Each person has his own views on life, aspirations, ideals, interests, desires and goals, and in psychology the totality of this has a name - the orientation of the personality.

Orientation is formed depending on upbringing and environment, because any person is influenced by society to some extent. The orientation of the personality is an important characteristic of a person, in psychology it is also replaced by the term "dynamic tendency", which affects his character and activities.

Orientation forms

The main life orientation of a person is expressed in his life goals, priorities, hobbies, worldview, and beliefs. Consider all forms of orientation:

• A wish

This form implies not only the desired object, but also the methods of acquiring it. Also, the desires of the individual give rise to the formation of goals.

• Pursuit

It is a desire with a deliberate choice and a plan to achieve it.

• Interest

This is a focus on the knowledge of new information, a manifestation of the cognitive needs of a person.

• inclination

It is expressed in the desire of a person to engage in any particular activity. As a result, he improves his skills in the chosen field to achieve success.

• outlook

Includes views on life, as well as a person's place in it.

• Belief

A form of direction that encourages a person to act in accordance with their views on life.

• Ideal

The ideal image for the personality, to which he aspires to be realized.

• Installation

The attitude can be: positive, negative, neutral and consists in the views on life and values ​​of a person.

• Position

It includes the motives and desires of a person by which he is guided in life.

The result that a person wants to achieve in his activity.

Types of orientation

In psychology, there are several types of orientation. It can be determined by the behavior of a person in various situations. The main types of orientation:

• PERSONAL

People with this orientation consider self-realization to be the main thing in life and are always busy achieving their own goals. Often they are called selfish, because they do not care about the problems of others. Such people are characterized by such character traits as purposefulness, confidence, responsibility, independence. They do not ask for help from others, but prefer to cope with all problems on their own.

• COLLECTIVE

It consists in focusing on communication and mutual actions, such people are usually sociable. For such individuals, communication is extremely important, and they do everything to maintain good relations with others. They participate in collective works, but at the same time they do not take a leadership position and avoid responsibility. Such a person depends on the opinions of the people around him, does everything to obtain approval and usually does not express his own opinion.

• BUSINESS

Such people are extremely demanding of themselves and others and are always looking for benefits for themselves and their team. They prefer to lead, while always providing assistance and support to their subordinates. Such people love society, communicate a lot with people, but at the same time they love freedom and always express and prove their point of view.

• EMOTIONAL

Such people often worry, even for no reason, and are not indifferent to the problems of others. They have a well-developed sense of compassion, so they can always listen and support. They are often approached for advice, because such people are endearing and trustworthy. Also, basically, these are creative individuals who love music, literature and painting. They are able to live the life of a hero, feeling all his experiences.

• SOCIAL

Such individuals cannot live without society and are always active in social activities. They are always aware of all events and love communication. People with a socially oriented personality can be both bosses and subordinates, but their work must necessarily be connected with society.

Professional orientation

Each profession requires the possession of specific character traits that are necessary to achieve success in this area. In psychology, several types of personality are defined:

• realistic type

They prefer physical labor and work with real objects. The following professions are most suitable for them: builder, technician, mechanic.

• conventional type

The personality has attentiveness, concentration and calm character. Such people are responsible and always complete the work on time. Preferred professions: librarian, merchandiser.

• intelligent type

These people are very fond of thinking and learning new information. They love doing research. The most suitable professions: teacher, writer.

• enterprising type

Such individuals have leadership qualities and are excellent at leading. Suitable professions: manager, businessman.

• social type

People with a well-developed sense of empathy who seek to help others. Suitable professions: doctor, social worker.

• artistic type

Such individuals do not like to work according to a schedule and introduce themselves into any framework. They are unpredictable and creative. Best professions: artist, poet.

Orientation and motivation

The result of a person's activity depends on motivation, which can be external and internal. External motivation may be to gain the approval of others. Intrinsic motivation is the interest of the individual to complete a specific task. Intrinsic motivation has a much better effect on a person, because in this way he develops himself. The better a person is motivated, the more he believes in his own strength and the more he has the desire to work to achieve the goal.

It is extremely important that a person understands why he is doing his work, only in this case he will do it efficiently. If the work does not give any benefits and does not bring you closer to the goal, then any person will quickly get tired of it.

Goal setting and self-confidence

In order to succeed, a person needs to decide on his desires and goals. It is also important to think of a plan to achieve them. To improve the efficiency of work, you should present the result of your work and the achievement of your goal.

Also, in order to be successful, you need to be confident in your abilities. Only a self-confident person can take concrete steps towards achieving the goal. Self-confidence can be developed, because it is also necessary for building relationships with others.

The orientation of the personality is formed from childhood during training and education. Each personality develops in society and is amenable to its influence, while some later develop independence from the opinions of others. The orientation of the personality is the motives, desires and goals of a person that affect his activities and behavior. Therefore, the orientation of the individual determines how successful she will be and how she will achieve her goals.

There are many scientific definitions of the concept of "orientation of personality", psychologists understand it in different ways. But it is certain that orientation- one of the leading characteristics and the most important property of the personality, which expresses the dynamics of the development of the individual as a social being.

A significant contribution to the study of the phenomenon of personality orientation was made by many Soviet psychologists. The concepts of S.L. Rubinshtein (about the dynamic trend), A.N. Leontiev (about the meaning-forming motive), B.G. Ananiev (about the main life orientation).

In fact, personality orientation is the totality of a person's motivations or motives. Simply put, orientation - this is what a person wants and what he is so accustomed to strive for that these aspirations have become the “support”, the “core” of his personality. The orientation of the personality, like a trend in fashion, determines in what style a person will live.

Orientation- this is a complex property of a person, which allows you to understand the goals and motives of human behavior, as well as to predict them. After all, knowing what the subject is guided by in life, what his attitudes and orientation are, you can guess how he will act in a given situation. Conversely, by observing a person in any significant situation, one can understand his personal orientation.

Orientation formed in the process of education and self-education and is always socially conditioned, that is, it depends on the foundations of society and is evaluated from the point of view of morality, ethics, and traditions.

Forms personality orientations:

• goals,
• motives,
• needs,
• permanent subjective attitude,
• value orientations,
• ideals,
• interests,
• principles
• likes and dislikes,
• tastes,
• tendencies,
• attachments and so on.

Orientation affects on character, abilities, temporary mental states, and even on a temperament that is practically incapable of changing throughout life.

The most important function of personal orientation is meaningful. Man is a creature in need of meanings. If there is no meaning, there is no motive, and without motive there is no activity. Orientation organizes human activity and makes it meaningful in all areas, be it personal life or work.

The orientation of the personality, as well as the desire of a person for any specific goal, does not appear out of nowhere and is not something stable.

The orientation is formed in stages. Step by step, step by step appear structural components personality orientations:

Interests as structural components of the orientation of a personality can say much more about a person than his inclinations, desires and aspirations. Knowing what a person is interested in, it is already possible to form an approximate idea of ​​\u200b\u200bhim.

1. Addiction. Inclinations determine not a contemplative, but an active orientation. The propensity encourages to act in one direction not once, but returning to a certain occupation again and again. A propensity arises when interest is reinforced by will, it can be called interest in a particular type of activity.
2. Ideal. This is a specific image of the ultimate goal of inclination, a personal guideline, a support in making important decisions and the basis of a worldview.
3. outlook. This is a set of views on the world, society and oneself, combined into a single, holistic model. Worldview is a set of personal laws of life that help to adapt in the present and plan for the future.
4. Belief. The highest form of orientation, which is a system of conscious life motives that encourage you to act according to the principles and worldview. Without convictions, a person would have to learn and learn from his own experience how to act every time and again. Beliefs also help to quickly determine the correct behavior in a given situation. A set of beliefs is a set of groups of stable motives, which form the "core" of the personality orientation.

Such a sequence - from attraction to conviction - is similar to matryoshka: each next structural component contains the previous ones.

The orientation of the personality, depending on the main object of aspirations, can be of several species:

1. Personal or focus to myself. With this orientation, a person strives for self-realization, satisfaction of personal needs and achievement of his own goals.

These are purposeful, responsible, organized, relying only on their own strength, thinking and planning, and at the same time active individuals.

Such people are strong and self-confident, but from the outside it may seem that they are self-confident and selfish. Their problem is often the inability to delegate authority, ask for help and the desire for loneliness.

1. Collectivist or focus on others. The main need of people with this type of orientation is communication and contact with other individuals.

Such individuals are non-conflict, courteous, respectable, ready to help, empathize and participate, focus on others, listen to other people's opinions, and wait for approval. The collectivist orientation makes a person an excellent partner, reliable and easy to get along with people both in the team and in the family.

The problems of individuals directed at other people lie in their inability to express their own opinion, resist manipulation, and fight for personal happiness. Unfortunately, such people do not know how to plan, they are afraid of serious responsibility, they are not able to determine personal goals.

1. Business, focus on business. Activity-oriented people combine personal gain with the benefit of society.

These are self-demanding, serious, reliable, sociable, benevolent, but at the same time independent and very freedom-loving individuals. They love to learn and learn new things.

To determine the type of personal orientation, it was developed (the author of the methodology was B. Bass), since it is rather problematic to accurately determine it on your own.

There are other classifications of types of personality orientation. For example, suicidal and depressive tendencies stand out separately. This type of orientation has a pronounced negative connotation and undoubtedly needs psychological correction.

As for the three main orientations (on oneself, on others and on business), they cannot be assessed as unambiguously positive or negative. We can only say for sure that the orientation of the individual directly affects the success of any human activity and his life as a whole.

We recommend reading the classic work of B.G. Ananiev "Man as an object of knowledge"; for parents who want to successfully raise their child - A. Moiseeva's book "The Altruistic Orientation of the Personality and Its Formation in the Family"; we recommend to teachers - A.V. Zosimovsky

The orientation of the personality is a term denoting the system of human motives that consistently characterize him. This includes what he wants, what he aspires to, how the world and society understands, what he considers unacceptable, and much more. The topic of personality orientation is entertaining and multifaceted, so now its most interesting and important aspects will be considered.

Briefly about the concept

So, in fact, the orientation of the personality is its "core". Aspirations and values ​​that are so close to him that they have already become a support in life and an integral part of it.

This is a complex property. But, if you study it deeply, you can understand the motives of the behavior and goals of a particular person, and even predict how he will act in certain situations. At the same time, having observed him in life, seeing him in specific circumstances, it will be possible to approximately understand his personal orientation.

This system of motives is always socially conditioned. First, the orientation is formed in the process of education. Then, at a more conscious age, a person begins to engage in self-education. Be that as it may, the orientation of the individual is always evaluated from the point of view of morality and morality.

Attraction and desire

The orientation of the personality consists of many structural components. And first of all, I would like to pay attention to the two concepts indicated in the subtitle.

Attraction is a primitive, biological form of orientation. Its peculiarity lies in the fact that it, as a need, is not recognized. But desire is something else. This term refers to a conscious need for something very specific. Desire helps to clarify the goal and encourages action. Subsequently, the ways to achieve the result are determined.

Desires are good. It is on their basis that a person determines his goals and makes plans. And if the desires are strong, then they develop into aspiration, supported by an effort of will. This is what demonstrates the ability of a person to overcome obstacles, hardships and difficulties on the way to the goal.

It is important to make a reservation that the desire is associated with subjective feelings. If a person confidently goes to the goal, and sees the result, he experiences satisfaction and positive emotions. In the absence of success, he is overcome by negativity and pessimism.

