Message about Napoleon 2. Napoleon II: biography and interesting facts
Plan
Introduction
1 General characteristics
2 Biography
2.1 Childhood
2.2 Early life
2.3 Early military career
2.4 Rise to power
2.5 Napoleon's domestic policy
2.5.1 "Grand Army"
2.5.2 Napoleon's military campaigns and the battles that characterize them
2.5.3 Marshals of Napoleon
2.5.4 Napoleon's generals
2.5.5 Economic policy, wars and continental blockade
2.5.6 Crisis and fall of the Empire (1812-1815)
2.6 Saint Helena
2.7 Death of Napoleon
3 Mathematics
4 Family of Napoleon I
4.1 Marriages and children
4.1.1 Foster children
4.2 Extramarital affairs
5 The image of Napoleon in art
5.1 In painting
5.2 In monumental art
5.2.1 Equestrian statues
5.2.2 Mast statues
5.2.2.1 As a military leader and statesman
5.2.2.2 In the form of gods, ancient heroes and emperors
5.3 In film
6 Napoleon in philately
7 Napoleon in computer games
8 Napoleon in botany
Bibliography
Napoleon I
Introduction
Napoleon I Bonaparte (Italian Napoleone Buonaparte, French Napoléon Bonaparte, August 15, 1769, Ajaccio, Corsica - May 5, 1821, Longwood, Saint Helena) - Emperor of the French in 1804-1815, French commander and statesman who laid the foundations of modern French state.
1. General characteristics
Napoleone Buonaparte (as his name was pronounced until about 1800) began his professional military service in 1785 with the rank of second lieutenant of artillery; advanced during the French Revolution, reaching the rank of brigade under the Directory (after the capture of Toulon on December 17, 1793, the appointment took place on January 14, 1794), and then the divisional general and the post of commander of the rear military forces (after the defeat of the rebellion of 13 Vendemière 1795 ), and then the commander of the Italian army (the appointment took place on February 23, 1796).
In November 1799, he carried out a coup d'état (18 Brumaire), as a result of which he became the first consul, thereby effectively concentrating all power in his hands. May 18, 1804 proclaimed himself emperor. Established a dictatorial regime. He carried out a number of reforms (the adoption of a civil code (1804), the foundation of the French Bank (1800), etc.).
The victorious Napoleonic Wars, especially the first Austrian campaign of 1805, the Prussian campaign of 1806, the Polish campaign of 1807, contributed to the transformation of France into the main power on the continent. However, Napoleon's unsuccessful rivalry with the "mistress of the seas" Great Britain did not allow this status to be fully consolidated. The defeat of the Grand Army in the war of 1812 against Russia marked the beginning of the collapse of the empire of Napoleon I. After the "battle of the peoples" near Leipzig, Napoleon could no longer resist the allies. The entry of troops of the anti-French coalition into Paris in 1814 forced Napoleon I to abdicate. He was exiled to Fr. Elbe. Re-occupied the French throne in March 1815 (One Hundred Days). After the defeat at Waterloo, he abdicated a second time (June 22, 1815). He spent the last years of his life on about. St. Helena a prisoner of the British. His ashes have been in the Les Invalides in Paris since 1840.
Titles: General of the French Revolutionary Army, First Consul of the French Republic (since 1799), Emperor of France (May 18, 1804 - April 11, 1814, March 12, 1815 - June 22, 1815), King of Italy (since 1805), Protector of the Confederation of the Rhine (since 1806)
2. Biography
2.1. Childhood
Carlo Buonaparte (Anne-Louis Girodet-Trioson, 1806)
Letitia Ramolino
Napoleon was born in Ajaccio on the island of Corsica, which for a long time was under the control of the Republic of Genoa. In 1755, Corsica overthrew the Genoese domination and from that time actually existed as an independent state under the leadership of the local landowner Pasquale Paoli, whose secretary was Napoleon's father. In 1768, the Republic of Genoa sold its rights to Corsica to the French King Louis XV. In May 1769, at the Battle of Pontenuovo, French troops defeated the Corsican rebels, and Paoli emigrated to England. Napoleon was born 3 months after these events. Paoli until the 1790s remained his idol.
