The ancient kingdom of the pyramid. Old Kingdom: Egypt
The Old Kingdom is considered a continuation of the history of the early dynastic line of the pharaohs of ancient Egypt. It begins with the reign of the IV dynasty of kings. They are believed to be the descendants of Huni, the last pharaoh of the 3rd dynasty. In the Turin list, in fact, all the rulers of the first five of them are listed without indicating the terms of government. This means that its compilers included all of them in one group.
Ancient Kingdom period in Egypt
The Old Kingdom was limited from others by the significant changes in the cultural, political and religious spheres that distinguish it from the first three periods of history.
The most outstanding achievement in this transitional time of ancient Egypt is construction of stepped pyramids with a smooth, perfect surface . The change in religious preferences marked the beginning of the greatest technological discoveries. The first step, built in the Saqqara region, was the personification of the staircase to the stars. On the other hand, it was considered a symbol of the sun.
The evolution of the architectural skills of the Old Kingdom of the early dynastic period was completed by the construction complex on the Giza plateau . The Maidum pyramid repeated the outlines of the tomb of Sneferu, the first king of the IV dynasty. The broken pyramid at Danshur was also built by this king according to the history of the Old Kingdom. The corners of the pyramids began to be set at 51 degrees, which guaranteed the stability of the structure and reduced the pressure from the weight of the stone blocks.
Pyramids of the Old Kingdom
The history of the emergence of the pyramid-building tradition during the Old Kingdom in Egypt was nothing more than a demonstration of their strength and the creation of appropriate pressure on the consciousness of society due to this.
The construction of the pyramids would have been impossible without the conditions of a prosperous economy and a strong centralization of the administrative apparatus, as well as skillful local management to organize the supply of materials and replenish the king's treasury through taxes and fees.
Artists and craftsmen honed their skills, producing ever more exquisite pieces of art for members of the ruling family. The high-quality decoration of the tombs was a direct demonstration of the wealth and status of the owner of the tomb.
According to historical data, during the reign of the IV dynastic line of kings of Ancient Egypt, some military campaigns were also carried out in the south against neighboring Nubia, where a defensive fortress in Buhen near the 2nd cataract (threshold of the Nile). This fortress symbolized the invasion of Egyptian troops in. It was also of commercial importance, since Nubians and Egyptians traded on its territory. Ancient Nubia was rich in raw materials and especially gold and was of particular interest to Egypt.
Adding the words " Son of Ra ” is associated with the history of the reign of Jezhefre and indicates an increase in the cult of the Sun. Moreover, he emphasized the status of the king as a representative of the highest powers on earth.
During the reign of the 5th group of kings of the Old Kingdom in Egypt, the religious cult of the Sun became firmly widespread. To perform rituals, the kings built solar temples. This explains why the architectural monuments of that time were less technologically advanced than their predecessors: the main focus of construction projects was on temples and sanctuaries than on the pyramid building itself.
It seems that the power of the 5th dynasty was no less centralized. The tombs built near the tombs of the kings had even more complex and expensive decoration. Some wealthy citizens had the opportunity to build a crypt not only near the Memphis necropolis, but also in their own province.
The tomb of the last king of this dynasty, for the first time in the history of ancient Egypt, was decorated with the so-called Pyramid Texts, which told about the fate of the pharaoh in the afterlife among the stars and higher beings.
Starting from the 6th dynasty of the Old Kingdom, there has been a gradual decline in the economy and culture. Although hostilities continued, in the east of the Nile Delta, that is, in the territory and Nubia, the centralized power of the pharaoh was in decline. Perhaps it was caused by a long reign Pepi II,
when power was concentrated in the hands of the central authority and governors in the provinces of ancient Egypt.
Another key factor in the decline of the role of power was the decrease in the flood of the Nile. It was necessary to take measures to ensure the fertility of the land. Regional governors and governors who managed to manage the water element strengthened their positions by weakening power in the capital.
The kings did not have enough authority to prevent the split that began during the 1st transitional period. The pharaohs of the period of the Old Kingdom of Egypt began to lose their power, which passed to individual leaders.
Periodization of the Old Kingdom in Egypt:
IV dynasty of Ancient Egypt (2575 - 2465 BC)
V dynasty of Ancient Egypt (2465 - 2323 BC)
VI dynasty of Ancient Egypt (2323 - 2150 BC)
LESSON 12ARCHITECTURE OF THE ANCIENT KINGDOM. THE MYSTERY OF THE PYRAMIDS
The art of ancient Egypt, being in the service of the pharaoh, was subject to the cult of the gods and the cult of the dead. This is especially pronounced in architecture - the leading ancient Egyptian art form. Painting and sculpture were subordinated to architecture, architects were often relatives of the pharaohs and high-ranking people. And practically unlimited resources of cheap labor made it possible to implement a complex system religious beliefs into grand buildings. tombs, pyramids, temples, obelisks.
These structures were of superhuman size. Egyptian architecture was distinguished by the geometrism of forms, strict symmetry, the rhythmic repetition of identical images, huge dimensions, incommensurable with the human figure. With its grandiosity, heaviness, pathos, grandeur of eternity, the architecture of Ancient Egypt had a hypnotic effect, suppressed human consciousness, and “a feeling of depression is the beginning of reverence” (K. Marx).