Interest

This is not even a structural component of the orientation of the personality, but a whole cognitive form and a separate motivational state.

So, interest is the emotional orientation of a person to certain objects. They have a special sustainable significance, as they are associated with his individual needs.

Interests can be spiritual and material, versatile and limited, stable and short-term. How deep and wide they are determines the usefulness of a person's life. After all, it is with interests that his inclinations, passions and desires are connected.

You can even say that they determine the style of human life. It's easy to prove it. A person interested in business, career, making big money, various business branches and the secrets of successful entrepreneurship? This means that for him the main thing in life is success and material well-being. And he will do everything to achieve this goal, acting in accordance with his interests.

One more moment. By the breadth, significance and globality of interests, one can determine the orientation of the individual. This is studied separately in psychology.

A person who covers different aspects of life, develops himself in several directions, is interested in many industries, has an expanded view of this world. He knows a lot, can consider opportunities and problems from several angles at once, he is characterized by high erudition, developed intelligence. Such people are capable of more than others. They even have a stronger desire.

But people with small interests, as a rule, are mediocre, boring and unsuccessful. Why? Because they are not interested in anything other than satisfying their natural needs. Eating, drinking, sleeping, Friday night at the bar, home, work, sex, all over again. There is no intellectual load in their interests. They don't develop.

inclination

This concept has many synonyms. Some identify it with predisposition. Others say that an inclination is an interest with a volitional component. It is also commonly believed that this term refers to the manifestation of the motivational-need sphere. And this is considered the most correct definition in the psychology of personality orientation.

Propensity is manifested in a person's preference for some value or type of activity. It is always based on emotions, subjective feelings and sympathy.

A person may enjoy traveling. He notices that most of all in life he is waiting for the next trip somewhere. He understands that new places bring him the brightest emotions and impressions. And the opportunity to get acquainted with another culture or traditions is the greatest joy that can be imagined. And he understands that life on the road is comfortable for him. It is this existence that brings him pleasure and satisfaction.

What does it mean? That he is inclined towards such a life. A vivid example of the motivational-need sphere! And it's hard to argue with that. After all, the most important need of each of us is to experience the pleasure of life. And here everyone determines for himself what style of existence he is inclined to, focusing on his values.

A simpler example is the choice of profession. It is also influenced by the formation of personality orientation and inclination. And this is also one of the needs - to feel satisfaction from doing the business of life, to realize the benefits of one's activity, one's own professional significance.

It is good when a person understands what he is inclined to and decides to devote himself to this. And it is even better if interest in the activity first arises. It forms the desire to engage in it, and in the future a person improves the skills and abilities associated with it. By the way, often the tendency is accompanied by the development of abilities. Many musicians and artists who have shown interest in their profession since childhood are an example of this.

Worldview, belief and ideal

Considering the definition of the orientation of the personality, it is impossible not to touch upon these three important concepts.

Worldview is a conscious system of views and ideas about the world, as well as a person's attitude to himself and to what surrounds him. It gives its activity a purposeful, meaningful character. And it is the worldview that determines the principles, values, positions, ideals and beliefs of a person.

Anyone who has such a stable belief system is a mature person. Such a person has something by which he is guided in everyday life. In fact, the worldview is manifested literally in everything - from everyday life to interpersonal relationships.

What is a belief? This is a concept that is directly related to worldview. This term is understood as the highest form of personality orientation, which encourages it to act in accordance with established ideals and principles. It is worth mentioning that a person who is confident in his views, knowledge and assessments of reality also strives to convey them to other people. But! The key word here is "to convey" - he does not impose anything, because he is in harmony with himself and this world.

And finally, the ideal. This is a certain image that a person tries to follow in his behavior and activities. It is thanks to him that each of us has the opportunity to reflect and change the world in accordance with ideals. They can be both real (people from life, idols), fictional (characters from books, films) and collective. In simple terms, the ideal is the highest example of a moral person. The main thing is that it should not be illusory. Otherwise, a person, following it, will not come to what he wanted.

motives

Everyone is probably familiar with this ambiguous concept. Personality orientation motives are what governs human behavior. Often, this term refers to the factors that determine the choice made by him.

In the structure of personality orientation, motives occupy a significant place. After all, how successfully a person solves the task set by him depends largely on his motivation for a good result.

Here, too, there is a small classification. Motives can be external and internal. The first are very weak. Situation: a person at work needs to submit a project in a week. And he does it in order to be on time, otherwise there is a risk of losing the bonus and being called to a serious conversation with the boss. This is extrinsic motivation. A person does business only because it is necessary.

At the same time, his colleague, having the same task, almost spends the night at work, putting all his strength, time and soul into the project. He is interested in the matter, he acts in the name of a qualitative result. This is intrinsic motivation. It is based on desire and self-interest. It encourages a person to self-development, discoveries and new achievements.

Still, talking about the development of personality orientation, it is necessary to note such a concept as awareness. The fact is that people do not always understand why they are doing this or that business. This is sad, because in such cases, monotonous work is simply performed, devoid of meaning and meaning.

But if there is a clear understanding of why a person performs certain tasks, then efficiency increases significantly. To the same question, sounding like “Why do I go to work?” can be answered in different ways. Someone will say: “Because everyone works. Everyone needs money." And the other will answer: “I want to improve in my business, build a career, achieve new heights, receive more solid rewards and feel grateful for dedication.” And it is not even necessary to clarify in which answer there is a clear awareness.

Personal focus

Now we can talk about her. This is one of the main types of personality orientation. A person who is close to this particular option seeks to satisfy his own needs, self-realization and achieve individual goals. In simple terms, it is directed at itself.

Such people are distinguished by organization, responsibility and purposefulness. They rely only on themselves. Their life consists of constructive thoughts, thinking through various plans and achieving goals. But, at the same time, they are active, and diversify their existence all the time, because pleasure means as much to them as success and productive work.

These are the main features of the personality orientation. It is also worth mentioning that such people are often considered selfish and self-confident. But in reality, they are just focused on personal happiness. Although they often face the problem of inability to delegate authority and ask others for help. Knowing that they can decide everything on their own, many such people tend to be alone.

For people who are close to her, the main need is communication with others. They are usually distinguished by integrity and courtesy. They are not conflict, always ready to help, listen, sympathize. They are also very interactive - they are guided by others, listen to different opinions, and wait for approval.

This is a social focus. Personalities to whom it is characteristic become excellent reliable partners who easily get along with other people, both in the family and in the team.

But they often run into problems. It is difficult for them to express their opinion, resist manipulation and even fight for their happiness. They also do not know how to plan anything, are afraid to take responsibility, and have absolutely no idea how to define personal goals.

Those people who are closest to her are business-oriented. For them, the most important thing is to combine their own benefit with the good for society.

They are distinguished by seriousness and reliability, exactingness to themselves and independence, love of freedom and goodwill. They like to constantly learn something new, learn, try themselves in different fields of activity.

These people make great leaders. Their behavior reflects the predominance of motives that are associated with the achievement of the goal by the team. These people are happy to take matters into their own hands, and the result is usually impressive. They always easily substantiate their point of view, and literally lay everything out on the shelves so that each member of the team understands why these specific actions will lead to the fastest completion of the task.

Such people successfully cooperate with others and achieve maximum productivity. They not only manage to lead - they do it with pleasure.

How to find out your type?

There is a test for this. The orientation of the personality can be found out in 5-7 minutes, the passage of the questionnaire will not take more time. In total, it includes 30 items with three possible answers. These are not questions, but proposals that are proposed to be continued. It is necessary to mark two options out of three: one is “most”, and the other is “least”. Here are some examples:

• Question: "In life gives me satisfaction ...". How can I answer: most of all - the realization that the work was done successfully. Least of all - the assessment of my work. The third option, left unmarked, sounds like this: "Consciousness that you are among friends."
• Question: "I'm glad when my friends...". How can you answer: most of all - when they are faithful and reliable. Least of all - that they help outsiders when possible. The third option, left unchecked, is: "They are intelligent, have broad interests."
• Question: "If I could become one of the options, I would like to be...". How can you answer: most of all - an experienced pilot. Least of all - the head of the department. The third option, left unmarked, sounds like this: a research worker.

Also, the personality orientation test includes such questions: “When I was a child, I loved ...”, “I don’t like it when I ...”, “I don’t like teams in which ...”, etc.

Based on the results of the test, the person will know the result. It is recommended to answer without thinking, as the first answer that comes to mind usually reflects the true thoughts.

Emotional orientation of the personality

Within the framework of the topic under discussion, I would like to briefly talk about it. Emotional orientation is a characteristic of a person, manifested in its value attitude to certain experiences and striving for them. A clear classification was proposed by the scientist Boris Ignatievich Dodonov. He distinguished ten emotions:

• Altruistic. They are based on the human need to help and assist others.
• Communicative. They arise from the need for communication and, as a rule, are a reaction to the satisfaction in emotional intimacy or its absence. Does the person have a heart friend? He is happy and enjoys it. No friend? He experiences dissatisfaction and sadness.
• Gloric. The basis of these emotions is the need for success, fame and self-affirmation. A person experiences them when he is in the center of attention, or if he is admired.
• Praxic. These emotions arise when a person is engaged in some kind of activity. He worries about the success of the business, faces difficulties on the way to the result, is afraid of failure, etc.
• Pugnicheskie. The basis of these emotions is the need to overcome a danger or problem. Can be compared to passion.
• Romantic. Under these emotions is meant the desire for everything mysterious, unusual, mysterious and extraordinary.
• Gnostic. Emotions, the basis of which is the need for everything that is out of the ordinary, to find something familiar, familiar and understandable.
• Aesthetic. Emotions that arise at the moment when a person receives pleasure from something higher - art, nature, beauty.
• Hedonistic. Emotions experienced by a person in connection with the satisfaction of his needs for comfort and pleasure.
• Acisitive. The basis of these emotions is the interest shown by a person in collecting and accumulating.

In accordance with this classification, the emotional and psychological orientation of the individual is also determined. It can be altruistic, communicative, gloric, etc.

By the way, there is another concept that deserves attention. Everyone knows it as empathy. This term refers to the emotional responsiveness shown by a person in response to the experiences of someone else. Surely many of you are familiar with this. When a person perceives the experiences of another as strongly as his own. This valuable quality of orientation speaks of the high morality of the individual and the moral principles inherent in it.

The orientation of a personality is a set of stable motives, attitudes, beliefs, needs and aspirations that orient a person to certain behavior and activities, the achievement of relatively complex life goals. Orientation is always socially conditioned and is formed in ontogeny in the process of education and upbringing, acts as a personality trait, manifested in a worldview, professional orientation, in activities related to personal passion, doing something in their free time from their main activity (for example, fine art, exercise, fishing, sports, etc.). In all these types of human activity, the orientation is manifested in the peculiarities of the interests of the individual: the goals that a person sets for himself, needs, predilections and attitudes, carried out in drives, desires, inclinations, ideals, etc.:

Attraction - an insufficiently complete conscious desire to achieve

Anything. Often the basis of attraction is the biological needs of the individual;

Propensity is a manifestation of the need-motivational sphere of personality,

Expressed in the emotional preference for a particular type of activity or value;

Ideal (from the Greek idea, prototype) - an image that is the embodiment

Perfection and a model of the highest goal in the aspirations of the individual. The ideal can be the personality of a scientist, writer, athlete, politician, as well as the morphological characteristics of a particular person or traits of his personality;

Worldview - a system of views and ideas about the world, on the attitude

Man to society, nature, himself. The worldview of each person is determined by his social existence and is evaluated in a comparative comparison of the moral views and ideological views adopted in society. The combination of thinking and will, manifested in the behavior and actions of a person, leads to the transition of a worldview into beliefs:

Persuasion is the highest form of personality orientation, manifested in a conscious need to act in accordance with one's value

Orientations against the background of emotional experiences and volitional aspirations;

Installation - the readiness of the individual for a certain activity,

Updated in the current situation. It manifests itself in a stable

Predispositions to a certain perception, comprehension and behavior of the individual. The attitude expresses the position of a person, his views, value orientations in relation to various facts of everyday life, social life and professional activity. It can be positive, negative or neutral. With a positive attitude, phenomena, events and properties of objects are perceived benevolently and with confidence. When negative, these same signs are perceived distortedly, with distrust or as alien, harmful and unacceptable to a given person.

