East European Plain: main characteristics. The climate of the East European plain What is the climate of the Russian plain

11.03.2022

East European (Russian) Plain- one of the largest plains in the world. Among all the plains of our Motherland, only it goes to two oceans. Russia is located in the central and eastern parts of the plain. It stretches from the coast of the Baltic Sea to the Ural Mountains, from the Barents and White Seas to the Azov and Caspian.

Features of the relief of the Russian Plain

The East European Uplifted Plain consists of uplands with heights of 200-300 m above sea level and lowlands along which large rivers flow. The average height of the plain is 170 m, and the highest - 479 m - on Bugulma-Belebeev Upland in the Ural part. Maximum mark Timan Ridge somewhat smaller (471 m).

According to the features of the orographic pattern within the East European Plain, three bands are clearly distinguished: central, northern and southern. A strip of alternating large uplands and lowlands passes through the central part of the plain: Central Russian, Volga, Bugulma-Belebeevskaya uplands And Common Syrt divided Oka-Don lowland and the Low Trans-Volga region, along which the Don and Volga rivers flow, carrying their waters to the south.

To the north of this strip, low plains predominate. Large rivers flow through this territory - Onega, Northern Dvina, Pechora with numerous high-water tributaries.

The southern part of the East European Plain is occupied by lowlands, of which only the Caspian is located on the territory of Russia.

The climate of the Russian Plain

The climate of the East European Plain is influenced by its position in temperate and high latitudes, as well as neighboring territories (Western Europe and North Asia) and the Atlantic and Arctic Oceans. The climate is temperate in terms of thermal regime and medium humidity with increasing continentality towards the south and east. The average monthly temperature in January varies from - 8° in the west to - 11°C in the east, the July temperature ranges from 18° to 20°C from northwest to southeast.

All year round the East European Plain is dominated by western air mass transport. Atlantic air brings coolness and rainfall in summer, and warmth and rainfall in winter.

Differences in the climate of the East European Plain affect the nature of the vegetation and the presence of a fairly clearly expressed soil-vegetation zonality. Soddy-podzolic soils are replaced to the south by more fertile ones - a variety of chernozems. The natural and climatic conditions are favorable for active economic activity and population living.

Resources of the Russian Plain

The value of the natural resources of the Russian Plain is determined not only by their diversity and richness, but also by the fact that they are located in the most populated and developed part of Russia.

The climate is one of the most important physical and geographical characteristics of the territory. Climate is a long-term weather pattern characteristic of a particular area on Earth. In this case, the multi-year regime is understood as the totality of all weather conditions in a given area over a period of several decades; typical annual change of these conditions and possible deviations from it in individual years; weather combinations characteristic of its various anomalies (droughts, rainy periods, cooling, etc.).

The climate of the East European Plain is influenced by its position in temperate and high latitudes, as well as by the connection of the territory (Western Europe and North Asia) and water areas (the Atlantic and Arctic Oceans) (Appendix 4).

The Russian Plain is located in temperate and high latitudes, where seasonal differences in the arrival of solar radiation are especially large. The distribution of radiation over the territory of the plain changes dramatically with the seasons. In winter, radiation is much less than in summer, and more than 60% of it is reflected by the snow cover. The radiation balance in winter, with the exception of the extreme southern regions, is negative. It falls in the direction from the southwest to the northeast and depends mainly on the amount of cloudiness. In summer, the radiation balance is positive everywhere. It reaches its greatest value in July in the south of Ukraine, in the Crimea and the Sea of Azov. The total solar radiation increases from north to south from 66 to 130 kcal/cm2 per year. In January, the total solar radiation at the latitude of Kaliningrad-Moscow-Perm is 50, and the Ciscaucasia and the southeast of the Caspian lowland is about 150 MJ/m 2 .

All year round, the western transfer of air masses dominates over the East European Plain, and the Atlantic air of temperate latitudes brings coolness and precipitation in summer, and warmth and precipitation in winter. When moving to the east, it transforms: in summer it becomes warmer and drier in the surface layer, and colder in winter, but also loses moisture. During the cold season, from 8 to 12 cyclones come from different parts of the Atlantic to the East European Plain. When they move to the east or northeast, there is a sharp change in air masses, contributing to either warming or cooling. With the arrival of southwestern cyclones (Atlantic-Mediterranean), and there are up to six of them in a season, warm air of subtropical latitudes invades the south of the plain. Then in January the air temperature can rise to +5° - 7°C and, of course, thaws come.

The arrival of cyclones from the North Atlantic and the southwestern Arctic to the Russian Plain is associated with the intrusion of cold air. Anticyclones often recur in the southeast of the plain, due to the influence of the Asian High.

In the warm period of the year, from April, cyclonic activity proceeds along the lines of the Arctic and Polar fronts, shifting to the north. Cyclonic weather is most typical for the northwest of the plain, so cool sea air from temperate latitudes often comes to these areas from the Atlantic. It lowers the temperature, but at the same time it heats up from the underlying surface and is additionally saturated with moisture due to evaporation from the moistened surface.

Cyclones contribute to the transfer of cold air, sometimes arctic, from the north to more southern latitudes and cause cooling, and sometimes frost on the soil.