Main building material ancient egypt was a stone. Wood, as an imported material, was very expensive. The Egyptians were masters of extraction and processing of stone of different breeds. The blocks fit together perfectly, without mortar. It is no coincidence that Egypt left the world amazing examples of stone sculpture, which are several thousand years old.
The ancient Egyptians believed in an afterlife and attached great importance to the construction of burial structures, houses of eternity. After all, what is earthly life versus eternity?
Pyramids were built for the pharaohs, mastabas for the nobles, and a mound of sand for the poor peasants. These buildings were erected on the west bank of the Nile where the sun sets in the realm of the dead.
Mastaba(from Arabic - bench) served as a tomb for the nobility and was the forerunner of the pyramids. In shape, it was a cut pyramid and really resembled a “bench for giants” with sloping walls, which testify to the origin of the mastaba from a sandy grave mound. The mastaba consisted of two main parts: ground and underground. Underground burial chamber was at a depth of 2 to 20 m. Here was placed a sarcophagus with a mummy and funeral utensils. The construction of mastaba always began from the underground part. AT ground part there was a room for a funeral ritual - a chapel, which was located in the eastern part of the mastaba. She had "false" doors for the spirit of the deceased and the so-called serdab- room for the statue of the deceased. The mastabas were located in regular rows, often surrounding the pyramids of the pharaohs, and were oriented, like the pyramids themselves, to the cardinal points, forming "cities of the dead."
Apparently, the original pyramids arose as a result of a stepped adjustment of the mastaba. Thus, one of the oldest (about 2800 BC) stone structures in the world appeared - Step Pyramid of Pharaoh III Dynasty Djoser at Saqqara. This six-stage pyramid had a rectangle at the base with sides of 107 and 116 m and a height of about 60 m. The burial chamber, as well as in mastabas, was underground at a depth of 27.5 m. History has preserved the name of the architect of the pyramid Djoser, the first architect in history world architecture, the founder of stone construction. This is architect Imhotep. He was considered the patron of writing and education and was revered in ancient Egypt along with the gods, while the Greeks identified him with their Asclepius.
It was with the creation of Imhotep that a new era began in the construction of the tombs of the Old Kingdom - age of the pyramids, which are a sign of eternity, a symbol of the power, wealth, significance of the pharaoh. So Even during their lifetime, the pharaohs began to build their own tombs.
The most famous of the dozens of surviving pyramids are Great Pyramids at Giza built by the pharaohs of the IV dynasty in 3 thousand BC. e. These are the pyramids of the pharaohs Khufu, Khafre and Menkaure(Cheops, Khafre and Menkaure in Greek transcription). The pyramids had a square at the base, the burial chamber was already inside the pyramid, and the sides of the base were oriented strictly to the cardinal points. Outside, the pyramids were lined with carefully polished stone slabs, which were preserved only at the top of the Khafre pyramid.
The highest of the pyramids - the pyramid of Cheops - was considered by the ancients to be among the seven wonders of the world. This pyramid was erected for 20 years, and for another 10 years they built a road for transporting blocks weighing 2.5-3 tons from quarries. 2,300,000 blocks of stone were used to build the pyramid of Cheops, 146 m high and 233 m long at the base. The Egyptians did not know the binding materials and tightly fitted the blocks to each other "dry". The chief architect of the pyramid of Cheops was the nobleman Hemiun. The entrance to the pyramid is located on its northern face, a low corridor leads inside. The angle of inclination of the corridor is such that in ancient times they could see the North Star from it. The burial chamber has a length of 10.5 m, a width of 5.2 m and a height of 5.8 m. Above the ceiling of the burial chamber there are five unloading chambers that take on the colossal weight of the stone mass of the pyramid.
The pyramid has about 2,250,000 stone blocks. They needed it first get. And it was done like this: holes were hollowed out in the rock of the quarry, then a wooden wedge was driven into it, which was poured with water for so long until it swelled and split the rock. A broken piece of rock had to be hewn with a copper chisel, of course, by hand. Then such a block was needed send to the construction site. If it was fine-grained limestone from the Mokkatam Highlands, then at first it was taken several kilometers to the Nile, where it was loaded onto rafts, transported, then reloaded onto wooden sleds - sleds, and thus delivered to the construction site. Here, the blocks have already been brought to the desired size and shape. Each block had six sides, which means that almost 13.5 million sides had to be sanded - this is the minimum square meters that the workers had to process.
The pyramids of Khafre and Menkaure were smaller. The pyramid of Khafre is guarded by a huge sphinx, the most famous sculpture of antiquity, the like of which is nowhere to be found. A stone lion with a human head is carved from a whole rock (length - 72 m, height - 20 m).
The pyramids at Giza, like their predecessors, were not separate, independent structures, but were the compositional center of the burial complex.
