Valery Gerasimov The value of science lies in foresight. Chaos theory in hybrid warfare (Gerasimov Doctrine)

08.07.2020

Chief of the Russian General Staff Valery Gerasimov was on the list of officials published by the US Treasury Department who could potentially fall under new US sanctions. It is noteworthy that this general some time ago acquired simply incredible fame in the West. There he is considered the founding father of the new Russian military doctrine, which is called the "Gerasimov Doctrine" in media publications and even in official documents.

Ironically, Valery Gerasimov himself did not invent anything of the kind, and, of course, such a doctrine does not actually exist. Meanwhile, Western experts on Russia are now divided into two camps. On those who believe in all this, and on those who perfectly understand that all this is fiction. At the same time, the “Gerasimov Doctrine” syndrome reflects the split of the Western expert community.

The fact that so many people believed the story of the “Gerasimov Doctrine” is both laughable and disappointing. It all started in February 2013 with an article by Valery Gerasimov entitled "The value of science in foresight", which is summary his annual speech at the Academy of Military Sciences. In this publication, the general, based on the experience of the "Arab spring", outlined the Russian vision of the Western approach to warfare and the nature of modern military conflicts. Frankly speaking, in this speech of his it is difficult to find any deviations from the main trends of Russian military thought, which can also be traced in other authors.

At first, Gerasimov's article was simply ignored. But after the annexation of Crimea, it began to be perceived as a policy document, an example of the Russian approach to warfare. In fact, very few understood the true meaning of the article and almost no one bothered to read the entire original speech of the general. His interpretation of the American approach to the conduct of political and military confrontation was perceived as a presentation of the new Russian doctrine of the fight against the West. Such a reaction is quite typical of those politicians and the military who are looking for simple answers and catchy details to explain what is happening.

Gerasimov lists new types and methods of warfare and positions them as a set of problems that Russian military theorists have to deal with. The article briefly describes several major trends: waging wars without officially declaring or recognizing the fact of waging them, the growing importance of asymmetric or non-military means on compared with traditional forms of warfare, the widespread use of propaganda and special forces, information warfare, the impact of high-precision weapons that can be massively used throughout the depth of enemy combat formations, as well as the spread of drones and robotic systems.

Taken together, all these points have much in common with ongoing discussions in the United States about the nature of hybrid conflicts. Most of Gerasimov's observations relate to the enduring problems of military affairs that have arisen from geopolitical confrontation between great powers capable of combining non-military and military tools.

It should be noted that in Russia there are many official doctrines, both published and secret. Nevertheless, the suggestion that the Chief of the Russian General Staff lays out operational plans in his articles or uses them to communicate his doctrinal considerations to fellow generals abroad is simply preposterous. Moreover, all coincidences were superficial, and Gerasimov covered such a wide range of conflicts that any military or political activity Russia could fit into this framework. The problem of misinterpretation of the Russian doctrine and actions of the Russian Federation has been exacerbated by the lack of qualified specialists on Russia and the inexperience of the Western leadership in this matter.

Among Western military experts, Gerasimov has a reputation for being a good specialist in the use of armored forces, but the development of a new doctrine usually requires the painstaking work of a host of military thinkers. Gerasimov himself, instead of promoting his own model of warfare, quotes the words of another well-known Russian military theorist Alexander Svechin: “For each war, it is necessary to develop a special line of strategic behavior, each war represents special case, requiring the establishment of its own special logic, and not the application of any template. The essence of Gerasimov's thoughts is that it is necessary not to copy foreign experience or try to catch up with the United States, that the Russian military needs to master new forms and methods of warfare.

Despite the fact that the term “Gerasimov Doctrine” often appears in Western publications, an attentive observer may notice that there is not a word about it in a recently published report. Intelligence Directorate US Department of Defense "Russian military power". There is no mention of Gerasimov in the section on Russian military doctrine. For serious experts on the Russian armed forces, the words "Gerasimov Doctrine" have already become a kind of professional joke.

However, qualified opinion this issue, as well as on Russian issues in general, is a rarity in the West. As a result, Valery Gerasimov's reputation as a gloomy creator of the new Russian military doctrine is only strengthened. He has already become so famous that he will soon be envied.