The distribution of precipitation over the territory of the Russian Plain is primarily dependent on circulation factors. Cyclonic activity is observed mainly in the west, in the area of the Barents Sea. On the mainland, atmospheric pressure is distributed in such a way that Arctic and Atlantic air flows into the plain, with which large clouds and significant precipitation are associated. The western transfer of air masses prevailing here is intensified due to the frequent recurrence of cyclones of the Arctic and Polar fronts. Especially often cyclones move from west to east between 55-60°N. sh. (Baltic, Valdai, upper reaches of the Dnieper). This strip is the most humid part of the Russian Plain: the annual amount of precipitation here reaches 600-700 mm. in the west and 500-600 mm in the east.

Winter cyclonic precipitation forms a snow cover with a height of 60-70 cm, which lies up to 220 days a year, to the south-west, the duration of the snow cover is reduced to 3-4 months a year, and its average long-term height is reduced to 10-20 cm. As we move deeper into the mainland, cyclonic activity and the associated western transport in the south of the East European Plain weakens. Instead, the frequency of anticyclones increases. Under the conditions of stable anticyclones, the processes of transformation of air masses intensify, as a result of which humid western air is quickly transformed into continental air. Because of this, precipitation in the southern part of the plain falls 500-300 mm per year, and their amount rapidly decreases in the southeast direction to 200 mm. and sometimes less. The snow cover is thin and lies for a short time: 2-3 months in the southwest. Relief influences the increase in annual precipitation. For example, in the Donetsk ridge falls 450 mm. precipitation, and in the surrounding steppe - 400 mm. The difference in the annual amount of precipitation between the Volga Upland and the low-lying Trans-Volga region is about 100 mm. In the southern half of the plain, the maximum precipitation occurs in June, and in the middle lane - in July. The southern half is characterized by the lowest, and the northern half by the highest relative humidity. The moisture index in the north of the territory is more than 0.60, and in the south 0.10.

Precipitation practically falls from all air masses, but most of it is associated with the Atlantic air of temperate latitudes. Tropical air brings a lot of moisture to the southwest. Precipitation is mainly due to the circulation of air masses on the Arctic and Polar fronts, and only 10% of them are produced by intramass processes in the summer.

The degree of moistening of the territory is determined by the ratio of heat and moisture. It is expressed in different quantities:

a) moisture coefficient. On the East European Plain, it reaches values from 0.55 (the Crimean plains) to 1.33 or more (in the Pechora lowland);
b) dryness index - from 3 (in the deserts of the Caspian lowland) to 0.45 (in the tundra of the Pechora lowland);
c) the average annual difference in precipitation and evaporation (mm).

In the northern part of the plain, moisture is excessive, since precipitation exceeds evaporation by 200 mm or more. In the zone of transitional moisture from the upper reaches of the Dniester, Don and the mouth of the Kama, the amount of precipitation is approximately equal to evaporation, and the further south from this zone, the more and more evaporation exceeds precipitation (from 100 to 700 mm), i.e. insufficient moisture sets in.

Differences in the climate of the East European Plain affect the nature of the vegetation and the presence of a fairly clearly expressed soil-vegetation zonality.

B.P. Alisov, taking into account the radiation balance and atmospheric circulation (transport of air masses, their transformation, cyclonic activity), distinguishes three climatic regions in the European part:

1) northern Atlantic-Arctic;
2) the middle Atlantic-continental region;
3) southern continental region.

1. Geographic location.

2. Geological structure and relief.

3. Climate.

4. Internal waters.

5. Soils, flora and fauna.

6. Natural zones and their anthropogenic changes.

Geographical position

The East European Plain is one of the largest plains in the world. The plain goes to the waters of two oceans and extends from the Baltic Sea to the Ural Mountains and from the Barents and White Seas to the Azov, Black and Caspian. The plain lies on the ancient East European platform, its climate is predominantly temperate continental and natural zonality is clearly expressed on the plain.

Geological structure and relief

The East European Plain has a typical platform relief, which is predetermined by platform tectonics. At its base lie the Russian plate with a Precambrian basement and in the south the northern margin of the Scythian plate with a Paleozoic basement. At the same time, the boundary between the plates in the relief is not expressed. Phanerozoic sedimentary rocks lie on the uneven surface of the Precambrian basement. Their power is not the same and is due to the unevenness of the foundation. These include syneclises (areas of deep basement) - Moscow, Pechersk, Caspian Sea and anticlises (protrusions of the foundation) - Voronezh, Volga-Ural, as well as aulacogenes (deep tectonic ditches, on the site of which syneclises arose) and the Baikal ledge - Timan. In general, the plain consists of uplands with heights of 200-300m and lowlands. The average height of the Russian Plain is 170 m, and the highest, almost 480 m, is on the Bugulma-Belebeev Upland in the Ural part. In the north of the plain there are the Northern Ridges, the Valdai and Smolensk-Moscow stratal uplands, the Timan Ridge (Baikal folding). In the center are the uplands: Central Russian, Volga (layered, stepped), Bugulma-Belebeevskaya, General Syrt and lowlands: Oka-Don and Zavolzhskaya (stratified). In the south lies the accumulative Caspian lowland. Glaciation also influenced the formation of the relief of the plain. There are three glaciations: Okskoe, Dnieper with the Moscow stage, Valdai. Glaciers and fluvioglacial waters have created moraine landforms and outwash plains. In the periglacial (preglacial) zone, cryogenic forms were formed (due to permafrost processes). The southern boundary of the maximum Dnieper glaciation crossed the Central Russian Upland in the Tula region, then descended along the Don valley to the mouth of the Khopra and Medveditsa rivers, crossed the Volga Upland, the Volga near the mouth of the Sura, then the upper reaches of the Vyatka and Kama and the Urals in the region of 60˚N. Iron ore deposits (IMA) are concentrated in the foundation of the platform. The sedimentary cover is associated with reserves of coal (eastern part of the Donbass, Pechersk and Moscow region basins), oil and gas (Ural-Volga and Timan-Pechersk basins), oil shale (north-western and Middle Volga), building materials (wide distribution), bauxites (Kola Peninsula), phosphorites (in a number of areas), salts (Caspian region).