Each tomb that hid the body of the king and his afterlife was constantly threatened robbery. There were not so many priests who guarded their dead rulers, especially during the period of interregnums. And evidence has been preserved that they had to transfer the pharaoh's mummy to another shelter with weapons in their hands. But many of the priests themselves preferred to rob their deity - the pharaoh. Both the guards of the tombs and the architects who knew the system of secret corridors became robbers. And this was facilitated not only by the troubled periods of government, but mainly by time itself: what the fathers did not succeed in, their sons and grandchildren succeeded in, what was not plundered in one century, was robbed in another, third, fifth, tenth ... The failure of the pyramids as the tombs were eventually recognized even by the pharaohs themselves. But this was not the only reason for the refusal to build them, and, perhaps, not even the most decisive one. The construction of the pyramids drained the country's economic resources. Building the Great Pyramid was equal to losing the war. Maintaining them in good condition also required a lot of money. The pyramids were no longer built troubled times First interregnum; the pharaohs of the Middle Kingdom again returned to their construction, but in the period of the XIII dynasty they finally abandoned the pyramids. The last pyramid was built on the orders of Pharao Khenger about in the 17th century BC e. 
1. Mastaba, appearance
2. Section of mastaba: a) burial chamber, b) chapel.
3. section of the stepped pyramid of Pharaoh Djoser in Saqqara.
4. Plan of the ensemble of pyramids in Giza: a) Cheops pyramid, b) Khafre, c) Menkaure.
5. section and horizontal projection of the pyramid of the Middle Kingdom.
6. Section of the pyramid of Cheops. Architect Hemiun.
check yourself
Answer the questions
1. What architectural structure preceded the pyramids and what does this word mean in translation into Russian?
2. Name the architect who gutted the first step pyramid. What god did the Greeks identify with?
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3. List the Great Pyramids at Giza. Which one is the highest?
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4. Who was the chief architect of the largest pyramid in Egypt?
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5. Why did pyramid building stop?
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Recently, we have somehow lost sight of the theme of the Egyptian pyramids. And it is by no means closed. This is also evidenced by the material “from the madhouse” that recently appeared on the VO that they were built using a gateway system larger than the pyramid itself. So the last article about pyromidomania and pyramidoidiotism appeared on time. But ... we stopped at the pyramids last kings VI Dynasty, under which the power of the pharaohs from Memphis in Egypt became purely nominal. The country broke up into many small independent principalities, which could consist of several or even one nome. Thus, the era of the Old Kingdom was replaced by the period of decline and fragmentation of Ancient Egypt (or the first transitional period), after which the Middle Kingdom began, chronologically located between 2040 and 1783. (or 1640) BC e.
Pharaoh Mentuhotep II is considered the founder of the Middle Kingdom. But he did not build a pyramid for himself, but built a unique funerary temple with a grave at its base, but the pyramid was already built over this temple. This is the only such structure in Egypt. This is what it looks like (on the left). On the right is the temple of Queen Hatshepsut.
Graphic reconstruction of the temple of Mentuhotep II. But ... there is such a point of view that this temple did not have any pyramid!
And this is how both of these temples look today.
We note right away: the pharaohs of the Middle Kingdom also built pyramids, which undoubtedly deserve attention. But since they were all built far from tourist and international routes, people visit them even less often than the pyramids of their predecessors that we have described, which stand in the “shadow of the great pyramids”. And most people generally believe that there are only three pyramids in Egypt!
The so-called "Black Pyramid" of Pharaoh Amenemhat III in Dashur. On the right is the "Broken Pyramid" of Pharaoh Snefru. Well, who will go there?
Moreover, the most distant of the pyramids of this era is located only 80 kilometers south of Cairo, behind the Fayum oasis, in Illahun; Well, the nearest one from Cairo is 40 kilometers away, in Dashur. Some of the pyramids of the Middle Kingdom are led by desert roads, or rather it is an allusion to a road; and when you drive a car over it, the tires slip, and the air filter tightly clogs the sand. Some pyramids of the nearest village can only be reached on foot. There is only one desert around here, sand, gravel and ... the ruins of the pyramids! It is clear that no one goes here to check whether the knife blade enters between the stones. They also do not check the laser cutting of stone blocks made by kind aliens - they are too far away and atypical, from the point of view of "pyramid idiots".
By the way, once again about the masonry, into which you can’t even stick the blade of a knife. Here is a sample of the masonry of the “broken pyramid” of Sneferu, the father of Khufu. True, this is the era of Ancient Egypt, but the “quality of work” can be seen very well.
But there are not so many of them (only nine!) And all of them can be bypassed and carefully examined. All of them were built during the XII dynasty, which ruled in Egypt from the beginning of the XX and until late XVIII century BC e. These include another pyramid, which belonged to King Mentuhotep II from the previous XI dynasty. True, this is just a pyramidal superstructure over his mortuary temple. Again, not all scientists believe that it was at all. Whatever it was, but this temple is located 500 kilometers from Cairo to the south, opposite the famous Luxor, on the west bank of the Nile.
Pharaoh Mentuhotep II. Cairo Museum.