The head of the General Staff of the Russian Armed Forces, General of the Army Valery Gerasimov, attracts so much attention in the foreign military environment and the media like no other Russian military. Not so long ago, the Wall Street Journal called Gerasimov the most influential officer of his time in Russia. His open works translated into English language and generate a lot of discussion. The General's statements and actions are closely monitored. It is Gerasimov who today in the West is called the main ideologist of the "hybrid war".

"Cardinal" Gerasimov

Valery Vasilyevich Gerasimov was born in 1955, served in the Northern Group of Forces in Poland, was commander of the 58th Combined Arms Army in the North Caucasian Military District, and in 2006 assumed the post of Chief of Staff of the North Caucasian Military District.

The Russian officer initially came into the focus of attention of foreign military analysts and the media, not so much after his appointment to the post of Chief of the General Staff of the RF Armed Forces in 2012, but in February 2013 after the publication of his article "The value of science in foresight" in the newspaper "Military-industrial courier".

After the events in the Crimea and Donbass, this article became a hit in the West, it was repeatedly translated into English and parsed into quotations. Gerasimov began to be considered the main theorist of Russia's actions in modern military conflicts, in Syria and Ukraine

In 2016, the head of the US Marine Corps, General Robert B. Neller, admitted that he had read Gerasimov's article three times and thought a lot about how the Russians planned to fight the wars of the future.

In the most sensational article of 2013, Gerasimov, by the way, did not so much formulate some new doctrine as he analyzed and criticized the actions of Western countries to change political regimes in Libya and Syria, assessed the development of events during the “Arab spring” and the possibilities of protection against such actions.

Gerasimov wrote: “In the 21st century, there is a tendency to blur the distinction between the state of war and peace. Wars are no longer declared, and once started, they do not go according to the pattern we are used to. The role of non-military methods in achieving political and strategic goals has increased, which in a number of cases have significantly surpassed the force of arms in their effectiveness. The emphasis of the used methods of confrontation is shifting towards the widespread use of political, economic, informational, humanitarian and other non-military measures implemented with the use of the protest potential of the population.

In the article itself, by the way, the word “hybrid” is never mentioned, and only three times there is a reference to “asymmetric” forms of conflicts, primarily we are talking about informational pressure on the population and the political elite of the participants in the confrontation. There is not even a mention of cyber activity, although today in foreign media, in connection with accusations that Russia interfered in the elections in the United States, Gerasimov is without a shadow of a doubt already credited with creating a theoretical basis for conducting cyber attacks on the United States and European countries.

In 2014, the head of the General Staff of the RF Armed Forces was included in the sanctions lists of the European Union and Canada, in May 2017 Gerasimov was included in the expanded sanctions list of the National Security and Defense Council of Ukraine, and in June of this year, Montenegro announced a ban on visiting the country by the general.

In March of this year, Gerasimov published another article "World on the Edge of War", where the "hybrid war" is already discussed, the actions of the United States in Syria and the Middle East, the cyber attack on Iran in 2015 and the significance of social networks. But the second work of the general has not yet received such wide distribution and is not as mythologized abroad as the first.

How the shadow of the "hybrid war" grew

"Hybrid warfare" is nothing new. In Russia, they began to think about "semi-wars" a very long time ago. The theorist of this type of warfare was Colonel and Professor Evgeny Eduardovich Messner (1891-1974), one of the leading representatives of the military thought of the Russian Diaspora. He comprehensively developed the theory and predicted the development of this type of war in his books "Rebellion - the name of the third world war" and "World Rebellion War".

Messner argued as follows: “In a future war, they will fight not on the line, but on the entire surface of the territories of both opponents, because political, social, economic fronts will arise behind the armed front; they will fight not on a two-dimensional surface, as of old, not in three-dimensional space, as it has been since the birth of military aviation, but in four-dimensional space, where the psyche of warring peoples is the fourth dimension.

Another significant ideologist was Georgy Samoilovich Isserson (1898-1976) - a Soviet military leader, colonel, professor, one of the developers of the theory of deep operation. His works "The Evolution of Operational Art" and "Fundamentals of Deep Operations" are of great interest today both in Russia and in the West, where he is being translated into English. Gerasimov, by the way, mentions Isserson in his works.