The setting mediates the influence of external influences and balances the personality with the environment, and its knowledge of the content of these influences makes it possible to predict behavior in appropriate situations with a certain degree of certainty;

Position - a stable system of human relations to certain

The sides of reality, manifested in the corresponding behavior. It includes a set of motives, needs, attitudes and attitudes that the individual is guided by in his actions. The system of factors that determine a person's specific position also includes his claims to a certain position in the social and professional hierarchy of roles and the degree of his satisfaction in this system of relations;

Goal - the desired and imagined result of a particular activity

A person or a group of people. It can be close, situational or distant, socially valuable or harmful, altruistic or selfish. A person or a group of people sets a goal based on needs, interests and opportunities to achieve it.

In goal-setting, an important role is played by information about the state of the issue, thought processes, emotional state and motives of the proposed activity. Target fulfillment consists of a system of actions aimed at achieving the expected result. Orientation is formed in ontogenesis, in the process of training and education of young people, in preparing them for life, professional and socially useful activities, serving their homeland. Here it is important that the younger generation learn that their personal and family well-being, achievements in various fields of activity and social status are interconnected with their readiness to serve their people and the state in which they live. There are three main types of personality orientation: personal, collectivistic and business.

Personal orientation - created by the predominance of motives of one's own

Welfare, the desire for personal superiority, prestige. Such a person most often happens to be busy with himself, his feelings and experiences and reacts little to the needs of the people around him: he ignores the interests of employees or the work that he must do. In work, he sees, first of all, an opportunity to satisfy his claims, regardless of the interests of other employees. Orientation to mutual actions - takes place when a person's actions are determined by the need for communication, the desire to maintain good

Relationships with colleagues at work and school. Such a person shows interest in joint activities, although he may not contribute to the successful completion of the task, often his actions even make it difficult to complete the group task, and his actual help may be minimal.

Business orientation - reflects the predominance of motives generated by the activity itself, passion for the process of activity, disinterested desire for knowledge, mastering new skills and abilities. Typically, such a person seeks cooperation and achieves the greatest productivity of the group, and therefore tries to prove a point of view that he considers useful for the task.
It has been established that persons with a focus on themselves have the following character traits:
more preoccupied with themselves and their feelings, problems
make unreasonable and hasty conclusions and assumptions about others
people also behave in discussions
trying to impose their will on the group
those around them do not feel free in their presence
Reciprocal people:
avoid direct problem solving
succumb to group pressure
do not express original ideas and it is not easy to understand what kind of person
wants to express
do not take the lead when it comes to choosing tasks
Business people:
help individual group members express their thoughts
support the group to achieve the set goal
easily and clearly express their thoughts and considerations
take the lead when it comes to task selection
do not shy away from addressing the problem directly.

Orientation of personality and its types

Experts identify three types of orientation that cover the main areas of human life, but along with them, there are other options. Let's consider both of them.

1. Personal orientation. This orientation is built on the motives of personal well-being, the desire for victory, superiority. Such a person has little interest in other people and their feelings, and all that interests him is to fulfill his needs and desires. Most often, they are characterized by such character traits as concentrating on themselves, attempts to impose their will on others, a tendency to make hasty and unjustified views about others.
2. Focus on mutual action. In this case, we are talking about a person whose actions are determined by the need for communication, the desire to maintain good relations with people. This person is interested in joint projects, relationships. Typically, this type of person avoids direct problem solving, succumbs to group pressure, refuses to express incomprehensible ideas, and does not seek leadership.
3. Business orientation. Such a person is easily carried away by the process of activity, strives for knowledge, mastering new skills. This person will definitely express his point of view if it is important for solving the problem. Usually this type of people helps others to formulate an idea, support the group, easily express their thoughts, and can lead if the solution of the problem requires it.
4. Emotional orientation of the personality. Such a person is focused on feelings and experiences, and possibly on his own, and possibly on the experiences of others. Such an orientation may correspond to the need for glory, and the need to help others, and the interest in the struggle and superiority. In addition, such people often like to solve all sorts of complex intellectual problems.
5. Social orientation of the individual. This type is inclined to serve the fatherland, the development of one science, etc., seeks to realize himself as much as possible, since this will benefit his country. Such people can be directed by the intellectual type (to discoveries, achievements), by the enterprising type (such people make excellent businessmen), etc.

Knowing what is meant by the orientation of the personality, and this simplest classification, you can easily determine the orientation of each of your acquaintances.

Features of personality orientation

There are additional aspects of orientation, each of which corresponds to any area of ​​​​life:

1. The morality of everyday behavior depends on the level of social value and the social significance of relationships for the individual.
2. The purposefulness of the individual depends on the diversity of the needs of the individual, the range of interests and the certainty of the central ones.
3. The integrity of the individual depends on the degree of stability of relationships, as well as consistency and adherence to principles.

Such features additionally characterize the general orientation of the personality and give certain character traits.

Orientation of personality and motivation of activity

In domestic psychology, many authors considered the orientation of the personality through the concept of activity motivation. At the same time, different authors understand the orientation of the personality in different ways:
- "dynamic tendency" by S. L. Rubinshtein,
- "meaning-forming motive" by A. N. Leontiev,
- "dominant attitude" in V. N. Myasishchev
- "the main life orientation" of B. G. Ananiev,
- "dynamic organization of the essential forces of man" by A. S. Prangishvili.
Nevertheless, all authors see in directionality one or another set of stable motives that guide the activity of the individual and are relatively independent of the current situation.

Forms of personality orientation

The orientation of the individual is always socially conditioned and is formed in the process of education. The orientation is greatly influenced by attitudes that have become personality traits and manifested in such forms as:

At the heart of all forms of personality orientation are the motives of activity.

attraction

Attraction is the most primitive and - in its essence - a biological form of orientation. From a psychological point of view, attraction is a mental state that expresses an undifferentiated, unconscious or insufficiently conscious need. Ordinarily, attraction is a transient phenomenon, as the need represented in it either fades away or is realized, turning into desire.

A wish

Desire is a conscious need and desire for something quite definite. Desire, being sufficiently conscious, has a driving force. It clarifies the goals of future action and the construction of a plan for this action.
Desire as a form of orientation is characterized by awareness not only of one's need, but also of possible ways to satisfy it.

Pursuit

Striving is desire backed by will. Striving is a well-defined motivation for activity.

Interest

Interest is a specific form of manifestation of a person's cognitive need. Interest ensures the focus of the individual on understanding the meaning and goals of the activity, thereby contributing to the orientation of the individual in the surrounding reality. The presence of interest largely explains the presence of a special ability in a person - the mind.
Subjectively, interest is found in the emotional tone that accompanies the process of cognition or attention to a particular object. One of the most essential characteristics of interest is that when it is satisfied, it does not fade away. As a rule, interest develops, evolves, generates new interests corresponding to a higher level of cognitive activity.
Interest is the most important motivating force to the knowledge of the surrounding reality. Distinguish:
- direct interest caused by the visual appeal of the object,
- mediated interest in the object as a means of achieving the goals of the activity.
Stability, breadth, content of interests is the most important personality trait, one of the cornerstones of a person's personality. Having said about the interests of a person, we thereby draw a fairly accurate psychological portrait of him.

inclination

In dynamics, interest breeds inclination. Interest is a relatively passive contemplation of an object of interest, propensity is an active contemplation, the desire to connect one's activity and one's life with this object.
In many ways, interest develops into a propensity due to the inclusion of a volitional component. Propensity - the orientation of the individual to a particular activity. The basis of propensity is a deep, stable need of an individual for a particular activity.
In a sense, we can say that the propensity is interest in activities.
Interest and inclinations are a factor in the rapid development of an individual's abilities.

Ideal

The ideal is the objective goal of the inclination of the individual, concretized in the image or representation. The ideal is what a person strives for, what he focuses on in the long term. Ideals are the basis, the "bricks" of a person's worldview. A person judges other people by his own ideals.
The ideal is one of the arguments in the function of a person's self-esteem.

outlook

Worldview - a model (picture) of the world. If, for example, interests, inclinations, or ideals may not be connected with each other, then the most important feature of a worldview is its integrity. A holistic worldview allows a person to live "smoothly": moving, for example, to a new area, he knows that the same laws of physics or chemistry will operate there, people in this area may differ slightly, but they will still be people (they talk, have physiological needs, etc.). A holistic worldview allows us to consider the world as a complex system of cause-and-effect relationships.
A worldview allows a person to plan his activities for many years ahead: he knows that a lot can change over the years, but the basic laws by which the world exists will remain unshakable.

Belief

Belief - a system of motives of the individual, prompting her to act in accordance with her views, principles, worldview. Beliefs are based on conscious needs that encourage a person to act, form her motivation for activity.

Characteristics of the motivational sphere

Motive - an incentive to activity associated with the satisfaction of the needs of the subject. Motive - the reason underlying the choice of actions and deeds, a set of external and internal conditions that cause the activity of the subject.
The motive is the fundamental "brick" of such a complex process as motivation. Motivation is the designation of a system of factors that determine behavior:
- needs,
- motives,
- goals,
- intentions
- aspirations, etc.
Motivation is also a characteristic of the process that stimulates and maintains behavioral activity at a certain level. Motivation is usually considered as a set of psychological causes that explain human behavior, its beginning, direction and activity.

The influence of orientation on the motivation of activity

Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation

Internal (dispositional) and external (situational) motivation are interconnected. Dispositions can be updated under the influence of a certain situation, and the activation of certain dispositions (motives, needs) leads to a change in the subject's perception of the situation. Attention becomes selective, and the subject perceives and evaluates the situation in a biased way, based on current interests and needs.
Depending on the inclinations of a person, his worldview and other forms of orientation, he may be either more prone to internal motivation or external.

Awareness-unawareness of motives

A motive, in contrast to motivation, is something that belongs to the subject of behavior itself, is its stable personal property, which induces certain actions from within. Motives can be:
- conscious
- unconscious.
People with developed ideals, worldview, adequate beliefs, as a rule, are driven by conscious motives in their actions. The complexity of the inner world, the abundance of psychological defenses can lead to the fact that the main drivers will be unconscious motives.

Quantity and quality of needs, interests, inclinations

Plants that need only certain biochemical and physical conditions of existence have the least needs. A person has the most diverse needs, who, in addition to physical and organic needs, also has spiritual, social ones.
Social needs:
- human desire to live in society,
- the desire to interact with other people,
- the desire to benefit people, to participate in the division of labor,
- the desire to understand other people and social processes.
The more qualitatively different needs a person has, interests, inclinations, the more versatile and flexible his activity. A purely human quality is the ability to combine several different interests in one's activity at once.

