudes, the revision of priorities, needs, and methods of human activity. In our country, within state program"Ecology of Russia" has developed programs, manuals for environmental education at all stages of obtaining knowledge from preschool institutions to the system of advanced training. An important means in the formation of ecological culture are the means mass media. Only in Russia there are more than 50 types of environmental periodicals.

All activities aimed at improving the quality of the environment are closely interconnected and largely depend on the development of science. Therefore, the most important condition for the existence of all measures is to carry out scientific research that improve the quality of the environment and environmental sustainability of both the planet as a whole and individual regions.

However, it should be noted that the measures taken to improve the quality of the environment do not always bring a noticeable effect. An increase in the incidence of the population, a decrease in the average life expectancy of people, an increase in mortality indicate the development of negative environmental phenomena in our country.

Environmental monitoring- this is a set of organizational structures, methods, methods and techniques for monitoring the state of the environment, the changes taking place with it, their consequences, as well as potentially dangerous for the environment, human health and controlled territory activities, production and other facilities.

Types of monitoring:

– depending on the scope of the monitoring system – global, national, regional, local;

– on the level of human alteration of the environment – background and impact;

- from the monitoring object - the actual ecological, air, water, land, wildlife, hazardous waste, radiation, social and hygienic;

– development monitoring based on demographic, environmental, social and economic indicators.

Federal Law No. 7-FZ of January 10, 2002 “On Environmental Protection” uses only two concepts:

1)environmental monitoring- an integrated system for monitoring the state of the environment, assessing and forecasting its changes under the influence of natural and anthropogenic factors;

2)state environmental monitoring– environmental monitoring carried out by authorities state power and its subjects.

Goals state environmental monitoring (Article 63):

– monitoring the state of the environment, including in areas where sources of anthropogenic impact are located;

– monitoring the impact of anthropogenic sources on the environment;

- meeting the needs of the state, legal entities and individuals in reliable information necessary to prevent and (or) reduce the adverse effects of changes in the state of the environment.

Subjects of environmental monitoring– executive authorities of the Russian Federation and constituent entities of the Russian Federation, local governments, specialized organizations authorized to carry out environmental monitoring functions, economic entities, public organizations.

Environmental monitoring is carried out by a special observational network. This is a system of stationary and mobile observation points, including posts, stations, laboratories, bureau centers, and observatories. A significant part of the observation network operates within the framework of the Russian Federal Service for Hydrometeorology and Environmental Monitoring, other federal executive authorities and their territorial bodies.

Objects of environmental monitoring- this is the environment as a whole and its individual elements; negative changes in the quality of the environment that can have a negative impact on the health and property of people, the safety of territories; types of activities assessed by the legislation as posing a potential threat to the environment, human health and environmental safety of territories; equipment, technologies, production and other technical facilities, the existence, use, transformation and destruction of which poses a danger to the environment and human health; emergency and other sudden physical, chemical, biological and other circumstances that can have a negative impact on the environment and human health; territories and objects with a special legal status.

Environmental monitoring called regular observations of natural environments, natural resources, flora and fauna, carried out according to a given program, allowing to assess their state and the processes occurring in them under the influence of technogenic activity.

Environmental monitoring- this is a system of observations, assessment and forecasting, which makes it possible to identify changes in the state of the environment under the influence of technogenic activities.

The term "monitoring" is derived from the Latin. monitor - observing, warning (the so-called lookout sailor on a sailing ship). The idea of ​​global monitoring of the human environment and the term "monitoring" itself appeared in 1971 in connection with the preparations for the Stockholm UN Conference on the Environment (1972). The first proposals for the development of such a system were put forward by the Scientific Committee on Environmental Problems. Professor R. Mann in 1973 outlined the concept of monitoring in a staging aspect, which was discussed in February 1979 at the first Intergovernmental Meeting on Monitoring (Nairobi). R. Mann proposed to call monitoring a system of repeated observations of one or more elements of the natural environment in space and time with specific goals in accordance with a pre-prepared program.

At the end of XX - beginning of XXI century. In Belarus, monitoring of the natural environment and sources of technogenic impacts is carried out by the services of the State Committee for Hydrometeorology, Sanitary and Epidemiological Supervision, the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental Protection, the Ministry Agriculture, National Academy Sciences and other departments.

The purpose of environmental monitoring is Information Support management of environmental activities and environmental safety (Fig. 2.1).

Monitoring includes:

• ? monitoring changes in the quality of the environment, factors affecting the environment;
• ? assessment of the physical state of the natural environment;
• ? forecast of changes in the quality of the environment.

Observations are carried out on physical, chemical and biological, sometimes on specific indicators.

The system of environmental observations includes the determination of indicators of dangerous pollution of the environment by substances of technogenic origin, for example, heavy metal compounds, gas pollutants, etc.

The main source of information in the assessment is the data obtained in the process of observing the environment. The need for observations (new, additional or control information) arises at all stages of the assessment (Fig. 2.2).

Rice. 2.2.

for the state of the environment

For example, the forecast and assessment of the expected state of the atmosphere is an integral part of monitoring and is based on the study of the processes of the spread of pollutants, their transformations and the impact on various organisms. The forecast makes it possible to outline and implement not only measures to reduce harmful effects, but also preventive measures.

The measuring complex of unified environmental monitoring uses data from stationary (permanent observation posts) and mobile (car-laboratories, aerospace facilities, etc.) systems.

Allocate global, national, regional and local levels of monitoring.

Global (biospheric) monitoring carried out on the basis international cooperation, allows you to assess the current state of the entire natural system of the Earth. Observations are carried out by base stations in various regions of the planet (30-40 land and more than 10 oceanic). Often they are located in biosphere reserves (for example, in the Berezinsky biosphere reserve).