Climate

The climate of the plain is influenced by the geographical position, the Atlantic and Arctic oceans. Solar radiation changes dramatically with the seasons. In winter, more than 60% of the radiation is reflected by the snow cover. Throughout the year, the western transport dominates over the Russian Plain. The Atlantic air transforms as it moves east. During the cold period, many cyclones come to the plain from the Atlantic. In winter, they bring not only precipitation, but also warming. Mediterranean cyclones are especially warm when the temperature rises to +5˚ +7˚C. After cyclones from the North Atlantic, cold Arctic air penetrates into their rear, causing sharp cooling to the very south. Anticyclones in winter provide frosty clear weather. During the warm period, cyclones mix to the north; the northwest of the plain is especially susceptible to their influence. Cyclones bring rain and coolness in summer. Hot and dry air is formed in the cores of the spur of the Azores High, which often leads to droughts in the southeast of the plain. January isotherms in the northern half of the Russian Plain run submeridian from -4˚C in the Kaliningrad region to -20˚C in the northeast of the plain. In the southern part, the isotherms deviate to the southeast, amounting to -5˚C in the lower reaches of the Volga. In summer, the isotherms run sublatitudinally: +8˚C in the north, +20˚C along the Voronezh-Cheboksary line, and +24˚C in the south of the Caspian Sea. The distribution of precipitation depends on western transport and cyclonic activity. Especially a lot of them move in the 55˚-60˚N band, this is the most humid part of the Russian Plain (Valdai and Smolensk-Moscow Uplands): the annual precipitation here is from 800 mm in the west to 600 mm in the east. Moreover, on the western slopes of the uplands, precipitation is 100-200 mm more than on the lowlands lying behind them. The maximum precipitation occurs in July (in the south in June). In winter, a snow cover forms. In the northeast of the plain, its height reaches 60-70 cm and it occurs up to 220 days a year (more than 7 months). In the south, the height of the snow cover is 10-20 cm, and the duration of occurrence is up to 2 months. The moisture coefficient varies from 0.3 in the Caspian lowland to 1.4 in the Pechersk lowland. In the north, moisture is excessive, in the strip of the upper reaches of the Dniester, Don and the mouth of the Kama - sufficient and k≈1, in the south, moisture is insufficient. In the north of the plain, the climate is subarctic (the coast of the Arctic Ocean), in the rest of the territory the climate is temperate with varying degrees of continentality. At the same time, continentality increases towards the southeast.

Inland waters

Surface waters are closely related to climate, topography, and geology. The direction of rivers (river flow) is predetermined by orography and geostructures. The runoff from the Russian Plain occurs in the basins of the Arctic and Atlantic oceans and in the Caspian basin. The main watershed runs along the Northern Ridges, Valdai, Central Russian and Volga Uplands. The largest is the Volga River (it is the largest in Europe), its length is more than 3530 km, and the basin area is 1360 thousand sq. km. The source lies on the Valdai Upland. After the confluence of the Selizharovka River (from Lake Seliger), the valley expands noticeably. From the mouth of the Oka to Volgograd, the Volga flows with sharply asymmetric slopes. On the Caspian lowland, branches of the Akhtuba separate from the Volga and a wide strip of floodplain is formed. The Volga Delta begins 170 km from the Caspian coast. The main food of the Volga is snow, so the flood is observed from the beginning of April to the end of May. The height of the water rise is 5-10 m. 9 reserves have been created on the territory of the Volga basin. The Don has a length of 1870 km, the basin area is 422 thousand sq. km. Source from a ravine on the Central Russian Upland. It flows into the Taganrog Bay of the Sea of Azov. Food is mixed: 60% snow, more than 30% groundwater and almost 10% rain. Pechora has a length of 1810 km, begins in the Northern Urals and flows into the Barents Sea. The area of the basin is 322 thousand km2. The nature of the current in the upper reaches is mountainous, the channel is rapids. In the middle and low reaches, the river flows through the moraine lowland and forms a wide floodplain, and a sandy delta at the mouth. Food is mixed: up to 55% falls on melted snow water, 25% on rainwater and 20% on groundwater. The Northern Dvina is about 750 km long and is formed from the confluence of the Sukhona, Yuga and Vychegda rivers. It flows into the Dvina Bay. The area of the basin is almost 360 thousand sq. km. The floodplain is wide. At the confluence of the river forms a delta. The food is mixed. Lakes on the Russian Plain differ primarily in the origin of lake basins: 1) moraine lakes are distributed in the north of the plain in areas of glacial accumulation; 2) karst - in the basins of the rivers of the Northern Dvina and the upper Volga; 3) thermokarst - in the extreme northeast, in the permafrost zone; 4) floodplain (oxbow lakes) - in the floodplains of large and medium-sized rivers; 5) estuary lakes - in the Caspian lowland. Groundwater is distributed throughout the Russian Plain. There are three artesian basins of the first order: Central Russian, East Russian and Caspian. Within their limits there are artesian basins of the second order: Moscow, Volga-Kama, Cis-Ural, etc. With depth, the chemical composition of water and water temperature change. Fresh waters occur at depths of no more than 250 m. Mineralization and temperature increase with depth. At a depth of 2-3 km, the water temperature can reach 70˚C.