Ability to set a goal

The goal is where the activity begins. The more versatile a person is, the more developed he is as a person, the more accurate and original he manages to set his goals.
The presence of bright ideals can encourage a person to set complex, far-reaching goals.
The goal is the main object of attention, which occupies a certain amount of short-term and operative memory; it is connected with the thought process unfolding at a given moment in time and most of all possible emotional experiences.

Having an ideal of achievement

If a person has an ideal of achievement, he will develop motivation to achieve results, he will love to set goals, will strive to achieve his goals, will learn from his own and others' mistakes.

Having an ideal of courage

A brave person, or at least one striving to be courageous, is not afraid of difficulties; The structure of the activity of a brave person is very different from the structure of the activity of a timid one: the first one usually looks forward, the second - back and to the sides. The first is not prone to self-justification, self-deception. The second one is constantly looking for reasons to shirk, prone to hypochondria and self-reflection.

Flexibility

Different aspects of a person's orientation (interests, inclinations, etc.) affect the flexibility of activity. For example one person inclined to bring everything to an ideal end (perfectionist), and therefore his work lacks flexibility.

Confidence

The feeling of confidence in the performance of activities is born from the clarity of the goal, the absence of doubt. The latter are taken from the insufficient hierarchization of a person's interests and inclinations, the lack of subordination between them, and the presence of many contradictions.

"Motivation and Direction"

1. INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………… p.3

2. CHAPTER 1

Motive. The structure of the motive…………………………………………………p.4

Motives and needs……………………………………………………..p.8

Motive and purpose…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… .........................p.18

Classification of motives…………………………………………………...p.19

Methods for the study of motives…………………………………………… p.21

3. CHAPTER 2

Achievement motivation…………………………………………………….p.22

Motivational sphere is the core of orientation…………………………..p.25

Orientation as a backbone property of a personality………..p.27

4. CONCLUSION………………………………………………………………p.29

5. REFERENCES…………………………………………………..p.30

INTRODUCTION

“Humanity is on the verge of colossal changes on a planetary scale.

The next century will show whether we can be reborn as a community of peoples cooperating among themselves, or disunity will bring us to a chaos of destruction that turns our Earth into a lifeless garbage dump.

At the same time, the choice of the path we will follow does not lie with the government, science, or economic interests, but with the individual, with his desire for personal transformation. It is man who will influence government decisions, science and business relationships, make them develop for the benefit of achieving universal happiness on our planet ... "

Jose Stevens (American psychologist, 1995)

Throughout its history, man has constantly evolved and strived for something. First, to satisfy their basic needs in order to survive - food, housing, protection from predators and the struggle with their own kind for territory.

Over time, these needs have lost their acuteness, and today we do not make as much effort as our ancestors did to survive. We also need food, shelter, there are still individuals who seek to conquer foreign territory. But other needs appeared that we need for life, or rather, the needs moved to some other level, turning into values, i.e. what a person lives for.

The actions that we perform are aimed at achieving these values, the significance of which is determined by the totality of socially significant properties, functions of an object or idea that make them a value in society. Value has a dual nature and can be both material and spiritual, and also has a double meaning. According to Yu.A. Sherkovin, social values, firstly, are the basis for the formation and preservation of attitudes in the minds of people that help the individual to take a certain position, express a point of view, and give an assessment. Thus, they become part of consciousness. Secondly, values ​​act in a transformed form as motives for activity and behavior, since a person's orientation in the world and the desire to achieve certain goals inevitably correlates with the values ​​included in the personal structure.

Depending on the specific situation, the choice of relevant social attitudes as goals and motives of activity is carried out.Why does a person behave this way and not otherwise?“The difficulty here lies in the fact that the systemic nature of the mental is most clearly manifested in motives and goals; they act as integral forms of mental reflection. Where do the motives and goals of individual activity come from and how do they arise? What are they? The development of these questions is of great importance not only for the development of the theory of psychology, but also for the solution of many practical problems.(B.F. Lomov).

CHAPTER 1

MOTIVE. STRUCTURE OF MOTIVE.

“We do not dare to do much, not because it is difficult; it is difficult precisely because we do not dare it.”

Seneca the Elder (5th century BC)

What prompts us to any action, which helps to overcome the barrier invisible to anyone but us and achieve the goal, satisfy our need.When looking for an answer to the question: "what are motives?", It must be remembered that this is also the answer to the questions: "why?", "for what?", "why?". Most often it happens that what is taken as a motive contributes to the answer to only one or two of the listed questions, but never to all.

Let's turn to dictionaries. motive (lat.moveo - move, set in motion), in the broadest sense of the word, is the main psychological or figurative grain that underlies every work of art (as they say, for example, about the “love motives” of Tyutchev’s lyrics, “star motives "Fet's poetry, etc.).Another definition - a recurring component of a folklore or literary work that has increased significance. The term came to literary criticism from musical culture, where it denotes a group of several notes, rhythmically designed. In relation to literature, it was first used by I.V. Goethe.

motive (eng. incentive) - 1) a material or ideal "object" that induces and directs an activity or act on itself, the meaning of which is that with the help of M. certain needs of the subject are satisfied;

2) the mental image of the given object.
In English literature (see, for example, Webster's Dictionary), a broader interpretation of M. (motive) is accepted: something inside the subject (need, idea, organic state or emotion) that prompts him to act. Therefore, in order to avoid semantic errors, the word motive should be translated as “motivation”, “state of motivation”, “aspiration”, “impulse”, “motivation” (and sometimes as “motivation”).

As can be seen from the very interpretation of the word motive, this is, first of all, some kind of impulse that prompts us to act.
It is often assumed that in humans and animals there may be states of motivation (attraction) without experiencing and understanding the motive. This can mean 2 situations: 1) a situation of "unobjectified" need; 2) the situation of unconscious motive. The 1st situation arises in the absence of a past (individual or instinctive-species) experience of satisfying an experienced need; only in proportion to the acquisition of such experience and the formation of appropriate knowledge, the individual forms ideas about objects that can satisfy one or another need. The 2nd situation, on the one hand, is a general case for animals whose activity is unconscious and involuntary; on the other hand, and a person is not always able to clearly realize the true motivating factors of his behavior and activities.

A. N. Leontiev most deeply and consistently revealed the relationship in the fundamental psychological triad “need-M.-activity”. Actual needs act as the source of the motive power of M. and the corresponding motivation for activity. M. is defined as an object that meets the needs, and therefore encourages and directs activity. Activity always has M. (“unmotivated” activity - one whose M. is hidden from the subject himself and / or an external observer). However, between M. and need, between M. and activity, as well as between need and activity, there are no relations of strict unambiguity. In other words, one and the same object can serve to satisfy various needs, stimulate and direct various activities, etc.

Often, an activity has several M. at once (that is, it is polymotivated); in the same way, it can be motivated by several needs at the same time. Such motivational complexes have their own dynamics, which may be accompanied by a short-term or, on the contrary, protracted, barely noticeable or very dramatic struggle of M. But the final decision “what and how to do?” accepts, as a rule, a conscious subject on the basis of the internal system of values ​​(value orientations). At the same time, as Leontiev subtly noted, in a situation of polymotivation, one of the M. becomes the main, leading, and others - subordinates, playing the role of additional stimulation. The whole motive complex, as a rule, is not realized, but it is directly manifested in the emotional coloring of certain objects or phenomena, that is, in the form of a complex emotional reflection of their subjective value and in the form of the general emotional mood of the subject.

The formation of the leading M. leads to the fact that in addition to the functions of motivation and direction of activity, a special meaning-forming function arises for him: he gives activity, actions, goals, conditions of activity a certain personal meaning - a conscious internal justification of activity. The latter, however, can be very different from the manifested personal meaning called motivation. At the same time, a mature personality has a significant resource of arbitrary and reasonable management of his own M. (hence, meanings), which for the most part are ideational, intelligible formations (as well as the corresponding needs). For example, beliefs, which are a system of personality motives that encourage her to act in accordance with her views, principles, worldview. Beliefs are based on conscious needs that encourage a person to act, form her motivation for activity.

The personality is able not only to be aware of the spontaneously and spontaneously formed leading M., retrospectively solving the so-called. “tasks for meaning” (Leontiev), but also to form leading M. in the context of a particular situation and activity, giving the situation and activity a certain meaning based on one’s own understanding of the relevance and significance of needs.

From the aforementioned polymotivation, it is necessary to distinguish polymotivation in a different sense. It is well known that "the same" behavior can be motivated by extremely different motivations (and motive complexes): in the same individual, especially in different ones. Understanding behavior is an extremely difficult interpretive task, because “a person is a multi-level coordinate system with a variable dominant” (M. Weller). This system includes: material and energy, biological, activity-economic, socio-political, rational and spiritual. And what is clearly contrary to the interests of man in one coordinate system may be indifferent in the other three and useful in the other two. It is extraordinarily naive to look for the only and correct solution exclusively in the coordinate system of the mind. Or spirit. Or labor. Or anything else. But if a strong dominant appears in one of the aspects, it subjugates others to itself cruelly and unconditionally. Then in everyday life they talk about purposefulness, or self-restraint, or sacrifice. The total activity of all this determines the objective and subjective motivation of all human activity as such. (M. Weller).

Indeed, a variety of psychological phenomena were named as motives. These are intentions, ideas, ideas, feelings, experiences (L. I. Bozhovich). Needs, desires, urges, inclinations

(X. Heckhausen). Desires, desires, habits, thoughts, sense of duty (P. A. Rudik). Moral and political attitudes and thoughts (G. A. Kovalev). Mental processes, states and personality traits (K. K. Platonov). Objects of the outside world (A. N. Leontiev). Installations (A. Maslow). Conditions of existence (K. Vilyunas). The motives on which the purposeful nature of actions depends (V. S. Merlin). The consideration on which the subject must act (F. Godefroy). In fact, such a variety of views should not be surprising, if we agree that human behavior itself is very diverse.

Nevertheless, most psychologists agree that most often a motive is either an incentive, or a goal (object), or an intention, or a need, or a property of a person, or her state.

The boundaries of the motive are, on the one hand, the need, and on the other hand, the intention to do something, including the motivation to do so. This means that the structure of the motive does not include stimuli, and at the same time, it does not get into the structure of the performing action, although this happens with some authors. The motive can only belong to the strategy of activity, and the tactics of obtaining the desired result is formed after the formation of the intention by other psychophysiological structures and mechanisms responsible for the execution of the accepted intention.Otherwise, the motive turns into an arbitrary action, and the need for this concept disappears.

Establishing the boundaries of the motive and considering the stages of its formation make it possible to identify those psychological components that may be included in the structure of the motive. These components, in accordance with the stages of formation of the motive, can be attributed to three blocks: need, "internal filter" and target.

List of components that can create the structure of different motifs The lines indicate the motifs: motif A - solid, motif B - dotted, motif C - dash-dotted).

The need block includes the following components: biological and social needs, awareness of the need, obligation (“quasi-needs” according to K. Levin); in the "internal filter" block - moral control, assessment of the external situation, assessment of one's capabilities (knowledge, skills, qualities), preferences (interests, inclinations, level of claims); in the target block - an image of an object that can satisfy a need, an objectified action (pour water, solve a problem), a need goal (satisfy thirst, hunger, etc.), a representation of the process of satisfying a need (drink, eat, move, etc.) . All these components of the motive can manifest themselves in the mind of a person.

in verbalized or figurative form, and not all at once. In each specific case, in each block, one of the components can be taken as the basis for an action or act (a decision being made). The structure of each specific motive (that is, the basis of action) is built from a combination of those components that determined the decision made by a person. Thus, the components, like building blocks, make it possible to create a building called a motif. The image of this “building” is laid down by a person in memory and is stored not only at the moment of performing an action or activity, but also after their completion. Therefore, the motive can also be judged retrospectively (but not only retrospectively, as Yu. M. Zabrodin and B. A. Sosnovsky, 1989, argue).