In the United States until 2010, the term "hybrid war" was practically not used, since the US military did not see the point in introducing a new term to such long-standing and well-established terms in their doctrines as "irregular war" and "unconventional war". For a long time, the military in the West did not approve of the populist hype around the new term that arose in the media as an extra reason for journalists, analysts and experts to “talk”, but seven years have passed and today this term is deeply rooted in the lexicon of the Western military when they talk about Russia.

In the United States in 2005, long before all of Gerasimov's articles, American General James Mattis, now the head of the Pentagon, and Colonel Frank Hoffman published a landmark article "The Future of Warfare: The Rise of Hybrid Wars", in which they addressed the military doctrine of the 90s of the former commander of the Corps US Marine General Charles Krulak of the three-block war, added a fourth block. The three blocks of Krulak are the direct conduct of hostilities, peacekeeping operations to separate the warring parties and the provision of humanitarian assistance. The fourth new block of Mattis and Hoffman is psychological and information operations and outreach.

In 2010, NATO's Bi-Strategic Command Capstone Concept explicitly and formally defines "hybrid" threats as threats posed by an adversary that is capable of simultaneously adaptively using traditional and non-traditional means to achieve its own goals. In 2012, the book “Hybrid Warfare: Combating a Complex Opponent from Ancient Times to the Present” is published, which has become well-known in narrow circles, authored by historian Williamson Murray and Colonel Peter Mansour.

In May 2014, the US Army and Marine Corps adopted a very interesting document - a new edition of the Combat Manual 3-24 called "Insurrections and Suppression of Insurrections." The new version of the charter is focused on the indirect (indirect) participation of the United States in the suppression of uprisings in a particular country, when American troops are not brought in en masse at all, and all the work on the ground is done by the security forces of the country receiving American aid. Descriptions of the insurrectionary movement, the prerequisites for its emergence, strategies and tactics of action are displayed in such detail that sometimes it is not at all clear where it is about preparing an uprising, and where about its suppression. That is, the chapters from the American charter can be used by anyone as a good general instruction for action and preparation for an uprising.

Thus, it is not difficult to compare the recent work of Gerasimov and the work of a decade ago from American theorists and practitioners, including the current US Secretary of Defense. But it was Gerasimov who was declared the ideologist of the "hybrid war".

However, there are sound thoughts from foreign colleagues as well. Michael Kofman, political scientist at the Kennan Institute at the International scientific center named after Woodrow Wilson, writes: “In the West, this phrase now denotes any actions of Russia that frighten the speaker. The danger is that many military and politicians are convinced that a full-fledged Russian doctrine of hybrid warfare is a reality. And believing this, they tend to see manifestations of hybrid types of confrontations everywhere - especially where they are not. After all, almost any Russian action - in the informational, political or military field - can now be interpreted as a hybrid one. Meaningless phrases can be lethal weapons in the mouths of people in positions of power.”

Ilya Plekhanov

The head of the General Staff of the Russian Armed Forces Valery Gerasimov, like no other Russian military, attracts the attention of foreign military experts and the media. Not so long ago, the Wall Street Journal called Gerasimov the most influential officer of his time in Russia. His works are translated into English and cause large-scale discussions. The statements and actions of the general are closely monitored. It is Gerasimov who today is called in the West the main ideologist of the "hybrid war".

"Cardinal" Gerasimov

Gerasimov came into the focus of attention of foreign military analysts and the media, not only after his appointment to the post of Chief of the General Staff of the RF Armed Forces in 2012, but later - in February 2013 - after the publication of his article "The value of science in foresight" in the newspaper "Military Industrial Courier ".

After the events in the Crimea and Donbass, this article became a hit in the West, it was repeatedly translated into English and parsed into quotations. Gerasimov has come to be considered the main theorist of Russia's actions in modern military conflicts, in Syria and Ukraine.

In 2016, the head of the US Marine Corps, General Robert Neller, admitted that he had read Gerasimov's article three times and thought a lot about how the Russians plan to fight the wars of the future.

In the article, the army general, by the way, did not so much formulate some new doctrine as he analyzed and criticized the actions of Western countries to change political regimes in Libya and Syria, assessed the development of events during the "Arab spring" and the possibilities of protection against such actions.

Gerasimov wrote: “In the 21st century, there is a tendency to blur the distinctions between the state of war and peace. Wars are no longer declared, but when they start, they do not go according to our usual pattern. The role of non-military methods in achieving political and strategic goals has increased, which in some cases, in their effectiveness significantly surpassed the force of weapons. The emphasis of the methods of confrontation used is shifting towards the widespread use of political, economic, informational, humanitarian and other non-military measures implemented with the use of the protest potential of the population."