Soils, flora and fauna

Soils, like vegetation on the Russian Plain, have a zonal distribution pattern. In the north of the plain there are tundra coarse-humus gley soils, there are peat-gley soils, etc. To the south, podzolic soils lie under the forests. In the northern taiga they are gley-podzolic, in the middle taiga they are typical podzolic, and in the southern taiga they are soddy-podzolic soils, which are also characteristic of mixed forests. Under deciduous forests and forest-steppe, gray forest soils are formed. In the steppes, the soils are chernozem (podzolized, typical, etc.). On the Caspian lowland, the soils are chestnut and brown desert, there are solonetzes and solonchaks.

The vegetation of the Russian Plain differs from the vegetation cover of other large regions of our country. Broad-leaved forests are common on the Russian Plain, and only here are semi-deserts. In general, the set of vegetation is very diverse from tundra to desert. In the tundra, mosses and lichens predominate; to the south, the number of dwarf birch and willow increases. Spruce with an admixture of birch dominates in the forest-tundra. In the taiga, spruce dominates, to the east with an admixture of fir, and on the poorest soils - pine. Mixed forests include coniferous-broad-leaved species, in broad-leaved forests, where they have been preserved, oak and linden dominate. These same rocks are also characteristic of the forest-steppe. The steppe occupies here the largest area in Russia, where cereals predominate. The semi-desert is represented by grass-wormwood and wormwood-saltwort communities.

In the animal world of the Russian Plain, western and eastern species are found. Forest animals are most widely represented and, to a lesser extent, steppe animals. Western species gravitate towards mixed and broad-leaved forests (marten, black polecat, dormouse, mole, and some others). Oriental species gravitate toward the taiga and forest-tundra (chipmunk, wolverine, Ob lemming, etc.). Rodents (ground squirrels, marmots, voles, etc.) dominate in the steppes and semi-deserts, and the saiga penetrates from the Asian steppes.

natural areas

Natural zones on the East European Plain are especially pronounced. From north to south, they replace each other: tundra, forest-tundra, taiga, mixed and broad-leaved forests, forest-steppe, steppes, semi-deserts and deserts. Tundra occupies the coast of the Barents Sea, covers the entire Kanin Peninsula and further to the east, to the Polar Urals. The European tundra is warmer and wetter than the Asian one, the climate is subarctic with maritime features. The average temperature in January varies from -10˚C near the Kanin Peninsula to -20˚C near the Yugorsky Peninsula. In summer around +5˚C. Precipitation 600-500 mm. The permafrost is thin, there are many swamps. On the coast, typical tundras are common on tundra-gley soils, with a predominance of mosses and lichens, in addition, arctic bluegrass, pike, alpine cornflower, and sedges grow here; from shrubs - wild rosemary, dryad (partridge grass), blueberries, cranberries. To the south, shrubs of dwarf birches and willows appear. The forest tundra extends south of the tundra in a narrow strip of 30-40 km. The forests here are sparse, the height is not more than 5-8 m, spruce dominates with an admixture of birch, sometimes larch. Low places are occupied by swamps, thickets of small willows or birch dwarf birch. There are many crowberries, blueberries, cranberries, blueberries, mosses and various taiga herbs. High-stemmed forests of spruce with an admixture of mountain ash (here it blooms on July 5) and bird cherry (blooms by June 30) penetrate along the river valleys. Of the animals of these zones, reindeer, arctic fox, polar wolf, lemming, hare, ermine, wolverine are typical. There are many birds in summer: eiders, geese, ducks, swans, snow bunting, white-tailed eagle, gyrfalcon, peregrine falcon; many blood-sucking insects. Rivers and lakes are rich in fish: salmon, whitefish, pike, burbot, perch, char, etc.