The set of components in each specific motive may be different. But the similarity of the external structure of the motive in two persons (the identity of the components included in the motives) does not mean their identity in terms of semantic content. After all, each person has his own inclinations, values, interests, his own assessment of the situation and opportunities, specific dominance of needs, etc.

Ideally, the motive should give answers to the questions: why, for what, why exactly, what is the meaning. In some cases, it is desirable to get an answer to the question: for whom, for whom? After all, the activities and actions of a person can have both personal and social meaning.

But a motive can also have a vertical structure. After all, the composition of the motive can include two or three components from one block, one of which plays the main role, and the rest - an accompanying, subordinate one. For example, among several needs that simultaneously encourage the choice of the same goal (getting higher education), the leading one may be the desire to become a teacher, and the accompanying ones may be the desire to improve one's status in society, to raise one's cultural level. The same relationships between components can be formed both in the "internal filter" block and in the target block. As O. K. Tikhomirov (1977) notes, in real activity a certain set of goals is formed, between which hierarchical and temporal relationships (parallel and successive goals) are formed. Thus, the structure of a motive as the basis of an action or deed is multicomponent, several reasons and purposes are reflected.

NEEDS AND MOTIVES

“Is it not clear to everyone that our nature requires only one thing - that the body does not feel suffering and that we can enjoy reflections and pleasant sensations without fear and anxiety?”

Lucretius (1st century BC)

Democritus considered need (need) as the main driving force, which not only set in motion emotional experiences, but made the human mind sophisticated, made it possible to acquire language, speech and the habit of work. Without needs, man could not get out of the wild state.

Heraclitus considered in detail the motive forces, drives, needs. In his opinion, needs are determined by the conditions of life, so pigs rejoice in mud, donkeys prefer straw to gold, birds bathe in dust and ashes, etc. Speaking about the connection between motive forces and reason, Heraclitus noted that every desire is bought at the price of "psyche", therefore, the abuse of lust leads to its weakening. At the same time, moderation in meeting needs contributes to the development and improvement of human intellectual abilities.

Aristotle made a significant step forward in explaining the mechanisms of human behavior. He believed that aspirations are always associated with a goal in which an object is presented in the form of an image or thought that has a useful or harmful value for the organism. On the other hand, aspirations are determined by needs and the feelings of pleasure and displeasure associated with them, the function of which is to report and evaluate the suitability or unsuitability of a given object for the life of an organism. Thus, any volitional movement and emotional state that determine the activity of a person have natural

grounds.

Through motives, which are real or imaginary objects with which the well-being of the organism is connected, needs actuate our mind, feelings and will and direct them to take certain measures to maintain the existence of the organism. Man's needs are uninterrupted, and this circumstance is the source of his constant activity.The goals of human actions and the processes of their formation have a biological background.However, external similarities in behaviorshould not obscure the essential differences in the conditioning of behavior in humans and animals. They are visible, for example, when considering the needs of animals and humans. Not only social needs that are absent in animals, but also biological needs are not the same in both.That is, by consuming food, a person not only satisfies hunger, but enjoys, including aesthetic, from the very atmosphere of eating. Conditioned reflexes, instincts “think” for the animal, and the direction and expediency of the response are determined by the goal reflexively. True, some features of the behavior of highly developed animals make us think about the beginnings of arbitrariness, and not reduce their behavior only to instincts and conditioned reflexes.. In higher animals, a “struggle of motives” is also possible, for example, the need for food with the instinct of self-defense (the animal wants to grab food, but is afraid). Finally, they also show willpower: they insistently demand from the owner the food that he eats (beat him with a paw), or do not urinate while at home or in transport (at the same time, like people, they experience painful sensations).

Thus, the behavior of animals can be not only expedient. But to a certain extent reasonable, arbitrary. And if we raise the question of whether we can talk about the motivation of animal behavior, then the answer should be given as follows: this behavior is motivated to the extent that it is arbitrary. Such a position means the recognition of the evolutionary development of motivation as an arbitrary way to control behavior.

As an independent scientific problem, the question of needs began to be discussed in psychology relatively recently, in the first quarter of the 20th century. At the same time, the need as an experience of need was considered among various emotional manifestations, and sometimes even as instincts.Since then, many different points of view on its essence have appeared - from purely biological to socio-economic and philosophical. The similarity among most psychologists is observed only in the fact that almost everyone recognizes the function of inducing activity (behavior, activity) of a person as a need.

Need is most often understood as a deficiency, a lack of something in the body, and it is in this sense that it is taken as a need. D. N. Uznadze (1966, 1969), for example, writes that the concept of “need” refers to everything that is necessary for the body, but which it does not currently possess. With this understanding, the existence of a need is recognized not only in humans and animals, but also in plants.Undoubtedly, in a person, need and need are closely related to each other. But this does not mean that they are identical. KK Platonov (1986) notes that the relationship between human need and need is the relationship between what is reflected and what is reflected. But the need also appears in relation to psychological stimuli that arise spontaneously, without a previous experience of scarcity, but because of the seductiveness of the object that has appeared. The child has a passionate desire to receive a toy seen in a shop window, although before that he had not thought about any toys. Yes, and he wants candy not because of a deficiency of glucose in the body, but because he remembers a pleasant sweetness when he sees it.

The elimination of deficiency leads to stress relief, restoration of homeostasis, balance and self-defense, i.e. to self-preservation. But there is, notes

A. Maslow, and the need for development, self-improvement. This is the second group of needs associated with self-actualization, which he understands as the continuous realization of potential opportunities, abilities, as the fulfillment of his mission, vocation, as a more complete knowledge. Children, he notes, enjoy their development and movement forward, from acquiring new skills. And this directly contradicts the theory of 3. Freud, according to which every child desperately craves to adapt and achieve a state of peace or balance. According to the latter, the child, as an inactive and conservative being, should be constantly driven forward, pushing him out of his preferred comfortable state of rest into a new frightening situation. Due to the need for development, nothing of the kind is observed.

At the same time, A. Maslow notes thatthe development of a personality develops depending on what it is “fixated” on: on the “liquidation of the deficit” or on self-actualization.

Many psychologists take the subject of its satisfaction as a need. For some, the need appears in several qualities at once: as an activity and as a tension, as a state and as a property of the personality.Looking at the need as an object leads to the fact that it is objects that are considered as a means of developing needs. A child, for example, after playing with a toy, throws it away and takes another, not because he has lost the need to play, but because he is tired of satisfying this need with the help of the same object. At the same time, he does not have a “need” for a specific new toy; he will take any that comes his way. On the other hand, even if there are interesting books in the home library, many children do not have a desire to read them, they do not develop a love for reading. Young children sometimes have to be persuaded to try an unfamiliar fruit. All this indicates that the development of the human need sphere is not carried out according to the “stimulus-reaction” type (object-need) due to the presentation of new objects to him. This does not lead to the desire to have them precisely because a person does not have a need corresponding to these objects. Therefore, the needs of babies are initially not related to objects. They express the presence of a need by general anxiety, crying. Over time, children will recognize those items that help get rid of discomfort or enjoy. Gradually, a conditioned reflex connection is formed and consolidated between the need and the object of its satisfaction, its image.

The sequence of appearance of needs in ontogeny - from the bottom up(according to A. Maslow)

IN about many stereotyped situations, after the appearance of a need and its awareness in a person, images of objects that previously satisfied this need, and at the same time the actions necessary for this, immediately emerge, through the mechanism of association. The child does not say that he has a feeling of hunger, thirst, but says: “I want to eat”, “I want to drink”, “I want a bun”, etc., thus denoting the need that has arisen.However, in a number of cases, even in adults, there may be no associative connection between a need and the object of its satisfaction. This happens, for example, when a person finds himself in an uncertain situation or feels that he is missing something (but does not understand what it is), or incorrectly represents the subject of need. For example, a student is nervous before an exam and actively visits the refrigerator during preparation, but at the same time does not directly satisfy the need to drown out hunger.

K. Marx wrote that need is an internal necessity. Therefore, a need can reflect not only an external objective necessity, but also an internal, subjective one. In order for a necessity to reflect a need, it must become relevant for the subject at the moment, turn

In need, so that a person wants what he needs. But in this case, the relationship between necessity and need may be different, not always coinciding. It happens in life that we do not always want what we need, and at the same time we can do something without feeling the need (for example, eat “in reserve”, knowing that then such an opportunity will not present itself for a long time; it’s like would satisfy foreseen n need, which should appear in the future, and in fact - the prevention of its occurrence). In Pushkin's time it was fashionable to sniff tobacco. The need was for the pleasure of sneezing, and the need was for tobacco. Thus, necessity (its awareness) can be one of the drivers of human activity, not being a need in the proper sense of the word, but reflecting either an obligation, a sense of duty, or a preventive expediency, or a need.At the same time, neither the need nor the reflection of the need in the human mind expresses the essence of the need as a source of human activity, but contains a rational grain - a designation of the tendency for the interaction of humans and animals with the outside world. It is impossible to consider the need only as a "request" of the body and personality to the objective world and emphasize only the "passive" nature of the experience of neediness. Need is also a demand from oneself for a certain productive activity (creation); the organism and personality are active not only because they need to consume something, but also because they need to produce something.

The mismatch that arises between a person and the surrounding world (objects, values) (i.e., the lack of what a person needs at a given moment) should be calledneed situation,which may not be reflected by a person as a person, not be realized. Therefore, the need situation is only the basis, the condition for the emergence of the need of the individual. Mathematically, this can be represented as follows:

necessary + cash = D (mismatch).

A need situation can be detected (realized and comprehended) both by the subject himself and by other people (for example, a doctor who knows what the patient needs, parents who know what the child needs, etc.). In this case, the significance of eliminating the detected mismatch is assessed. If this elimination is significant only for another person, the matter may be limited to council (doctor, teacher, parent), how to eliminate the resulting mismatch; if this discrepancy is assessed as personally significant, then it causes an incentive to take action to eliminate it.

Philosophy considers the needs not only of the individual and the individual, but also of society (economic, social, etc.); these needs act as the interests of society, classes, social groups, etc.For example, the need for labor arises as a result of the realization of social necessity, the importance of the work of each person for society, the state. The need for social development becomes a personal need. This "appropriation" occurs through a person's understanding of his need-to-know relations with society and the outside world, his dependence on them, and the simultaneous awareness of his role as a creator, a reformer, contributing to the development of society.

From this point of view, “appropriation of the needs of society” is nothing more than raising a person’s sense of duty, obligations to others, shaping his understanding of the need to reproduce the conditions of existence not only for himself, but also for others, for society as a whole. Society's requirements for each of its members act as motivational tasks; after acceptance by a person, they become long-term motivational attitudes, which in certain situations are updated and turn into motives for behavior and activity.