So, the pyramids built by the kings of the XII dynasty had the same purpose and appearance as the pyramids of the Old Kingdom, but in all other respects the discrepancies between them are very large. The fact is that these "new pyramids" have a certain unified base, the sides of which are equal to 200 Egyptian cubits, or 105 meters; and only in the two most recent pyramids of this dynasty, these dimensions are exactly half reduced. And they should have seemed more slender and airy, since the slope of their walls was 56 °. But their orientation to the cardinal points was not given much importance; therefore, their entrance corridors do not always face north. In some cases they were arranged in the south, and in one case the corridor faced west. The dungeons were also different: they were real labyrinths of corridors and numerous chambers; and the sarcophagus itself could be in a completely unexpected place. For some reason, mortuary temples were always built below the level of the base of the pyramid, which also visually increased its height. The fence is always quadrangular in shape. However, the biggest difference between the pyramids of the Middle and Old Kingdoms was by no means outside, but was inside and consisted in construction technology. The "ancient" ones were built of stone, the "middle" ones - of rubble and clay.
That is, the rulers of the Middle Kingdom, for some reason, had to abandon the use of hewn stone blocks and replace them with simple unbaked bricks, stone chips, and even sand to fill the cracks.
The so-called "Black Pyramid" of Pharaoh Amenemhat III near. Time has not been kind to her.
And what was the reason for that? What, the aliens flew away and stopped helping? Or the reason is much more prosaic: the “decline in power and wealth” of the kings of the Middle Kingdoms. Although, in principle, neither this nor many other reasons are convincing enough. In fact, well, there were internecine strife of the Transitional period, no one argues. But then the country was again united under the rule of one king. So in economic terms, Egypt of the Middle Kingdom was quite a prosperous state. Irrigation canals were laid, new cities were laid, temples and secular buildings were erected. For example, during the XII dynasty, the famous Labyrinth was built, which Herodotus considered higher than the colossal temples in Thebes and even the great pyramids in Memphis. Accordingly, the population increased, and victorious wars in Nubia and Asia made it possible to feed the country with coveted gold and slaves. Sources say that the latter were distributed to dignitaries as a reward for their service, and sold to private individuals. Therefore, it is unlikely that the pharaohs of the Middle Kingdom were so poor that they saved on the pyramids, or that there were not enough workers to build them. The reason for replacing stone pyramids with brick ones was, undoubtedly, something else.
Perhaps the experience of the fall of the Old Kingdom clearly showed that stone pyramids, alas, do not save the bodies of buried monarchs and all their treasures from robbers. Neither the size nor the massiveness of the masonry provides them with eternal rest, and they have found another way to counter the wicked. Now many intricate corridors were laid under the pyramid, many of which ended in dead ends to confuse the robbers; the burial chambers were turned by them into impregnable dugouts and placed so that people unfamiliar with the layout of the pyramid would not find them until the end of the century. That is, the ground part of the tomb has now lost its former significance. That is why it was no longer possible to build it from stone, but from brick, although outwardly it did not give out this secret. The pyramids were still faced with Turkish limestone, so it was impossible to guess what they were made of inside. Although ... they still knew about what it was made of. It was enough to “invite one of the builders for a beer” from the builders.
From the pyramid of Amenemhat I, only a pile of clay and sand remained.
And this is the entrance...
The construction of the "brick pyramid" also did not require as many hands and hard labor as stone pyramids. Although the task of the architect in this case was much more difficult. The stone blocks of the old pyramids were held together by gravity and friction, but the numerous layers of unfired bricks could easily condense, settle down, which could easily collapse the pyramid. The Sumerians and Babylonians knew about this and when they built ziggurats, they used reed matting and laid layers of bricks with them. The Egyptians invented a special technology, reminiscent of the method of sectional construction. When erecting a pyramid from corner to corner, stone partitions were erected diagonally. Then transverse walls were attached to them from both sides at an oblique angle - also made of stone. A cruciform base arose, which had a semblance of a lattice. Then this frame was filled with bricks or gravel, and all the cracks were covered with ordinary sand. Materials were carried up on earthen embankments on wooden sleds or carried by porters in baskets - obviously no hydraulic lifts were required here. To securely strengthen the cladding slabs, its lower slabs were made of granite slabs. Well, according to tradition, the summit was crowned with a granite pyramidion.
But the pyramidion from the top of the "Black Pyramid" has been relatively well preserved and is today in the Cairo Museum.
"Do not put me below the stone pyramids..." - such an inscription, according to Herodotus, was made on one of these pyramids. Moreover, he visited Egypt already when these pyramids lost their stone lining, and no one paid attention to them, except for the local residents who stole a stone from them. Wandering through the fiery desert for a pile of stones sticking out of clay? Yes, God forbid! That is why, until the end of the last century, archaeologists also did not pay attention to them. They had enough of everything else.
An image of an uraeus on the crown of Senusret II, found in his pyramid and apparently lost by robbers.
Pectoral of Senusret II.
But quite unexpectedly, the pyramids of the Middle Kingdom aroused keen interest all over the world. The first time this happened back in 1894, when Morgan found the famous "Dashur Treasure", and the second time already in 1920, when archaeologist Petri discovered something similar near Illahun. After that, they began to explore and eventually learned a lot of interesting things ...