The taiga extends to the south of the forest-tundra, its southern border runs along the line St. Petersburg - Yaroslavl - Nizhny Novgorod - Kazan. In the west and in the center, the taiga merges with mixed forests, and in the east with forest-steppe. The climate of the European taiga is temperate continental. Precipitation on the plains is about 600 mm, on the hills up to 800 mm. Humidification is excessive. The growing season lasts from 2 months in the north to almost 4 months in the south of the zone. The depth of soil freezing is from 120 cm in the north to 30-60 cm in the south. The soils are podzolic, in the north there are peat-gley zones. There are many rivers, lakes, swamps in the taiga. The European taiga is characterized by dark coniferous taiga of European and Siberian spruce. To the east, fir is added, closer to the Urals, cedar and larch. Pine forests form on swamps and sands. On clearings and burnt areas - birch and aspen, along the river valleys alder, willow. Of the animals, elk, reindeer, brown bear, wolverine, wolf, lynx, fox, white hare, squirrel, mink, otter, chipmunk are characteristic. There are many birds: capercaillie, hazel grouse, owls, ptarmigan, snipes, woodcocks, lapwings, geese, ducks, etc. in swamps and reservoirs. Woodpeckers are widespread, especially three-toed and black, bullfinch, waxwing, smur, kuksha, tits, crossbills, kinglets and others. From reptiles and amphibians - vipers, lizards, newts, toads. In summer there are many blood-sucking insects. Mixed, and to the south broad-leaved forests are located in the western part of the plain between the taiga and the forest-steppe. The climate is temperate continental, but, unlike the taiga, it is milder and warmer. Winters are noticeably shorter and summers are longer. The soils are soddy-podzolic and gray forest. Many rivers begin here: the Volga, the Dnieper, the Western Dvina, and others. There are many lakes, there are swamps and meadows. The boundary between the forests is weakly expressed. With advancement to the east and north, the role of spruce and even fir in mixed forests increases, while the role of broad-leaved species decreases. There is linden and oak. To the southwest, maple, elm, ash appear, and conifers disappear. Pine forests are found only on poor soils. In these forests, undergrowth is well developed (hazel, honeysuckle, euonymus, etc.) and grass cover of goutweed, hoof, chickweed, some grasses, and where conifers grow, there are oxalis, maynik, ferns, mosses, etc. In connection with the economic development of these forests, the animal world has sharply decreased. There are elk, wild boar, red deer and roe deer have become very rare, bison only in reserves. The bear and lynx have practically disappeared. The fox, squirrel, dormice, forest polecat, beaver, badger, hedgehog, moles are still common; preserved marten, mink, forest cat, muskrat; muskrat, raccoon dog, American mink are acclimatized. From reptiles and amphibians - snake, viper, lizards, frogs, toads. Many birds, both sedentary and migratory. Woodpeckers, tits, nuthatch, blackbirds, jays, owls are characteristic, finches, warblers, flycatchers, warblers, buntings, waterfowl arrive in the summer. Black grouse, partridges, golden eagles, white-tailed eagles, etc. have become rare. Compared to the taiga, the number of invertebrates in the soil increases significantly. The forest-steppe zone extends south from the forests and reaches the line Voronezh - Saratov - Samara. The climate is temperate continental with an increase in the degree of continentality to the east, which affects the more depleted floristic composition in the east of the zone. Winter temperatures range from -5˚C in the west to -15˚C in the east. In the same direction, the annual amount of precipitation decreases. Summer is very warm everywhere +20˚+22˚C. The moisture coefficient in the forest-steppe is about 1. Sometimes, especially in recent years, droughts occur in summer. The relief of the zone is characterized by erosional dissection, which creates a certain diversity of the soil cover. Most typical gray forest soils on loess-like loams. Leached chernozems are developed along the river terraces. The further south, the more leached and podzolized chernozems, and gray forest soils disappear. Little natural vegetation has been preserved. Forests here are found only in small islands, mainly oak forests, where you can find maple, elm, ash. Pine forests have been preserved on poor soils. Meadow forbs have been preserved only on lands that are not convenient for plowing. The animal world consists of forest and steppe fauna, but in recent times, due to human economic activity, the steppe fauna has begun to predominate. The steppe zone extends from the southern border of the forest-steppe to the Kumo-Manych depression and the Caspian lowland in the south. The climate is temperate continental, but with a significant degree of continentality. Summer is hot, average temperatures are +22˚+23˚C. Winter temperatures vary from -4˚C in the Azov steppes to -15˚C in the Trans-Volga steppes. Annual rainfall decreases from 500 mm in the west to 400 mm in the east. The moisture coefficient is less than 1, droughts and hot winds are frequent in summer. The northern steppes are less warm, but more humid than the southern ones. Therefore, the northern steppes are forb-feather grass on chernozem soils. The southern steppes are dry on chestnut soils. They are characterized by salinity. In the floodplains of large rivers (the Don and others), floodplain forests of poplar, willow, alder, oak, elm, and others grow. Among the animals, rodents predominate: ground squirrels, shrews, hamsters, field mice, and others. Of the predators - ferrets, foxes, weasels. Birds include larks, steppe eagles, harriers, corncrakes, falcons, bustards, etc. There are snakes and lizards. Most of the northern steppes are now plowed up. The semi-desert and desert zone within Russia is located in the southwestern part of the Caspian lowland. This zone adjoins the coast of the Caspian Sea and merges with the deserts of Kazakhstan. The climate is continental temperate. Rainfall is about 300 mm. Winter temperatures are negative -5˚-10˚C. The snow cover is thin, but lies up to 60 days. Soils freeze up to 80 cm. Summer is hot and long, average temperatures are +23˚+25˚C. The Volga flows through the territory of the zone, forming a vast delta. There are many lakes, but almost all of them are salty. The soils are light chestnut, sometimes brown desert. The humus content does not exceed 1%. Solonchaks and salt licks are widespread. The vegetation cover is dominated by white and black wormwood, fescue, thin-legged, xerophytic feather grasses; to the south, the number of saltworts increases, a tamarisk shrub appears; tulips, buttercups, rhubarb bloom in spring. In the floodplain of the Volga, there are willow, white poplar, sedge, oak, aspen, etc. The animal world is represented mainly by rodents: jerboas, ground squirrels, gerbils, many reptiles - snakes and lizards. Of the predators, the steppe polecat, the corsac fox, and the weasel are typical. There are many birds in the Volga Delta, especially during the migration seasons. All natural zones of the Russian Plain have experienced anthropogenic impacts. Particularly heavily modified by man are the zones of forest-steppes and steppes, as well as mixed and broad-leaved forests.