Speaking about the need of the individual as a state, it is important to keep in mind its two sides, acting in unity - physiological (biological) and psychological. On the physiological side, the need is a reaction of the body and personality to the impact, as internal stimuli,and external (both pleasant and unpleasant; threatening). At the same time, the need state experienced by a person “here and now” is not always perceived as uncomfortable, but can also be positively emotionally colored, experienced as pleasure, as an anticipation of something pleasant.For a baby, for example, a mother is not just a person, but an object that causes an emotionally rich experience. As soon as a child sees his mother, he immediately wants to be in her arms, so that she comforts him, feeds him, caresses him; Mom comes - he laughs, leaves - cries. The child also experiences at the sight of toys, objects, occupation with which cause him pleasure; the desire to play with them causes positive emotions, joy.

The need state is related to:

With the excitation of certain sensitive centers that respond to the impact of a particular stimulus.

With the excitation of the centers of emotions - for example, pleasure or displeasure, since emotions can be experienced about the impact of stimuli of different modalities.

With excitation, as well as tension, reflecting the emergence of a temporary dominant focus and requiring its resolution, nonspecific excitation systems - the reticular formation and the hypothalamus - can take part in this.

If the need is not satisfied for a long time, then the tension can develop into mental tension.

types of human needs

	biological aspect:
	instinct for self-preservation, activates the need for food	Search for food
Hunger	psychological aspect:
	desire to eat,
	food presentation, motivate food apperception

Biological and psychological components of need

FROM over the years, a person develops a need (habit) for a certain way of satisfying primary biological needs.This may be, for example, the habit of a certain table setting, certain clothes, etc. At the same time, the aesthetic side of consumption is added to the primary needs, which over time can become an independent aesthetic need (I. A. Dzhidaryan, 1976). Using musical terminology, we can say that in these cases, with the help of secondary needs, an arrangement of primary ones takes place. But just as in music an arrangement cannot replace a melody, but only decorates it, so secondary needs cannot replace primary ones, but only give them an aesthetic appearance. It often seems that many secondary needs come only "from the mind", from knowing what it is necessary to have or do in order to achieve a given goal. Such needs are not associated with sensations and, in comparison with the basic need, can be experienced with less stress or without it at all. In reality, they only “serve” primary (basic) needs. For example; the need for some tools arises from a person's needs to achieve a goal and avoid failure, and these needs may be based on other basic needs. Aesthetic needs are based on primary needs: for pleasure, for novelty, for knowledge. Therefore, it can be assumed that secondary needs do not replace the primary (basic) ones, but together with them stimulate human activity (although this may not be obvious even for the subject of the action himself, since only the last of the Chain of Needs, directly related to with an incentive to achieve a goal, to obtain a result). So, the need for a beautiful table setting does not matter in the absence of a need for food, the need for a beautiful dress - without the need for aesthetic pleasure or satisfaction of pride, etc. It is the connection of secondary needs with primary ones that makes it possible to agree with the opinion of A. Pieron that the motivation of even complex forms of human activity can in principle be reduced to primary mental or psychophysiological causes.

If we follow the path of development of a particular social need, it turns out that in many cases it is only a social form of reflection of the basic biological need, which is, in relation to many social needs formed on its basis, a non-specific general need. This process of generating more and more new social needs is akin to the branching of a large full-flowing river in the delta into separate branches. These rivers may have different names, but they have the same source.In turn, the need, for example, for entertainment leads to the need to read literature, visit the theater, cinema, etc. Secondary needs can arise on the basis of two or three basic needs, combine with each other into a tertiary need, resulting in a motivational In the sphere of personality, a complex system of “known” needs is formed, which become preferences.

There are various classifications of human needs, which are built both according to the dependence of the organism (or personality) on some objects, and according to the needs that it experiences. A. N. Leontiev in 1956 accordingly divided needs into substantive and functional ones.

It has already been said above that needs are divided into primary (basic, innate) and secondary (social, acquired). A. Pieron proposed to distinguish 20 types of fundamental physiological and psychophysiological needs that create the basis for any motivated behavior of animals and humans: hedonic, exploratory attention, novelty, search for communication and mutual assistance, competitive urges, etc.

In domestic psychology, needs are most often divided into material (the need for food, clothing, housing), spiritual (the need for knowledge of the environment and oneself, the need for creativity, aesthetic pleasures, etc.) and social (the need for communication, labor, social activities, recognition by other people, etc.).

Material needs are called primary, they are the basis of human life. These needs were formed in the process of phylogenetic socio-historical development of man and constitute his generic properties. The whole history of the struggle of people with nature was, first of all, a struggle for the satisfaction of material needs.

Spiritual and social needs reflect the social nature of man, his socialization. It should be noted, however, that material needs are also a product of human socialization. Even the human need for food has a socialized appearance: after all, a person does not eat raw food, like animals, but as a result of a complex process of its preparation.

Psychologists also talk about the need for conservation and development, deficit (growth); about the need to be different from others, the only one, irreplaceable (that is, about the need associated with the formation and preservation of one's own "I"); about the need for avoidance; about the need for new experiences; about primary and basal needs, on the one hand, and about secondary needs, on the other. There is also a group of neurotic needs, the dissatisfaction of which can lead to neurotic disorders: in sympathy and approval, in power and prestige, in possession and dependence, in information, in fame and justice.

Needs are characterized by modality (what exactly the need arises), strength (degree of need tension), sharpness. The last characteristic is understood as subjective perception and subjective assessment of the degree of dissatisfaction of the need (or the completeness of its satisfaction).According to the temporal characteristic, the needs are divided into short-term, stable and recurring. It is also known, that different subjects have different needs. For biological needs, the types of physique, temperament, constitution are significant, which are ultimately associated with the intensity of metabolic processes in the body.In the studies of N. P. Fetiskin (1979) and E. A. Sidorov (1983), the relationship between the need for physical activity from typological features of the nervous system: in individuals with a strong nervous system and a predominance of excitation according to the “internal” balance, the need for motor activity is greater than in individuals

with opposite typological features, i.e., with a weak nervous system and a predominance of inhibition.Lack of food and water is worse for men. No wonder they say that the way to a man's heart is through his stomach. In men, the need for a sense of risk, rivalry, respect, and power is more often manifested. Women have a more pronounced need for communication, caring for others.

In many works, the need is considered asmotivator of actions, activities, behavior of a person. The mistaking of a need for a motive occurs primarily because it explains to a large extent why a person wants to be active.Taking a need as a stimulus leads to two consequences: 1) as soon as the subject enters a state of need tension (drive, need), the activity of the organism begins with the release and expenditure of energy; 2) the higher the tension of the need, the more intense the impulse. Therefore, in the case when conditions do not allow satisfying the need, the energy must increase and manifest itself in the ever-increasing "non-purposeful", "spontaneous", "general" activity of the subject. It was this idea of ​​the determination of activity that dominated experimental psychology for several years.decades and is retained by many authors today.In a number of later works, either stability or a decrease in activity in monkeys and rats when they were deprived of food and an increase in activity only in response to an external situation were recorded. Then it was shown that not only does the “general” activity of animals decrease, but its structure changes, in connection with which J. Nutten (1975) expressed the opinion that activity is probably never “general”, “undirected”.Thus, from the foregoing, it follows that the organic need (need), namely, it was discussed all the time, does not lead directly to activity to eliminate the need, but only creates increased sensitivity to the effects of external stimuli corresponding to it.

The postulation of a procedural need at the “mental level”, for example, “need for competence” (E. Desi), motivating gaming, research and cognitive activities. So, from the position of this need, it is difficult to explain why in each separate period of time a person does not want to be competent in everything, that his need “prefers” a certain range of things and strangely does not affect thousands of others, and in the next period of time it passes to another, also a limited range of things. Thus, the “need for competence” does not help to explain either preferences or their shifts, and therefore to predict what, how and when the subject will do.So, according to T. N. Lebedeva (1971), if on some days the physical activity of schoolchildren was reduced, in the following days they increased their activity in excess of the norm, thus compensating for its deficiency.

Another thing is that the increase in demand voltage does not always lead to an increase in activity that ensures the complete discharge of this voltage; there may not be a directly proportional relationship between the growth of demand tension and external activity. But this does not at all lead to the conclusion that the need is devoid of an incentive function (that a person does nothing toeliminate the feeling of hunger does not mean that he does not have the urge to eat).

The relationship between needs and motives, based on the points of view expressed in the psychological literature, can be systematized as follows:

1) distant and indirect relations are possible between need and motive;

2) the need gives impetus to the emergence of a motive;

3) the need is transformed into a motive after objectification, that is, after finding an object that can satisfy it;

4) need is part of the motive (V. A: Ivannikov, for example, believes that if the impulse is taken as a motive, then part of this impulse is a need);

5) the need is the motive (L. I. Bozhovich, A. G. Kovalev, K. K. Platonov,

S. L. Rubinstein and many others).

But to identify the motive with the need does not allow a number of circumstances. Firstly, the need does not fully explain the reason for a particular action or deed, why it is done one way or another, because the same need can be satisfied by different means and ways. Secondly, the motive-need is separated from the ideal (human-imagined) goal, so it is not clear why the motive has purposefulness. And, N. Leontiev writes about this that subjective experiences, desires, desires are not motives, because by themselves they are not capable of generating directed activity. Indeed, if a need is taken as a motive, it is impossible to answer the questions “why”, “what for” a person shows this activity, i.e. the purpose and meaning of the activity are not clear. Thirdly, taking a need for a motive leads to what they say about satisfying a motive, not a need, about a goal as a means of satisfying a motive, not a need, about hereditary and acquired motives (V. S. Merlin, 1971), which is not quite correct.

Thus, when taking a need for a motive, many questions and ambiguities remain, and there is an incorrectness in the use of terms and phrases. Therefore, attempts by a number of psychologists to approach the understanding of motive from other positions are natural.

MOTIVE AND PURPOSE

“As a rule, in everyday life, the whole chain of intermediate goals, tasks and meanings is omitted by the human consciousness, as something self-evident and self-evident. The initial source action "shorts directly" to the final target, i.e. a number of intermediate tasks are combined into a common task, and the solution of this common task is the meaning. It acts as a meaning - both the initial action and all intermediate ones, individually and together. The meaning of the ultimate goal is what I need, I want it, then I will be fine ... "

(M. Weller, 2010)

The Dictionary of the Russian Language by S.I. Ozhegov says that the goal is what one strives for and what needs to be achieved. Thus, the goal can be both an object, an object, and an action.S. L. Rubinshtein also considers the subject of satisfying a need as a goal when he says that objects become objects of desires and possible goals of the subject’s actions when he includes them in the practical awareness of his attitude to the need.

A. N. Leontiev does not reject the possibility of turning a goal into a motive: “The genetically initial for human activity is the discrepancy between motives and goals. On the contrary, their coincidence is a secondary phenomenon: either the result of the acquisition of an independent motive power by the goal, or the result of the recognition of motives, which turns them into motives-goals” (1975, p. 201). In another work(1972) he emphasizes that he uses the term "motive" not to denote the experience of a need, but as denoting the objective in which this need is concretized in given conditions and what the activity is aimed at. The perceived (imagined, conceivable) object acquires its motivating function, that is, it becomes a motive. It should be noted that he called the motive of activity both the ideal (represented) and the material object of need. For A. N. Leontiev, for example, a glass of water is also a motive. However, such a point of view on the motive exists in everyday life, and in literature, and in jurisprudence (when, for example, money, jewelry, etc. are declared as the motive for a crime).Moreover, “objectification of the need”, as A. N. Leontiev put it, gives meaning to the impulse, and, in essence, the stimulus of activity is not the object itself, but its meaning for the subject. No wonder he attributed a meaning-forming function to the motive. Hence, the reasoning about the “shift of the motive to the goal” becomes clear, when it is no longer the desire to take possession of the object that prompts the activity, but the performance of the action itself (due to the awakening of interest in it), getting pleasure from it.The object acts as a motive only in a small child (because of the underdevelopment of voluntary functions) or if it is new (that is, it is a motive for research activity).