Pyramid of Pharaoh Senusret II at El Lahun. A typical Middle Kingdom pyramid made of unbaked bricks, therefore, was badly destroyed, and today its height is only 15 meters. The base is a natural rock - an unusual solution, which was then surrounded by a frame of stone blocks. The entrance was first moved to the south side to confuse the robbers, and the underground corridors are a real labyrinth with wells-traps arranged in it. The burial chamber itself was arranged 20 meters away from the center of the pyramid, where it should have been according to custom, and, in addition, it was sunk into the base by 12 m. white alabaster. It was on the floor in the burial chamber in petrified silt that archaeologists found several unique works of art lost by robbers. Nothing else of value was found in the pyramids at all!
To be continued...
Of all the issues related to the pyramids, perhaps the most difficult is their construction. Even the Roman author Pliny, who thought the pyramids were “an idle and stupid display of royal wealth,” found something to marvel at. “The most interesting question,” he wrote, “is how the stones were raised to such a great height.”
Perhaps every visitor back in those days, looking at these colossal monuments, thought: how were they built? In the Great Pyramid alone, there are more than two and a quarter million stone blocks, some of them weighing seven and a half tons. The amount of effort expended - even if modern equipment were used - is amazing. And you should always remember that the ancient Egyptians built these masterpieces with the most simple ways- before the Romans in Egypt, they did not even know the lifting block. In both quarrying and building, masons used copper chisels and possibly some iron tools, as well as flint, quartz, and diorite crushers. The only additional tools were wooden crowbars, as well as wooden sleds and cylinders for transportation. An important factor was also the special knowledge of the overseers, who observed the timely execution of various operations.
However, the movement of blocks, which weighed from 8 to 10 tons (and some - up to twenty-five), did not seem difficult at all to those people who later transported the colossus of Ramesses II to the Ramesseum in western Thebes. (This gigantic statue, made from a single block of stone, weighed at least 1,000 tons.) Another such feat was the transportation of granite obelisks that still stand in the Temple of Karnak in Luxor, at Mataria near Cairo, at Tanis in the east of the Delta and in many countries outside of Egypt. Some of them weigh at least 300 tons. They had to be brought from the quarries, which were located in the farthest south, near Aswan, unloaded from barges and placed vertically on pedestals - and all this in a limited space, among pre-existing buildings.
Indeed, the process of extracting and transporting stone and the very construction of these monuments were so commonplace that it seemed to the Egyptians that it was not worth talking about it. Most of the information we have is based on the study of the monuments themselves, especially those unfinished when those for whom they were built died.
AT early years of his reign, each new pharaoh had to deal with many important things. First, he faced a long and difficult coronation ceremony and the solution of administrative problems caused by the change of the monarch. He also had to supervise the buildings by virtue of his duty to bury his predecessor with dignity.
However, in the end, the pharaoh decided to build his own tomb and ordered the architects and overseers to take care of this project. The choice of a place for a new pyramid depended on many circumstances. The pharaoh could choose a site near the tombs of his ancestors, or he could prefer a new place. However, it was supposed to be located on the west bank of the Nile, above the valley. This place was preferred for two reasons: firstly, the Egyptians believed that the realm of the dead is in the west, where the sun sets; secondly, the western plateau, especially near the ancient capital of Memphis, was better suited than other places. The plateau is near cultivated land; it rises abruptly to a height of about 200 feet; its surface is almost perfectly flat, with only a few natural "defects". Moreover, valleys led to the plateau, which in ancient times the workers used as a kind of "ramps" for the transport of building materials, and the construction site had to consist of a solid rock mass in order to withstand the monstrous weight of the designed buildings. There should have been enough space around to accommodate the various buildings of the pyramid complex and the tombs of the courtiers, who aspired to a special favor - to be buried near the sovereign, whom they had served all their lives. Another requirement is a sufficient amount of stone in easily accessible places.
On the day the site was chosen, preparations began. The highest officials of the pharaoh directly observed the construction of the pyramid, and the monarch himself came from time to time to see how the work was going. The builders left nothing to chance. The architects worked according to a plan, which usually included all the internal corridors and rooms, although some were cut down later, from a solid mass of stone. The overseers carefully calculated what they would need; brigades of masons (each team had its own name) began to cut blocks of the required sizes. Basically, limestone from the vicinity of the pyramids was used for construction. Some details, such as lining of corridors and chambers, required the best limestone, which was also mined near Memphis. The exterior cladding was almost always made of excellent white limestone, which was mined in the quarries of Tura on the east bank of the Nile, a little south of modern Cairo. In addition, expeditions were sent for granite to Aswan and other specially selected quarries.
Rice. 4. Transportation of stone blocks from the quarries Tours
Meanwhile, the architects fixed the exact position of the pyramid. As a rule, the pyramids were built so that their faces were turned to the four cardinal points, so that the entrance in the north looked at the North Star. Orientation was not such a difficult matter, since the Egyptians knew astronomy well enough to develop a practical calendar at an early stage in their history.
Then the place had to be leveled. It is assumed that this was done quite easily: ditches were dug around the desired area, which were then filled with water. However, not all outstanding parts were necessarily leveled: some of them could be included in the building itself.
After that, the workers began to cut down the base of the pyramid. The best example of this stage of work is the unfinished tomb of Pharaoh Nebka at Zawiet el-Aryan between Giza and Abu Sir, where you can see a corridor going down, a pit for a burial chamber with a floor of granite blocks and a granite sarcophagus. (It is significant that the sarcophagus was put in place at such an early stage of construction.)