The East European Plain is located on the territory of the eastern part of Europe, and includes 10 countries at once, but most of it is located in the west of Russia, which is why its second official name is the Russian Plain.

Figure 1. Climate of the Russian Plain. Author24 - online exchange of student papers

The climate of this area directly depends on several key factors:

geographical position;
the proximity of the ocean;
relief.

Radiation plays a central role in the formation of climatic processes in the Russian Plain. Advection is also essential. The continentality of this area increases mainly to the east, and the absence of mountains in the west and north contributes to the rapid penetration of arctic maritime air from temperate latitudes. The transformed air masses reach the Urals, and the air from the Arctic comes from the Kara and Barents Seas.

Researchers and geographers define the Russian Plain as a physical and geographical state, and the basis for its elevation to this rank is:

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an elevated, hilly and stratal plain formed on the plate of the ancient East European Platform;
continental-Atlantic, insufficiently humid and predominantly temperate climate, which is formed in full under the influence of the Arctic and Atlantic oceans;
clearly defined main natural zones, the structures of which were greatly influenced by neighboring territories and flat relief.

Interestingly, when dividing the Russian Plain into large-scale natural complexes, two approaches were taken into account - azonal and zonal. Within the area under consideration, continental air dominates, and the effect of advection is most noticeable in winter than in summer.

The cyclonic functional manifests itself most actively in winter along the entire Arctic front, which is often located in the north of the plain, but often shifts to the Black Sea coast. In the summer half of the year, three zones of cyclone activity are formed at once. The first zone is observed across the Arctic front, the second zone acts on polar-frontal occlusions, and the third zone occupies a whole strip from the Crimea to the Middle Volga.

Northern climatic region

The northern climatic region is located not far from the northern zone of high atmospheric pressure, therefore, it is characterized by the dominance of western moist winds throughout the year. The western transformation of air masses prevailing in this zone increases due to the systematic recurrence of cyclones of the polar and arctic fronts.

Remark 1

In the formation of climatic phenomena in the Northern region, the Arctic air plays a huge role, which is gradually transformed when moving south. Sometimes at the height of summer, hot tropical air comes in from the south.

It should be noted that sometimes continental tropical air can form in the south of the Northern Region, which acts under the influence of polar air. However, such a phenomenon can only be observed in anticyclonic weather, so the last time the transformation of polar air masses was recorded in 1936 near Moscow.

Winters in this climate zone are snowy and cold. In the northeast, the average January temperature reaches -15-20°C, and the snow cover, which is 70 cm high, pleases local residents up to 220 days a year. Winters are much milder in the south-western region: the average air temperature in winter does not fall below -10 °, and the duration of the white ice sheet is reduced to 4 months a year.

The entire territory of the Northern Region belongs to the subarctic, arctic and temperate climatic zones. These natural zones with forest-tundra and tundra climate types cover the coast of the Barents Sea and the islands of the Arctic. The temperate belt here has two types of terrain - taiga and mixed forests.

Southern climatic region

The southern climatic region extends along the southern band of high atmospheric pressure. The direction of air masses in this area is not stable, since the westerly winds prevailing in the warm season transform into southeast cold winds in winter.

Remark 2

Under the conditions of constant anticyclones, the processes of movement of air masses intensify, as a result of which the western humid air is quickly transformed into temperate continental.

In summer, all processes of transformation of the polar air in the territory of the Southern Region end with the formation of a tropical climate.

From the side of the Mediterranean Sea tropical sea air gradually enters in a transformed form. The systematic recurrence of temperate tropical cyclones in summer sharply distinguishes the southern region of the Russian Plain from the northern one, where tropical air masses are observed only as exceptions.

The absence of sharp contrasts between the polar and continental tropical air is explained by the passivity of the cyclones that originate here and the low humidity of the moving air masses, which ultimately does not provide the required amount of precipitation.

Such a ratio of moisture and heat in the south of the Russian Plain is an unfavorable element for agriculture, which needs stable moisture. A prolonged absence of precipitation automatically causes drought - one of the most peculiar and characteristic phenomena of the southern climatic region.

Climatic features of the nature of the Russian Plain

On the Russian Plain, one can observe such natural zones: forest-tundra and tundra, forest-steppe, forest, steppe, semi-desert and desert. The tundra and forest-tundra zones are moderately cold and humid climatic processes and occupy the entire coast of the Barents Sea. The tundra completely covers the Kanin Peninsula, and then its border goes to the Polar Urals and Naryan-Mar.

The forest-steppe in the zone of the Russian Plain is characterized by humid and warm weather, as it is simultaneously affected by the non-freezing part of the Barents Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. In winter, a minimum of passing cyclones can be observed here. This is clearly reflected in the division of the annual amount of all precipitation that formed the permafrost (from 0° to -3°), which has now been transformed into glacial, marine, deltaic, river and lake deposits.