National monitoring carried out within the state by specially created bodies (in Belarus - National system environmental monitoring - NSEM).

Regional monitoring is carried out at the stations of the system, where information is received within large areas, intensively developed national economy and, therefore, subject to man-caused impact.

TO local monitoring include observations of the air environment of various zones of the city, industrial enterprises. Such monitoring is carried out with the help of stationary, mobile or under-flare posts. This system exists in most major cities Belarus and at large industrial enterprises.

The ground-based environmental monitoring system is usually divided into blocks that have their own tasks and support base (Table 2.1).

Biological, or bioecological (sanitary and hygienic), the monitoring unit constantly monitors the state of the environment and its impact on human health. The value of this monitoring unit is difficult to overestimate. Often people do not even imagine the danger they expose their health to living in a particular area. Comparison of indicators of some diseases in different territories will make it possible to establish the extent to which conditions are favorable or unfavorable for the life and activities of people.

geosystemic (geoecological, technical) the monitoring block includes observations of changes in natural geosystems and their transformation into natural and technical ones. Practice shows that forecasts for the creation of optimal natural and technical systems

General scheme of ground monitoring of the environment

Table 2.1

monitoring	Monitoring object	Characterized indicator	Services and support bases
Biological (sanitary)	Surface layer of air; surface and ground waters; industrial and domestic effluents and emissions; radioactive emissions		Hydrometeorological, water management, sanitary epidemic
Geosystem (economic)	Disappear and e in and d d w and in from 11 s x and plants; natural ecosystems; agricultural systems; forest ecosystems	Functional structure of natural ecosystems and its disturbance; population status of plants and animals; crop yields; plantation productivity
biospheric	Atmosphere (troposphere) and ozone screen; hydrosphere; vegetation and soil cover, animal population	Radiation balance, thermal overheating, gas composition and dusting; pollution of large rivers and reservoirs; water basins, circulations in vast watersheds and continents; global characteristics of the state of soils, vegetation and animals; global CO2 and O2 balances; large scale cycling	International Biosphere Stations

2.1. general characteristics monitoring the state of the natural environment

stsm, within which a person can live and work without harm to his health, can be obtained as a result of a thorough study of the mechanisms for the transformation of natural geosystems into natural-technical ones.

biospheric (global) the monitoring block covers observations of geospheric parameters on a global scale. This is the most complex observing system that allows predicting changes in the quality of the human environment on a global scale. As an example, we can cite forecasts of climate warming due to the occurrence of the "greenhouse effect" and its consequences for the nature of the planet. Another example is the concept of "nuclear winter" as a result of an atomic war - a vivid confirmation of the need to carefully study and take into account all forecasts for changing the nature of the Earth when conducting, in particular, international politics.

Priority areas of environmental monitoring. In studies of factors and sources of environmental impact, a number of priorities have been identified (Table 2.2).

Table 2.2

The most important objects of monitoring

Prioritization is based on the properties of pollutants, the possibility of organizing observations and is carried out according to the following criteria:

• ? the result of actual or potential impacts on human health and well-being, climate or ecosystems;
• ? tendency to degradation in the natural environment and accumulation in humans and food chains;
• ? the possibility of chemical transformation in physical and biological systems, as a result of which secondary (daughter) substances may turn out to be more toxic or harmful;
• ? mobility, mobility of pollutants;
• ? actual or possible concentration trends in OS and (or) in humans;
• ? frequency or magnitude of exposure;
• ? the possibility of measurements;
• ? importance for the assessment of the state of the environment;
• ? suitability in terms of general distribution for uniform changes in a global or subregional program.

Pollutants according to the listed criteria are divided into classes with an indication of the medium and type of measurement program (Table 2.3).

Table 2.3

Classes of priority pollutants

The end of the table. 2.3

priority	Polluting substance		Measurement program type
	Nitrates, nitrites	Drinking water, food
	Nitrogen oxides
	Mercury and its compounds	food, water
		air, food
	carbon dioxide
	Carbon monoxide
	Petroleum hydrocarbons	Sea water
	Fluorides	Fresh water
		Drinking water
	Microtoxins
	Microbiological contamination
	Reactive hydrocarbons

Note. G - global, R - regional, L - local monitoring.

As noted above, global (background or basic) monitoring observations are carried out in biosphere reserves. The network of stations should cover each of the types of bio-mes on Earth. The total number of required stations is estimated at 20-40 units. According to mandatory and desirable criteria (Table 2.4), reserves are selected that can potentially be used for global background monitoring.

Table 2.4

Criteria for selecting biosphere reserves for background

monitoring

The end of the table. 2.4
Mandatory criterion	Desirable criterion
Availability. The area should be accessible within reasonable limits, but access to it should be limited, for example, a large number cars	The absence of disturbance in the past should ensure the natural character of ecosystems. Since it is difficult to find such reserves in practice, the criterion is a minimum of violations.
Security. The reserve should be forever taken under legal protection	Permanent staff (more than 5 people). With an increase in staff, the opportunity to carry out a greater amount of work in the reserve, necessary for monitoring purposes, increases.
The staff must be permanent and consist of the following services: protection; scientific research; local care; technical work during observations	Current scientific work: pollutant monitoring; fundamental ecological research; environmental impact study
Vegetation in the reserve should approximately correspond to the main biogeographic types of the globe	Availability of meteorological, hydrological, geophysical, soil, geohydrological, biological data

Observations at global background monitoring stations are of a complex nature and are carried out according to a single program.

Thus, rational environmental management is possible if the information obtained by the environmental monitoring system and environmental monitoring is available and properly used.