In the article itself, by the way, the word "hybrid" is never mentioned, only three times there is a reference to "asymmetric" forms of conflict. First of all, we are talking about information pressure on the population and the political elite of the participants in the confrontation. There is not even a mention of cyber activity, although today in foreign media, in connection with accusations that Russia interfered in US elections, Gerasimov is without a shadow of a doubt already credited with creating a theoretical basis for conducting cyber attacks on the US and European countries.

Greetings from London: Russian terrorists in vests are expected in BritainThe British Royal Institute for Defense Studies told what Europe should expect from Russia. And whom. As it turned out, absolutely amazing guests are waiting there.

In March, Gerasimov published another article, "The World on the Brink of War," which really discusses the "hybrid war," US actions in Syria and the Middle East, the cyberattack on Iran in 2015, and the importance of social networks. But the second work of the general has not yet received such wide distribution and is not as mythologized abroad as the first.

How the shadow of the "hybrid war" grew

"Hybrid warfare" is nothing new. In Russia, they began to think about "semi-wars" a very long time ago. The theoretician of this type of war was Colonel and Professor Yevgeny Eduardovich Messner (1891-1974), one of the largest representatives of the military thought of the Russian diaspora. He comprehensively developed the theory and predicted the development of this type of war in his books: "Rebellion - the name of the third world war" and "World Rebellion War".

Messner reasoned as follows: “In a future war, they will fight not on the line, but on the entire surface of the territories of both opponents, because political, social, economic fronts will arise behind the armed front; they will fight not on a two-dimensional surface, as of old, not in three-dimensional space, as it has been since the birth of military aviation, but in four dimensions, where the psyche of warring peoples is the fourth dimension.

Another significant ideologist was Georgy Samoilovich Isserson (1898-1976), a Soviet military commander, colonel, professor, one of the developers of the theory of deep operation. His works "The Evolution of Operational Art" and "Fundamentals of Deep Operations" are of great interest today both in Russia and in the West, where he is being translated into English. Gerasimov, by the way, mentions Isserson in his works.

In the United States until 2010, the phrase "hybrid war" was practically not used - the US military did not see the point in it, because in their doctrines such terms as "irregular war" and "unconventional war" had long existed. But seven years have passed, and today this designation is deeply rooted in the lexicon of the Western military when they talk about Russia.

In the United States in 2005, long before all of Gerasimov's articles, American General James Mattis, now head of the Pentagon, and Colonel Frank Hoffman published a landmark article "The Future of Warfare: The Rise of Hybrid Wars", in which they added to the military doctrine of the 90s General Charles Krulak about the three blocks of war the fourth block. The three blocks of Krulak are the direct conduct of hostilities, peacekeeping operations to separate the warring parties and the provision of humanitarian assistance. The fourth, new block of Mattis and Hoffman is psychological and information operations and work with the population.

In 2010, in the NATO concept, called NATO's Bi-Strategic Command Capstone Concept, "hybrid" threats are officially defined as threats posed by an adversary capable of simultaneously adaptively using traditional and non-traditional means to achieve their own goals. In 2012, the well-known in narrow circles, the book "Hybrid Warfare: Fighting a Complex Opponent from Ancient Times to the Present Day" by historian Williamson Murray and Colonel Peter Mansour.

In May 2014, the US Army and Marine Corps adopted a very interesting document - a new edition of the Combat Manual 3-24 called "Insurrections and Suppression of Insurrections." The new version of the charter is focused on America's indirect (indirect) participation in the suppression of uprisings in a particular country, when American troops are not brought in en masse at all, and all the work on the ground is done by the security forces of the country receiving American assistance. Descriptions of the insurrectionary movement, the prerequisites for its emergence, strategies and tactics of action are displayed in such detail that sometimes it is not at all clear where it is about preparing an uprising, and where it is about suppressing it. That is, the chapters from the American charter can be used by anyone - as a good general instruction for action and preparation for a rebellion. According to media reports, the NATO leadership is aware of the danger of a hybrid war and is preparing a new concept that will allow faster response to new threats.