Rice. 5. Transportation of a colossal statue. From the tomb of Jhutihotep. El Berche
To transport stones, workers built ramps that led from the valley where the quarries were located to the plateau. Stones mined across the river or in remote places were transported on barges along the Nile and piled on the shore near the pyramid. Now the actual delivery begins. On a stone from the quarries of Tura there is an image showing the transport of blocks, in which we see oxen carrying a sleigh. It was unusual. Basically, a large number of people were used as traction, who dragged the sled by the ropes. According to another scene and its accompanying inscriptions, 172 men were dragging the alabaster colossus of the Twelfth Dynasty nomarch Jhutihotep from the quarries of Khatnuba to nearby El Bershe in Middle Egypt. The height of this statue was more than 6.5 meters, and it weighed more than 60 tons. It also shows people with crowbars; others pour liquid from vessels so that the wooden runners of the sleigh do not catch fire from friction. It is commonly thought that this liquid is water, however, if we look at copies of this image, especially those made in early XIX c., when the colors were still fresh, we will see that it is most likely milk. From a practical point of view, this was apparently more useful, since milk fat additionally lubricated the runners. The number of people who worked for this provincial governor was considered noteworthy. The author of the text proudly writes about their mighty hands and says that each had the strength of a thousand people.
There was a custom when transporting especially large or important monuments to put offerings on them and burn incense - apparently, so that the gods would favor this business and bring it to a successful end.
Workers very carefully hewn the edges of the stone blocks and laid them in place using a thin layer of lime mortar. After the first few rows of stones had been laid, it was no longer possible to work without new devices that would allow the builders to reach greater heights. According to those monuments that remained unfinished, we can say with confidence that mounds of earth and rubble served for this purpose. Brick retaining walls held the rubble in place; when the work was completed, all outbuildings were removed. Recent discoveries at Saqqara have shown that such mounds were built around the Unfinished Step Pyramid, and since it was not finished, they still remain in place. It can be assumed that the Egyptians used this method of construction in the construction of real pyramids. The construction of such ramps was almost as daunting a task as the construction of the pyramids themselves. Experts have discussed this issue in detail, various hypotheses have been put forward, but most agree that all the pyramids were built using ramps.
The outer lining was placed on the pyramid from the bottom up, as it was built, or from top to bottom, when the construction was completed and the embankments were removed. Both ways are possible. Judging by the design of some mastabas, it is more reasonable to assume that the workers put the lining in place as they worked and laid over the surface, demolishing the embankments.
Rice. 6. Section of the mound (ramp) used in the construction of the pyramid (according to Kroon)
Additional issues that needed to be addressed were the feeding and accommodation of people working on the construction of the pyramids, and the supply of water for drinking and construction. The barren, rocky plateau is devoid of water, and wells cannot be dug here. The answer to these questions was in the excellent organizational skills of the Egyptians. They built primitive barracks, with a brigade of no more than ten people living in each room. A special group prepared food and carried water for drinking and washing. Clothing and tools were issued from the royal warehouses.
Such work could not be done in a few years. The only evidence of how much time it took to build the pyramid was left to us by Herodotus. He mentions that it took Khufu thirty years to build the pyramid, of which ten years were spent on the construction of an earthen road and carving out additional buildings. Herodotus says that there were 100,000 workers and that they changed every three months. Examining the pyramid and agreeing with the figure given by Herodotus, we must come to the conclusion that the construction of such a monument with the help of ancient technologies would hardly have taken less time and effort.
Because of all the complex ceremonies associated with the cult of the dead, the pyramids were surrounded by many other buildings. All this together made up what is called the pyramid complex. In the mastaba tombs of the First and Second Dynasties, the pantries for offerings surrounded the burial chamber of the deceased, his family members and household members. All this was hidden forever, and the entrance to the tomb (from the north) was blocked and sealed. At the eastern side of the tomb there was a simple chapel, the main attributes of which were a stele or tombstone and a table for offerings. The royal tombs of Abydos were looted and destroyed, much was lost forever. We should not forget that the methods of excavation in the XIX century. were less accurate than modern ones, and therefore archaeologists could miss details that seem significant to us. For example, during recent excavations of tombs from this period at Saqqara and Helwan, archaeologists discovered boat pits. They were dug out on the sides of the mastaba - regardless of whether they belonged to representatives of the royal family or private individuals. Perhaps they were in the Abydos tombs, but they escaped the attention of archaeologists in the 19th century.
As we have seen, at the beginning of the Third Dynasty there were significant changes in the design of royal tombs. The tombs of a new type - step pyramids - had a temple on the north side, and a large tomb of the pharaoh on the south side. In fact, the latter should have been used not for burial, but for something else, since Djoser was buried in his Step Pyramid. No trace of a chapel has been found on the east side, and no boats have been found so far.
The reign of Sneferu, founder of the Fourth Dynasty, marked the beginning of a new era in Egyptian architecture. It is this time that the first real pyramid and the pyramid complex date back: they have become a generally accepted model for builders. The complex consisted of the following parts:
Pyramid in a stone fence (sometimes called temenos).
mortuary temple in front of the east side of the pyramid.