Definition 1

The forest zone is a moderately humid and warm zone of the Russian Plain, which extends south of the forest tundra with a strip of 1000-1200 km.

The forest zone of the East European Plain is conventionally divided by researchers into two subzones: mixed forests and taiga. The taiga of the Russian Plain is very different from the Siberian one, since its geographical position is determined by the history of the development of this territory. The close location to the Atlantic Ocean and the warmest zone of the Arctic determined the growth of a powerful multiple ice cover and a temperate continental climate, which contributes to the spread of animals and European plants over the plain.

Taking into account all the features of the radiation regime and the universal circulation of the atmosphere, it is necessary to distinguish two main climatic zones on the territory of the Russian Plain - temperate and subarctic, and within their boundaries - five climatic zones. In all areas, an increase in the continentality of the climate from west to east is observed. Differences in the climate of the East European area directly affect the nature of vegetation and the presence of pronounced soil zoning.

The climate of the Russian Plain is very peculiar, because a variety of factors influence its formation. To better understand the main climatic features of this region, first of all, it is necessary to consider in detail its geographical location and topography.

Geographical position

The Russian or East European Plain is located in the east of Europe.

On its vast lands are such countries:

Russia;
Kazakhstan;
Estonia;
Lithuania;
Latvia;
Bulgaria;
Romania;
Finland;
Ukraine;
Moldova;
Poland.

The total area is about 4 million km2. This is the largest plain on the Eurasian continent. The total length from north to south is 2.5 thousand km, and from west to east - over 1 thousand km.

In size, this territory is second only to the Amazonian lowland in South America. The average height above sea level is 170 m, and the maximum reaches 479 m on the Bugulma-Belebeevskaya Upland in the Cis-Urals. The lowest elevations are observed on the Caspian coast, where they are only 27.6 m.

In the northwest, the borders of the flat terrain are guarded by the Scandinavian mountains. In the north, the plain is washed by the White and Barents Seas. In the west and southwest, it peacefully neighbors the mountains of Central Europe and the Carpathians, and in the south and southeast - with the mountain ranges of the Caucasus. The natural eastern border is the Urals.

Terrain and climate

The entire territory is dominated by gently undulating or hilly relief.

The largest hills are:

Bugulminsko-Belebeevskaya;
Central Russian;
Valdai;
Stavropolskaya and others.

Among the lowlands, the most prominent are the Caspian, Black Sea, Dnieper, Oka-Donskaya. The spelling is not uniform. It clearly shows the central, northern and southern stripes.

The maximum height of the Central Russian Upland is 305 m, and the Bugulma-Belebeevskaya - 479 m. The lowest areas are concentrated in the south near the Caspian Sea. In the central part, various forms of relief are observed, since here the folded foundation of the ancient platform protrudes to the surface, forming various hills, plateaus and ridges.

The hilly relief is largely due to the peculiarities of the geological structure. The tectonic structure is mainly confined to the Russian platform with an ancient Precambrian basement. The southern part is located on the northern margin of the Scythian plate with a Paleozoic folded base. The estimated age of the Lower Proterozoic layer is 2550-1600 Ma.

Almost all folding processes are of deep tectonic origin. The uneven relief of the Precambrian basement includes Phanerozoic sedimentary rocks. Glaciation had a significant impact on the formation of the relief.

After the passage of the glacier, many lakes were formed, among which the most famous are:

White;
Pskov;
Chudskoye and others.

Numerous deep bays of the Kola Peninsula also have a glacial origin.

Due to the peculiarities of the relief and the complete absence of active volcanoes on the flat terrain, strong earthquakes are completely excluded, however, such dangerous natural phenomena as floods and tornadoes are possible.

The climate is temperate continental with distinct cold and warm seasons. Unlike the Central Siberian Plateau and the entire West Siberian region, the climatic conditions in the Eastern European part of Russia are less severe. Milder winters are due to the features of the relief and the special geographical location.

Average summer temperatures range from + 8 °С in the far north to +24 °С in the Caspian lowland. The lowest winter rates are observed in northern and eastern latitudes. There they can sometimes reach below -25 °C. In the western and southern regions, winters are often milder with an average January temperature of about -4 °C.

Snow cover is everywhere. If in the south the duration of snow occurrence is on average 60 days, then in the colder northern regions it increases by about 3-4 times.

The distribution of precipitation is uneven. Heavy rains and fogs are most characteristic of the northwestern part. The southern and southeastern regions are more prone to spring, summer and autumn droughts. Rainy and cloudy weather is mainly set in the autumn-winter period. The maximum amount of summer precipitation in the south falls in June, and in the middle lane - in July.

Water resources and climate impact

The lake-river system is very developed. Due to the peculiarities of the relief, flat rivers with a mixed or snow type of food predominantly dominate. Many lakes are of glacial origin, especially in Karelia, Finland and the Kola Peninsula. Most of the Eastern European reservoirs are characterized by spring floods, the main reason for which is the intensive melting of the snow cover.

Almost all river arteries belong to the basins of two large oceans: the Arctic and the Atlantic. In addition, there is also an internal drain belonging to the Caspian Sea.