It is not difficult to compare Gerasimov's recent work with the work of ten years ago by American theorists and practitioners, including the current US Secretary of Defense. But it is Gerasimov who has been declared the ideologist of the "hybrid war".

However, there are sound thoughts from foreign colleagues as well. Michael Kofman, a political scientist at the Kennan Institute at the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Science, writes: “In the West, this phrase now refers to any Russian action that frightens the speaker. The danger is that many military and politicians are convinced that the full Russian doctrine of hybrid warfare is reality. And believing in this, they tend to see manifestations of hybrid types of confrontations everywhere - especially where they do not exist. After all, almost any Russian action - in the information, political or military field - can now be interpreted as hybrid. Meaningless phrases can be a deadly weapon in the mouths of people in positions of power."

The ideas of the chief of the Russian General Staff are forcing NATO to strengthen its military grouping.

In the forests and fields of Belarus, Russian tanks, armored vehicles and soldiers line up in a western-oriented battle formation. Warships conduct combat maneuvers in the Baltic Sea. Preparing to take off planes with paratroopers. Who is the opponent? The militant state of Veishnoria, in which Western-funded terrorists have dug in, seeking to destabilize Russia and infiltrate its sphere of influence.

In fact, Veishnoria is a fictional country, and Russia is just spending on eastern border European Union teachings. However, nervous NATO leaders are already saying that this show of force reflects the concept of "hybrid warfare" developed by Gen. Valery Gerasimov, who heads the general staff of the Russian armed forces. This military doctrine has supposedly made Russia a more dangerous threat than at any time since the Cold War.

As the week-long Exercise West unfolds, NATO is beefing up its presence in the Baltics, the U.S. Air Force is taking control of Baltic airspace, and European governments are preparing to defend against disinformation campaigns, fake news, and cyberattacks.

Silent, rarely appearing in public, Mr. Gerasimov is an exemplary general. Russian Defense Minister Sergei Shoigu once called him "military to the root of his hair."

Mr. Shoigu, a politician-turned-general, is believed to heed the advice of a former tanker in military matters. According to one review, "Shoigu does an excellent job of playing the guitar while Gerasimov plays it in the background."

As the de facto head of the Russian armed forces, Mr. Gerasimov published his reflections on military science. “In the 21st century, there is a tendency to blur the distinction between the state of war and peace. Wars are no longer declared, and when they start, they do not go according to the pattern we are used to,” he said in a 2,000-word article published in February 2013 in the weekly Russian newspaper"Military-industrial courier".

“Asymmetric actions are widespread… These include the use of force special operations and internal opposition to create a permanent front throughout the territory of the opposing state, as well as informational influence, the forms and methods of which are constantly being improved,” he argued.

This material was written on the basis of a report that Mr. Gerasimov made three months after his appointment as head of General Staff. Its description of a hybrid war that includes “political, economic, informational, humanitarian and other non-military measures” turned out to be prophetic a year later. Russian soldiers in uniform without insignia appeared in Crimea and carried out an operation that led to the annexation of the Ukrainian peninsula. This was preceded by demonstrations organized by Russian agents against the pro-Western government of Ukraine.

Western observers immediately began to perceive Mr. Gerasimov's article as a blueprint for future Russian hybrid attacks against the West. The proliferation of pro-Russian news media, financial support for anti-establishment European politicians, and alleged Russian hacking against Western political campaigns and elections are seen as manifestations of the so-called Gerasimov Doctrine.

“Remote non-contact impact on the enemy is becoming the main way to achieve the goals of the battle and operation,” Mr. Gerasimov noted in his article, which the head of the US Marine Corps, Robert Neller, in his own words, re-read three times. “All this is complemented by covert military measures, including the implementation of information confrontation measures and the actions of special operations forces.”

Mr. Gerasimov is married and has a son. The future general was born in 1955 in a working-class family in the city of Kazan, located on the banks of the Volga, about 800 kilometers east of Moscow. There he graduated from the Higher Tank command school.

Gerasimov rapidly made a career in the tank forces of the Red Army. He served in different parts Soviet Union, commanded the 58th Army in the North Caucasus, fought in Chechnya. For some time he was chief of staff of the Far Eastern Military District, and then commanded the troops of the St. Petersburg and Moscow military districts, and then became deputy chief of the general staff. He was removed from this position after a confrontation with his boss, but returned five months later to replace him as head of the General Staff.