Chapel in front of the entrance to the north.
Rice. 7. Pyramid complex of Pepi II in the south of Saqqara (Restoration)
Small ritual pyramid in its own enclosure outside the wall of the southern enclosure of the main pyramid. This pyramid also had its own small temple with two steles in front of the eastern facade and, possibly, a temple in front of the entrance on the north side. It was never used for burial, its small inner chamber contained only vases and pottery.
Pits carved into the rock in the form of boats. They have not yet been found around the pyramids of Snefru, since the places where they could be located are still not fully excavated, but they are found at the pyramid of Snefru's son - Khufu, as well as in Abu Roash, at the Second Pyramid of Giza and in other places. . Long before the discovery of large wooden boats south of Great Pyramid in one of the large pits for rooks belonging to the same complex, pieces of gilded wood and ropes were found.
big ramp(caused road) connected the fence of the upper pyramid with the lower temple near the border of cultivated land.
lower temple was at the lower end of the road and served as the entrance to the entire complex. There were many statues and steles here.
The body of the deceased pharaoh was brought to the lower temple to be washed and cleansed; then it was subjected to various mummification processes. Scholars have proved that three important ceremonies were held in this temple during the Fourth Dynasty. The first of these is washing and cleansing the body. This ritual did not last long. The second - mummification - lasted much longer. (In the tomb of one of the queens at Giza, it is attested that 272 days elapsed between her death and burial.) The third ceremony, called the "Opening of the Mouth", was performed after the completion of mummification on the day of burial. This was magical rite, designed to enable the body to speak and use offerings again in another, much more important life, which was to begin after death.
Rice. eight. Hem-necher priest. Image in one of the tombs of the Giza Necropolis
The washing of the body could take place in the first hall of the lower temple, and perhaps on its roof. We do not know where the embalming took place. However, all experts agree that the “Opening of the Mouth” was performed in front of the statues in the great hall of the temple. Later, these ceremonies were held in the mortuary temple to the east of the pyramid.
After the mummy was placed in the tomb, the entrance to the pyramid was closed forever: it was hidden behind one of the facing stones, and the priests began their services, which were supposed to last forever. Funeral services for the deceased pharaoh in the temples at the pyramids consisted mainly of daily offerings; each item was accompanied by a special prayer or other ritual. These offerings resembled the serving of a completely earthly dinner. The offerings were accompanied by a purification ceremony, in which incense, soda balls and pure water played an important role. This act was followed by libations and a final cleansing. There were also special duties and ceremonies on official feast days, which the Egyptian calendar lacked. The people may have taken part in them and had access to certain parts of the temples.
The son of the deceased pharaoh had to prepare his father's burial, take part in some of the ceremonies, and complete the unfinished parts of the tomb. Some did their duty conscientiously, some only partly (if they did it at all). Undoubtedly, the political situation in the era of change was also an important factor.
The priests who served the gods, kings and queens were called hem-necher(servants of God). Those who served the cult of persons of non-royal dignity were called hem-ka(servants of Ka). In addition, the cults of both pharaohs and private individuals required the services of priests (purifiers). Priests uab served the pharaoh during his lifetime; Doctors were also called this title. Like among hem-necher, as well as among uab there were various degrees. Some were recruits, some were watchers and overseers.
The priests read prayers and chants in a special way, with special gestures and postures. If the ceremony was not performed according to the ritual tradition, it was considered invalid. Each pyramid required a large number of priests engaged in its cult; they were divided into shifts that were on duty at certain times of the day and on certain days of the month. Most of the priests also had lay positions. Women could also hold certain positions in the priesthood of the pyramid cult; the path to the highest position was not closed to them - hem-necher. Certain priestly titles were hereditary in some families for many generations. This explains why the same name is found among the priests of different periods. For example, in the Old Kingdom there was a man named Snefruhotep who held the position of "Observer of the Priests of Sneferu", and in the Middle Kingdom one could meet a person with the same name and title. He was most likely a descendant of the first Snefruhotep. People who took part in the cult of a god or pharaoh often bore names that included the name of the god or king they served.
The pharaohs bequeathed large estates to their tombs, so that the priests could make offerings forever. Donations were indefinite, and the cults of pharaohs buried during the Old Kingdom continued to exist for thousands of years. It is known that the priests of Sneferu, Khufu, Djedefra and Khafra continued their service in the ruins of temples even under the Ptolemies. The estates were monitored by a huge number of secular officials. These were guards, scribes, masters of secrets (secretaries), overseers and people who looked after the property of the temple. In addition, there were tenant peasants who cultivated the land on the estates at the pyramids and in exchange supplied the temples with food. The administrative buildings of these estates usually stood not far from the temples. Here were also the houses of the priests.
So, the now silent ruins of the pyramids and their temples were once full of priests who made offerings to the dead pharaohs. Today we find here only stone, rubble, and sometimes walls. But once the pyramids with their brilliant white cladding lit up the surroundings, majestic temples towered nearby, in the halls of which hymns and chants of worthy priests rang, so solemn and majestic in their white robes. The flower-covered altars were bursting with offerings, and the aroma of incense added to the atmosphere of reverence. But although now no prayers are heard and the echoes of the chants of the priests no longer sound in the walls, frescoes and inscriptions buried in graves and temples testify to a vibrant life that has died out over the centuries.