But even the psychic reflection of the object is not enough to evoke the activity of the subject. To do this, the need that this object meets must also be actualized, otherwise living beings, faced with the object of need, would each time start to satisfy it, regardless of whether there is a need for it at the moment or not.The need arises only in relation to an object that is recognized by a person as significant (valuable). This means that an object can act as a stimulus only when a person is prepared for such perception of it, that is, when there is a need for him or his kind. In this case, a person has an impulse to master this object. Therefore, Sh. N. Chkhartishvili believes that a motive is an objective value (a product of activity, knowledge).

CLASSIFICATION OF MOTIVES

“The strength of emotion on any occasion is determined not by the objective significance of this occasion, but by our subjective attitude towards it. The importance of the occasion for us is determined not by objective value, but by the activity of our emotional sphere, which needs external objectification. (M. Weller, 2010)

There are many different classifications of activity motives.Thus, the division of motives into biological and social, the allocation of motives of self-esteem, self-actualization, motives-aspirations for results (achievement motives), motives-aspirations for the activity itself, motives for success and avoiding failure are based on the identification and classification of various types of human needs. (biological and social). In some cases, the basis for the division of motives is whether the incentives that cause needs are external or internal. The division of motives into personal and social, egoistic and socially significant is connected with the attitudes of the individual, his morality, orientation.Proceeding from the difference in purely human needs underlying motives (material needs aimed at things; spiritual “needs or interests aimed at images, ideas and concepts), the corresponding groups of motives are also distinguished. Social motives are added to them, understanding them as motives of a social nature. Also, the social nature of a person leaves an imprint on all motivation, on all his needs without exception. Self-social needs include the need for communication, in an appropriate social position, as well as social motives: the opportunity to bring the greatest benefit to the homeland, to help people. Based on the concept of B. G. Ananiev about a person as an individual, personality and individuality, it is possible to connect material motives with the needs of the individual, social - with the needs of the individual, spiritual - with individuality.

Another approach to the identification and classification of motives is according to the types of activity shown by a person: the motives of communication, games, teaching, professional, sports and social activities, etc. Here the name of the motive is determined by the type of activity shown. Another common approach to the classification of motives is taking into account their temporal characteristics. On the one hand, these are situational and constantly (periodically) manifesting motives, on the other hand, these are short-term and stable motives.
A. A. Rusalinova proved that material interest in this particular work, direct interest in the labor process and the experience of the social significance of the results of labor can act in various combinations that determine different types of attitudes towards work. She examines in detail six types of attitudes towards work, the optimal among which is one in which there is a high intensity of all three components: material interest, and the experience of social significance, and direct interest in the labor process. It is with this type of attitude to work that the maximum return of the individual in the labor process, and the satisfaction of the employee himself.

One of the classifications of activity motives was proposed by the Polish psychologist T. Tomaszewski. Tomashevsky calls the first group of motives profit motives . Material benefit is, first of all, wages, but also housing and the satisfaction of other material needs. Social benefit is, first of all, professional pride.
Tomashevsky believes that the employee must imagine the relationship - between labor productivity and the benefits received. Therefore, it is important that in the course of the work itself, he could see the results achieved, and periodically receive information about the qualitative and quantitative indicators he achieved. If such information comes to the employee too late or "from third parties", the effectiveness of all incentive measures is significantly reduced, and in some cases, workers may feel resentment and their productivity will decrease.
Security. Possible hazards that an employee encounters when performing work can be divided into three groups: 1) physical danger that threatens the health or life of an employee; 2) material danger associated with possible monetary damage; 3) the threat of social measures of influence, as a result of which the social position of the worker or his professional prestige may suffer, when QH may lose the respect of his comrades, etc. Tomaszewski believes that insecurity cannot be regarded simply as something opposite to benefit. Much evidence suggests that rewards work very differently than punishments, and that the use of rewards is much more effective than the use of punishments.
Convenience. A person has a natural desire to choose among the available ways to perform any task the simplest, requiring minimal physical or mental stress. This, however, does not mean that people always prefer only the simplest work and strive to get a task that would not require any special effort from them. The most favorite work is the one, the degree of difficulty of which corresponds to the individual capabilities of the employee. However, within the limits of these possibilities, a person tends to avoid applying unnecessary efforts.
Satisfaction.It is known that people do a lot of work or undertake certain tasks because the very process of their implementation brings them satisfaction (for example, the very management of mechanisms, their assembly and disassembly, adjustment, etc.). This inclination, or love, can be changed; people gain or lose it by performing certain actions. However, every profession consists of operations that are not only satisfying, but also many boring, and sometimes even unpleasant. That is why different people working in the same field perform different necessary operations with unequal diligence.
opinion of comrades.In doing or abstaining from certain actions, each person takes into account the opinion of his comrades. This motive must be distinguished from the previously described public opinion or social advantage, since in this case the person does not expect to receive reward or punishment from his fellows. A person is already affected by the fact that others act in a certain way, have a certain point of view, expect or fear something.
Each person is aware that those around him expect something from him, and sometimes even demand that he behave in this way and not otherwise. Public opinion has a particularly great influence on new workers who are just joining an already formed team, which has its own laws and customs. For workers of the older generation, their own authority, which they have won, the opinion that has developed about them, is of particular importance. It turned out that it is very difficult to change the once formed opinion about the people in the team.
All of these motives, according to Tomashevsky, act simultaneously. They can act in the same direction or conflict with each other. For example, a good, well-paid job can be both safe, pleasant, important in the eyes of others, etc. But it can also be that the job is well paid, but unpleasant, not in line with the inclinations of the employee, or unsafe. Consistent motives complement each other, although they cannot be considered as a simple sum in the mathematical sense. Contradictory motives also add up, creating a conflict situation that adversely affects the production process; the behavior of the worker in this case becomes unstable. Man, as they say, works unevenly.

In general, it is generally recognized that there is no single classification of motives that satisfies all. Classifications of motives can be different depending on the goals of the researcher, the angle of consideration of the issue, etc. The only thing that can be demanded from these classifications is that they do not contradict the essence of motives, their genesis.

METHODS FOR STUDYING MOTIVES

Motives have subjective manifestations (awareness of experience) and objective manifestations (results of activity). But the same direction of activity may depend on different motives: high labor productivity may be explained by high civic motives or the desire for high earnings. In order to judge the motive by the direction of activity, it is necessary to create such conditions under which the influence of other motives, except for the intended one, would be eliminated or weakened. Otherwise, the interpretation has a guessing, subjective character. That is why psychological studies of motives that are not based on experiment always contain completely arbitrary conclusions, says V. S. Merlin. Thus, the main way to study motives is experiment. In an experimental study, it is necessary to: 1) objectively take into account the conditionality of the goal by external circumstances; 2) strengthen the influence of the studied motive and weaken the influence of other concomitant or competing motives.Also, several more approaches have been developed to study the motivation and motives of a person in addition to the experiment, these are observation, conversation, polling, questioning, analysis of the results of activities, etc. All these methods can be divided into three groups: 1) a survey of the subject carried out in one form or another (study of his motivations and motivators); 2) assessment of behavior and its causes from the outside (method of observation), 3) experimental methods.The methodological methods for studying motives developed by Soviet and foreign authors are varied and are of undoubted value for solving many problems in psychology. However, under the influence of changes in the nature of work, the social sphere, the circumstances of personal life and other factors, the structure of the motives of activity also changes. To manage this structure, to optimize it, it is necessary to study not only individual motives, but also the relationships between them, their hierarchy.

CHAPTER 2

MOTIVATION OF ACHIEVEMENTS

“In order for the goal to make sense, you must at least attach one more “rocket step” to your personal task, at least a “one-threshold” remoteness of the common goal from your specific one - this at least one degree of elevation of the common cause over your private one will do what the order of a more general goal acts as a sense in relation to your specific goal and “understands” it. (M. Weller).

For the first time the word "motivation" was used by A. Schopenhauer in the article "Four principles of sufficient reason" (1900-1910). Then this term became firmly established in psychological use to explain the causes of human and animal behavior.

Currently, motivation as a mental phenomenon is interpreted in different ways. In one case, as a set of factors that support and guide, i.e., determine behavior (K. Madsen [K. Madsen, 1959]; J. Godefroy, 1992), in the other case, as a set of motives (K. K. Platonov , 1986), in the third - as an impulse that causes the activity of the organism and determines its direction.

In addition, motivation is considered as a process of mental regulation of a specific activity (M. Sh. Magomed-Eminov, 1998), as a process of motive action and as a mechanism that determines the emergence, direction and methods of implementing specific forms of activity (I. A. Dzhidaryan, 1976) , as an aggregate system of processes responsible for motivation and activity (V. K. Vilyunas,

1990).

Hence, all definitions of motivation can be attributed to two directions. The first considers motivation from structural positions, as a set of factors or motives. For example, according to the scheme of V. D. Shadrikov (1982), motivation is conditioned by the needs and goals of the individual, the level of claims and ideals, the conditions of activity (both objective, external, and subjective, internal - knowledge, skills, abilities, character) and worldview, beliefs and orientation of the individual, etc. Taking into account these factors, a decision is made, an intention is formed. The second direction considers motivation not as a static, but as a dynamic formation, as a process, a mechanism.

Achievement motivation is a special kind of human motivation. This type of motivation was identified by G. Murray and defined motivation as follows:

« Motivation

Further, the development of the problem of achievement motivation was continued by many psychologists. The American scientist D. McClelland believes that the need to achieve "is an unconscious impulse to a much more perfect action, to achieve a standard of perfection." He considers the characteristic features of people with a pronounced achievement motivation: 1) the preference to work under conditions of maximum motivation of the achievement motive (that is, to solve problems of an average degree of difficulty) 2) the achievement motivation does not always lead to much higher results than the rest. And high results are not always the result of an updated achievement motive 3) taking personal responsibility for the performance of activities, but in situations of low or moderate risk, and if success does not depend on chance 4) preference for adequate feedback on the results of their actions 5) strive for search for much more effective, new methods of solving problems, that is, they are prone to innovation

Other ideas about achievement motivation are developed by the German psychologist H. Hekhauzen. According to his views, achievement motivation is “an attempt to increase or maintain the highest human abilities for all types of activities to which criteria of success can be applied and where the performance of such an activity can, therefore, lead to either success or failure.” Characteristic signs of achievement motivation: 1) the very idea of ​​achievement guesses two possibilities: to achieve success and to fail. Individuals with high achievement motivation have a focus on achieving success 2) achievement motivation is manifested if the activity provides opportunities for improvement. Tasks should be of medium difficulty 3) achievement motivation is focused on a specific end result, on a goal. At the same time, achievement motivation is “characterized by continuous review of goals” 4) for people with high achievement motivation, it is typical to return to already interrupted activities and bring them to the end.

In Russian psychology, one of the most influential authors on this issue is T. O. Gordeeva. Achievement motivation refers to achievement motivation. Achievement activity is an activity associated with the purposeful transformation by the subject of the world around him, himself, other people and relations with them. Such activity "is motivated by the desire to do something better and / or faster, to make progress, behind which there are basic human needs for achievement, growth and self-improvement."