The largest rivers are:

Volga;
Pechora;
Ural;
Dnieper;
Western and Northern Dvina;
Kama;
Vyatka.

The main watershed passes through the Valdai and Lithuanian-Belarusian uplands.

Among the lakes, the most distinguished by their size are:

Ladoga;
Onega;
Ilmenskoye;
Chudskoye;
Pskov.

Most of the lake basins are located in the northwest. Groundwater is distributed evenly throughout the territory. In the northern regions of the tundra and forest-tundra, there are many swamps.

The abundance of water resources has a significant impact on the formation of the local climate. Evaporation from the surface of open water bodies not only significantly humidifies the air, but also largely contributes to the cooling of warm air masses in the hot summer months.

Weather

Depending on the time of year, the weather regime differs markedly. To a greater extent, it is under the influence of Atlantic cyclones, which annually bring both sharp cooling and sudden warming.

In winter, winds from the Atlantic usually set warm weather, while in summer, on the contrary, they saturate the air with coolness. Cyclones from the southwestern Arctic also have a great influence on the weather. They almost always contribute to a sharp decrease in air temperature.

Winter

Within the entire Eastern European region, a temperate continental climate prevails, so winters here are quite cold and snowy. Heavy snowfalls and 30-degree frosts are typical, sometimes replaced by a sudden thaw down to -5 ˚С. Precipitation falls mainly in the form of snow. The depth of cover in the northern and eastern regions reaches 60-70 cm, and in the south it usually does not exceed 10-20 cm.

In the northern regions, the winter season is longer and more severe, since the predominantly subarctic climatic zone dominates here. The average January temperature is at least -20 ˚С.

Spring

The spring months are usually a transitional time of the year when daylight hours gradually increase and temperatures begin to rise. Humidity drops to 70-80% as the snow cover slowly breaks down. The soil is thawing, flora and fauna are awakening.

Since the end of April, the weather has been consistently warm, but with the advent of anticyclones, frosts and cold snaps are possible. In the northern regions, spring is usually colder and longer than in the central and southern regions. This time of year is also characterized by intermittent rains and thunderstorms.

Summer

The calendar summer begins on June 1, when stable sunny weather is established almost everywhere with temperatures above +10 ˚С. The main characteristic feature of the summer season is the predominance of fairly warm and comfortable weather, which largely contributes to the active growth of plants and the general revival of nature.

The average monthly temperatures in July are about +20 ˚С, but in the far north they are much lower. Thus, the distribution of heat is uneven, but in accordance with the geographical latitude.

Autumn

With the advent of autumn, the air temperature gradually begins to drop. If in September in the central regions it averages at least +16 °C, then by the end of November the air in some areas warms up to only +2 °C.

This time of year is characterized by frequent drizzling rains, sometimes accompanied by strong chilly winds. Due to the high humidity, fog often forms in the mornings. Daylight hours are getting shorter. At the end of November, many reservoirs are covered with ice, and a stable snow cover begins to form on the soil.

Minerals

Due to the special geological structure, the mineral resources of the Eastern European region are characterized by great diversity.

A short list of the largest deposits:

Iron ore - Mikhailovskoye, Lebedinskoye, Stoilenskoye, Gubkinskoye;
Hard coal - Pechora basin;
Potassium-rock salts - Verkhnekamsk and Iletsk basins.

There are significant oil and gas deposits in the Caspian lowland and the Volga-Ural region. In addition, such popular building materials as gravel, clay, sand and limestone have become widespread.

Flora and fauna

Due to the well-defined latitudinal zonality and various natural conditions, the most diverse representatives of flora and fauna are found on the territory of the Eastern European region. In the table you can see the most common ecosystems.

Name of the natural area	Geographical position	Flora	Fauna
Tundra	North of the Kola Peninsula	Moss, cloudberry, blueberry, cranberry, sedge, cotton grass, lichen, polar poppy, dwarf willow, birch	Foxes, wolves, martens, minks, beavers, muskrats, harp seals, white and tundra partridges
Taiga	Northwest Russia	Balsam and white fir, black and gray spruce, banksa pine, virginian juniper, larch, white poplar	Arctic hares, snowy owls, bald eagles, white geese, chipmunks, brown bears, stoats
mixed forests	North and east of Belarus, Meshcherskaya lowland	Rowan, viburnum, elm, linden, spruce, pine, oak, hawthorn, maple, alder, willow, ash	Hares, foxes, wolves, beavers, otters, forest squirrels, badgers, black ferrets, hazel grouses, nightingales, bullfinches
broadleaf forests	Masovian-Podlaskie Lowland	Oak, small-leaved linden, wild maple, wild apple, pear, elm, ash, beech	Roe deer, wild boars, hedgehogs, spotted and red deer, fallow deer, elk, nutria, moles, shrews
Forest-steppe	Oka-Don and Tambov lowlands	Birch, hornbeam, aspen, bluegrass meadow, real bedstraw	Squirrels, hares, roe deer, martens, woodchucks, hamsters, lizards, black grouse
Steppes and semi-deserts	Caspian, Kuban and Black Sea lowlands	Cereals, feather grass, kipets	Jerboas, ground squirrels, voles, bustards, larks, hamsters

The most impressive area is the forest zone. It occupies a vast area in the central and southern parts. Steppe and semi-desert territories are located only in the extreme south and east.