Ancient Egypt known primarily for its stone giants - the pyramids that served for the burial of Egyptian kings and pharaohs. However, not all Egyptian rulers found their resting place inside the pyramids, and this is not the only mystery of the Egyptian pyramids. And although scientists have been studying the pyramids for more than a century, only recently they managed to lift the veil of secrecy over how the Egyptians built them and why they abandoned construction.
The ancient Egyptians began to build pyramids from time immemorial - even before the beginning of the era of the Old Kingdom, widely known for such buildings as the Pyramid of Djoser, the Pink Pyramid, the pyramids at Giza and the pyramid of Medum. However, the older pyramids were dozens of times smaller, and were intended for the burial of not only Egyptian kings. It is possible that they also contained mass graves. However, since the beginning of the Old Kingdom era, Egyptian kings preferred to be buried inside the pyramid.
To realize the engineering genius of the Egyptians, it is worth making a small lyrical digression.
In 2004, a group of scientists from Japan, which included mathematicians, physicists, and architects, decided to solve the mystery of the construction of the pyramids. It is worth recalling that Egyptian pyramids built with such precision that the angle between the laying of cobblestones is exactly 90 ͦ, and the stones are perfectly aligned with each other. Simply put, the pyramid is just an ideal construction in terms of both mathematics and architecture. So, Japanese researchers, taking into account all modern technologies failed to achieve the same accuracy in construction. On the basis of which a group of researchers made the only “correct” conclusion: if we cannot build with our technologies, the ancient Egyptians could not, which means there are no pyramids. However, as adherents of ufology did not want, aliens have nothing to do with it either, nothing to do with hoaxes surrounding, for example. All of the above was given so that the reader could realize not only the scale of the pyramids, but also the amount of effort, resources and time that went into their construction.
The construction of the pyramid began immediately after the new king or pharaoh came to power, as it took decades. It is also worth noting that the pyramids were not built by slaves at all, as was long thought. Recent studies and excavations have shown that many ordinary Egyptians were involved in the construction, of which there were a majority at the construction site. In fact, almost all of Egypt was engaged in the construction of the pyramid. Entire cities of workers have been found in the areas of the pyramids. According to historians, the construction of the pyramid for the inhabitants of Egypt was a kind of labor service, everyone had to work for several years on the construction of the tomb. The construction of a “resting place” for the king required a lot of resources, in particular, hard-to-get stone, limestone, was needed in large quantities. Thus, the protracted funeral of one person extremely heavily burdened the economy of the state.
The construction of the pyramids also had serious social consequences. The Egyptians, although they were forced to obey the will of the ruler, to put it mildly, did not approve of the construction. And the point was not at all in forced labor, but in the fact that, cut off from their own household men, often returning home, found a missing crop or a dilapidated trading shop. At the same time, the pyramids were built by the Egyptian kings always and no matter what: whether in the country of disease, famine or war. Of course, sometimes the construction was "frozen", but this happened in exceptional cases.
More than once, the construction of the pyramid brought Egypt to the brink of a "global economic crisis." So, already at the time of the construction of the pyramid of Djoser, which is considered the first pyramid of Ancient Egypt, indignation arose among the population of the country regarding the new addiction of the king. The construction of the first pyramid was complicated by the fact that the country was fatally short of stone for its construction. King Djoser spent incredible amounts of money on the purchase of basic material and even more hands on its extraction and transportation. So, in some ancient Egyptian records, an Egyptian anecdote of that time has been preserved that the king makes his daughter sleep with the princes of his neighbors so that they supply more and more stone to the country. Apparently this joke of the ancient Egyptians reflected the deplorable economic situation.
The construction of the pyramids greatly "distracted" the kings and pharaohs from a number of important tasks, in particular, from the development of the state. Of course, it is not worth blaming the pyramids for the fall of several Egyptian kingdoms, however, they did not add greatness to the country in the political arena. With the possible exception of the Greeks, who have always admired the architectural genius of their overseas neighbors. Pyramids were also built in the era of the Middle Kingdom and even at the beginning of the era of the New Kingdom. However, gradually in ancient Egypt, the rejection of such buildings began to occur. Historians believe that Ramesses II became an innovator in the field of burials, who preferred to move to temple, foothill burials. The reason for this was not only the "high cost" of the pyramids, but also the plight of Egypt, at the beginning of the era of the New Kingdom, which at the time of Ramesses had not yet been forgotten.
Although the pyramids were almost forgotten during the New Kingdom era, the Egyptians did not lose their craving for gigantic buildings. It was under Ramses II that the largest temple complexes were created, and sculpture begins to develop actively. In addition to construction, Ramesses pays much attention to the expansion of the state and its economic strengthening: he reforms the army, economy, foreign and internal politics, bringing Ancient Egypt of the New Kingdom era to its highest point development. However, this is completely different. The era of stone giants goes with Ramesses into the past.