Achievement motivation is aimed at a certain end result obtained due to a person's own abilities, namely: to achieve success or avoid failure. Achievement motivation is thus inherently goal-oriented. It pushes a person towards the "natural" result of a series of related actions. It assumes a clear sequence of a series of actions performed one after another. However, there are specific forms of activity that are not directly related to the target in this way. Achievement-related activities are sometimes carried out on their own and do not have as their goal the completion of a goal or some other external cause. We encounter such manifestations, for example, when solving intellectual tasks (crosswords, puzzles) or in manual work that requires certain skills (embroidery, knitting). The various difficulties that people encounter in the process of solving problems of this kind are perceived as an enjoyable and even stimulating experience. Achieving a goal and success too quickly can even be frustrating. This kind of organization of goals associated with the achievement, like the game, belongs to the category of "non-target activity".

Achievement motivation is characterized by constant review of goals. Looking at the sequence of actions, the importance of constantly revisiting goals over time becomes apparent, as the chain of action can be interrupted for hours, days, weeks, months, or even years. Another characteristic of achievement motivation is the constant return to an interrupted task, to something previously abandoned, the resumption of the main direction of action. Thus, complex and long-standing structures are created from the main, secondary and included in their activities, which lead through the achievement of a series of “sub-goals” to the main, even if very remote.

MOTIVATIONAL SPHERE - THE CORE OF DIRECTION

“Who lives better? The one who has the meaning of life. Do the best you can; the recipe is old and true. » (M. Weller, 2010)

Motivational formations: dispositions (motives), needs and goals are the main components of the motivational sphere of a person.

Each of the dispositions can be implemented in many needs. In turn, behavior aimed at satisfying a need is divided into types of activity (communication) that correspond to particular goals. The motivational sphere of a person in terms of its development can be assessed by the following parameters: breadth, flexibility and hierarchization.

The breadth of the motivational sphere is understood as a qualitative variety of motivational factors - dispositions (motives), needs, goals, presented at each of the levels. The more diverse motives, needs and goals a person has, the more developed is the motivational sphere.

The flexibility of the motivational sphere characterizes the process of motivation as follows. More flexible is such a motivational sphere, in which, to satisfy a motivational impulse of a more general nature (higher level), more diverse motivational stimuli of a lower level can be used.

For example, the motivational sphere of a person is more flexible, which, depending on the circumstances of satisfaction of the same motive, can use more diverse means than another person. Say, for this individual, the need for knowledge can only be satisfied by television, radio and cinema, while for another, various books, periodicals, and communication with people are also a means of satisfying it. In the latter, the motivational sphere, by definition, will be more flexible.

Note that breadth and flexibility characterize the motivational sphere of a person in different ways. Breadth is the variety of the potential range of objects that can serve for a given person as a means of satisfying an actual need, and flexibility is the mobility of the connections that exist between different levels of the hierarchical organization of the motivational sphere: between motives and needs, motives and goals, needs and goals.

Finally, hierarchization is a characteristic of the structure of each of the levels of organization of the motivational sphere, taken separately. Needs, motives, and goals do not exist as adjacent sets of motivational dispositions. Some dispositions (motives, goals) are stronger than others and occur more often; others are weaker and updated less frequently. The more differences in the strength and frequency of actualization of motivational formations of a certain level, the higher the hierarchization of the motivational sphere.

In addition to motives, goals and needs, interests, tasks, desires and intentions are also considered as incentives for human behavior.

Interest is a special motivational state of a cognitive nature, which, as a rule, is not directly related to any one, relevant at a given time, need. Interest in oneself can be caused by any unexpected event that involuntarily attracts attention, any new object that appears in the field of vision, any private, random auditory or other stimulus.

A task as a particular situational and motivational factor arises when, in the course of performing an action aimed at achieving a specific goal, the body encounters an obstacle that must be overcome in order to move on. The same task can arise in the process of performing a variety of actions and therefore is as non-specific to needs as is interest.

Desires and intentions are momentarily arising and quite often replacing each other motivational subjective states that meet the changing conditions for performing an action.

Interests, tasks, desires and intentions, although they are included in the system of motivational factors, participate in the motivation of behavior, but they play in it not so much an incentive as an instrumental role. They are more responsible for the style than for the direction of behavior.

Motivation of human behavior can be conscious and unconscious. This means that some needs and goals that control human behavior are recognized by him, while others are not. Many psychological problems are solved as soon as we give up the idea that people are always aware of the motives of their actions, deeds, thoughts and feelings. In fact, their true motives are not necessarily what they appear to be.

Needs (and interests) are satisfied, motives are realized, manifested, desires and dreams come true.The purposeful formation of the motivational sphere of the personality is, in essence, the formation of the personality itself, i.e. mainly a pedagogical task of educating morality, shaping interests, habits.

DIRECTION AS A SYSTEMIC PROPERTY OF PERSONALITY

According to most psychologists, personality orientation is a complex motivational formation. The concept of “orientation of the personality” was introduced into scientific use by S. L. Rubinshtein as a characteristic of the main interests, needs, inclinations, and aspirations of a person.

Almost all psychologists under the orientation of the personality understand the totality or system of any motivational formations, phenomena. For B. I. Do-donov, this is a system of needs; for K. K. Platonov - a set of inclinations, desires, interests, inclinations, ideals, worldview, beliefs; L. I. Bozhovich and R. S. Nemov have a system or set of motives, etc. However, understanding the orientation of a person as a set or system of motivational formations is only one side of its essence. The other side is that this system determines the direction of a person’s behavior and activities, orients him, determines the tendencies of behavior and actions, and, ultimately, determines the appearance of a person in social terms (V. S. Merlin), the latter is due to the fact that the orientation of the personality is a steadily dominant system of motives, or motivational formations (L. I. Bozhovich), that is, it reflects the dominant, which becomes a vector of behavior (A. A. Ukhtomsky).

This can be illustrated by the following example.

A school graduate involved in sports decided to enter a pedagogical university to become a physical education teacher. A combination of motivational factors led him to this decision: interest in physical education, interest in working with children and the prestige of the teaching profession. In addition, this decision could be facilitated by the desire to have a diploma of higher education. Thus, in relation to this school graduate, we can say that he has a physical and pedagogical orientation of the personality.

The orientation of the individual, as V. S. Merlin notes, can manifest itself in relation to: to other people, to society, to oneself. M. S. Neimark (1968),

for example, the personal, collectivist and business orientations of the individual are highlighted.

D. I. Feldstein (1995) and I. D. Egorycheva (1994) distinguish the following types of personal orientation: humanistic, egoistic, depressive and suicidal. The humanistic orientation is characterized by a positive attitude of the individual to himself and to society. Within this type, the authors distinguish two subtypes: with altruistic accentuation, in which the central motive of behavior is the interests of other people or the social community, and with individualistic accentuation, in which the most important for a person is himself, the surrounding people are not ignored, but their value , compared to its own, is somewhat lower. The egoistic orientation is characterized by a positive attitude towards oneself and a negative attitude towards society. Within this type, two subtypes are also distinguished: a) with an individualistic accentuation - the value for a person of his own personality is as high as with a humanistic orientation, with an individualistic accentuation, but the value of others is even lower (negative attitude towards others), although about there is no absolute rejection and ignoring of their speech; b) with egocentric accentuation - the value of one's own personality for a person is not very high, he concentrates only on himself; society for him is almost of no value, the attitude towards society is sharply negative. The depressive orientation of the personality is characterized by the fact that for a person he himself does not represent any value, and his attitude to society can be described as tolerant. A suicidal orientation is observed in cases where neither society nor the individual is of any value to itself.

Such a selection of types of orientation shows that it can be determined not by a complex of some factors, but only by one of them, for example, a personal or collectivist attitude, etc. In the same way, the orientation of a person can be determined by some one overdeveloped interest: in football , ballet, etc., in connection with which football fans, ballet lovers, music lovers, collectors, professional gamblers appear. Thus, the structure of the personality's orientation may be simple and complex, but the main thing in it is the steady dominance of some kind of need, interest, as a result of which a person "persistently seeks means to arouse in himself the experiences he needs as often and strongly as possible" (B I. Dodonov). The stable dominance of a need or interest, acting as long-term motivational attitudes, can form the core line of life.

The sources of meanings that determine what is significant for a person and what is not, and why, what place certain objects or phenomena occupy in his life, are the needs and personal values ​​of a person. Both of them occupy the same place in the structure of human motivation and in the structure of the generation of meanings: meaning for a person is acquired by those objects, phenomena or actions that are related to the realization of any of his needs or personal values. These meanings are individual, which follows not only from the discrepancy between the needs and values ​​of different people, but also from the uniqueness of individual ways of their realization.

Our needs and values ​​are manifested not only in the form of attitudes towards specific people, things, events and their generalized classes. They are also manifested in what criteria or signs we use in their description, classification and evaluation. The same person uses different criteria to describe and classify different objects - this is clear. But the most interesting thing is that different people use different criteria and features when describing the same objects. The system of these criteria and signs, for the designation of which a special concept, constructs, was introduced in psychology, is the most important characteristic of the inner world of a person..

The orientation of the personality as a psychological phenomenon remains largely undefined, which P. M. Yakobson drew attention to in his time. For example, he says that the orientation of the personality can be temporary, and refers to love, which for some time subjugates the routine of life, determines the dominant motive of behavior. The same can be said about other human hobbies, which, as you know, change throughout life.

P. M. Yakobson also raises the question of whether an individual can have several directions at once. Man, for example, is focused on technology, he writes, but is not indifferent to women, loves children, and at the same time is very receptive to all social events. Therefore, he concludes, one should speak of different types of orientation, sometimes overlapping each other, sometimes located in different planes.

The fact that a person can have different and at the same time coexisting orientations is evident from the example of the motivational properties of a person.

CONCLUSION

Need as the main driving force, which not only set in motion emotional experiences, but made the human mind sophisticated, made it possible to acquire language, speech and the habit of work. Without needs, man could not get out of the wild state.

Motive - something inside the subject (need, idea, organic state or emotion) that prompts him to act. Therefore, in order to avoid semantic errors, the word motive should be translated as “motivation”, “state of motivation”, “aspiration”, “impulse”, “motivation”

« Motivation - intention to cope with something difficult. Deal with, manipulate, or organize physical objects, people, or ideas. Do it as quickly and independently as is reasonably possible. Overcome obstacles and reach a high level. Surpass yourself. Compete with others and surpass them. Increase your self-esteem through the successful use of your abilities.

Until now, there is a lot of debate about what “need”, “motive”, “motivation” is. What exactly, how and why drives a person, and not just stimulates him to move and act, but constitute his inner essence.

How to find (acquire) the meaning of life? Give yourself a feeling of such power. So that this issue dissolves (love, war, feat, difficulties). Then a strong feeling from something will turn this "something" into a value - and consciousness will balance this feeling with that. What will confirm: yes, this is a hefty value, I can understand this, I feel it; Consciousness and sensation will come into balance - and this is the acquisition of the meaning of life. This is the first way, and the second is to direct your consciousness to something that you have or do, and in every possible way seek, consider, prove to yourself that this is important, valuable, that only you can do it, that you are simply unique, there is something to be proud of , for which respect - and then your consciousness, as a transformer that increases the voltage at the output, will supply your need for strong sensations with a feeling of such strength that, estimating its strength and positivity, consciousness will say: yes, this is quite consistent with what I see and have, this quite the meaning of my life." (M. Weller, 2010)

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