“I believe that all the activities of the General Staff should be aimed at achieving one main goal - maintaining the combat capability of the Armed Forces,” he told Vladimir Putin on the day of his appointment. However, many doubt the existence of the Gerasimov Doctrine as a comprehensive strategy.

“As far as I understand, [Mr] Gerasimov was trying to explain how the West is acting against Russia, not how Russia should act,” said Ruslan Pukhov, director of the Moscow-based Center for Analysis of Strategies and Technologies. - In the West, many try to present him as a strategist and visionary. However, in reality, he is a pure military man.”

Mr. Gerasimov met with NATO Military Committee Chairman Petr Pavel last week to reassure him that Exercise Zapad is defensive in nature and does not pose a threat to other countries. However, in both Poland and the Baltics, many are alarmed by the Russian invasion of Ukraine and fear that the head of the Russian General Staff may take advantage of war games and plan a similar provocation.

“We should not copy someone else's experience and catch up with the leading countries, but work ahead of the curve and be in the lead ourselves,” he emphasized in the year 2013 in his text.

Henry Foy

Financial Times , United Kingdom From the author of the topic - Chief of the General Staff of the RF Armed Forces military rank army General

http://tass.ru/info/2241252

In fact, Veishnoria is a fictional country, and Russia is just conducting exercises on the eastern border of the European Union. However, nervous NATO leaders are already saying that this show of force reflects the concept of "hybrid warfare" developed by Gen. Valery Gerasimov, who heads the general staff of the Russian armed forces. This military doctrine has supposedly made Russia a more dangerous threat than at any time since the Cold War.

Silent, rarely seen in public, Mr. Gerasimov is an exemplary general. Russian Defense Minister Sergei Shoigu once called him "military to the root of his hair."

As the de facto head of the Russian armed forces, Mr. Gerasimov published his reflections on military science. “In the 21st century, there is a tendency to blur the distinction between the state of war and peace. Wars are no longer declared, and when they start, they do not go according to our usual pattern, ”he said in a 2,000-word article published in February 2013 in the Russian weekly newspaper Military-Industrial Courier.

“Asymmetric actions have become widespread ... These include the use of special operations forces and internal opposition to create a permanent front throughout the territory of the opposing state, as well as informational influence, the forms and methods of which are constantly being improved,” he argued.

This material was written on the basis of a report that Mr. Gerasimov made three months after his appointment as Chief of the General Staff. Its description of a hybrid war that includes “political, economic, informational, humanitarian and other non-military measures” turned out to be prophetic a year later. Russian soldiers in uniform without insignia appeared in Crimea and carried out an operation that led to the annexation of the Ukrainian peninsula. This was preceded by demonstrations organized by Russian agents against the pro-Western government of Ukraine.

Western observers immediately began to perceive Mr. Gerasimov's article as a blueprint for future Russian hybrid attacks against the West. The proliferation of pro-Russian news media, the financial support given to anti-establishment European politicians, the alleged activities of Russian hackers against Western political campaigns and elections are all seen as manifestations of the so-called Gerasimov Doctrine.

“Remote non-contact impact on the enemy is becoming the main way to achieve the goals of the battle and operation,” Mr. Gerasimov noted in his article, which the head of the US Marine Corps, Robert Neller, in his own words, re-read three times. “All this is complemented by covert military measures, including the implementation of information warfare measures and the actions of special operations forces.”

Gerasimov rapidly made a career in the tank forces of the Red Army. He served in various parts of the Soviet Union, commanded the 58th Army in the North Caucasus, fought in Chechnya. For some time he was chief of staff of the Far Eastern Military District, and then commanded the troops of the St. Petersburg and Moscow military districts, and then became deputy chief of the general staff. He was removed from this position after a confrontation with his boss, but returned five months later to replace him as head of the General Staff.

“As far as I understand, [Mr] Gerasimov was trying to explain how the West is acting against Russia, not how Russia should act,” said Ruslan Pukhov, director of the Moscow-based Center for Analysis of Strategies and Technologies. - In the West, many people try to present him as a strategist and visionary. However, in reality, he is a pure military man.”

“We should not copy someone else's experience and catch up with the leading countries, but work ahead of the curve and be in the lead ourselves,” he emphasized in the year 2013 in his text.

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