Napoleon was the second of 13 children of Carlo Buonaparte and Letizia Ramolino, five of whom died at an early age. The family belonged to small aristocrats and lived on the island from the beginning of the 16th century. Although in the past Carlo Buonaparte was one of the drafters of the Constitution of Corsica, he submitted to the French sovereignty in order to be able to educate children in France. This helped him achieve the favor of the French, and in 1771 Carlo received the position of assessor and became a representative of the nobility in the Corsican parliament in Paris.
Initially, the children studied at the city school of Ajaccio, later Napoleon and some of his brothers and sisters studied writing and mathematics with the abbot. Napoleon achieved particular success in mathematics and ballistics.
2.2. Youth
Napoleon at the age of 16 (chalk drawing by an unknown author)
Thanks to cooperation with the French, Carlo Buonaparte managed to obtain royal scholarships for his two eldest sons, Joseph and Napoleon (there were 5 sons and 3 daughters in the family). While Joseph was preparing to become a priest, Napoleon was destined for a military career. In December 1778, both boys left the island and were taken to a college in Autun, mainly for the purpose of learning French, although Napoleon spoke with a thick accent all his life. The following year, Napoleon entered the cadet school in Brienne. Napoleon had no friends in college, since he came from a not very rich family, and besides, he was a Corsican, moreover, with pronounced patriotism for his native island and hostility towards the French as the enslavers of Corsica. It was in Brienne that the name Napoleone Buonaparte began to be pronounced in the French manner - "Napoleon Bonaparte".
Napoleon achieved particular success in mathematics; the humanities, on the contrary, were given to him with difficulty. For example, in Latin, he was so weak that the teachers did not even allow him to take exams. In addition, he made quite a lot of mistakes when writing, but his style became much better thanks to his love of reading. Napoleon was most interested in such characters as Alexander the Great and Julius Caesar. Already from that early time, Napoleon worked extremely hard and read books in various fields of knowledge: travel, geography, history, strategy, tactics, artillery, philosophy.
Thanks to the victory (which Napoleon was very surprised) in the "Queen's Necklace" competition, he was admitted to the Royal Cadet School (École royale militaire) in Paris. There he studied the following subjects: hydrostatics, differential calculus, integrals, and public law. As before, he shocked the teachers with his admiration for Paoli, Corsica, hostility to France. He fought a lot at that time, he was very lonely, Napoleon had practically no friends. He studied during this period excellently, read a lot, compiling extensive notes. True, he could not master the German language. Later, he expressed an extremely negative attitude towards this language and wondered how it was possible to learn at least one word of it.
On February 14, 1785, his father died, and Napoleon assumed the role of head of the family, although according to the rules, the eldest son (who was not as powerful as his brilliant brother) should have become the head of the family. In the same year, he completed his education ahead of schedule and began his professional career at Valence with the rank of lieutenant. In June 1788 he was transferred to Oson. To help his mother, he took in his 11-year-old brother Louis to be raised. Extremely poor, he ate twice a day milk and bread. However, Napoleon tried not to show his depressing financial situation.
In his spare time, Napoleon loved to read, and he also wrote. Tarle writes that during this time he studied more than created his own ideas. He read a lot, and diverse literature, from novels to textbooks, from the works of Plato to the works of contemporary authors at that time, such as Voltaire, Pierre Corneille, Lavater, as well as scientific articles. "The Sufferings of Young Werther" by Goethe were read by Napoleon many times. Along with this, Napoleon read articles on military affairs, and later, when he became more and more interested in politics, Jean Jacques Rousseau became his favorite author. A little later - Guillam Raynal. Bonaparte showed extraordinary efficiency and diligence.
The journalistic works of Napoleon during the revolution (“Dialogue on Love”, “Dialogue sur l’amour”, 1791, “Supper at Beaucaire”, “Le Souper de Beaucaire”, 1793) indicate that his political sympathies were on the side of the Jacobins.
2.3. The beginning of a military career
"Napoleon on the Arcole Bridge", Jean-Antoine Gros, 1801
Released in 1785 from the Paris Military School to the army with the rank of lieutenant, Bonaparte for 10 years went through the entire hierarchy of rank production in the army of France at that time. In 1788, being a lieutenant, he tried to enter the Russian service, but was refused by Lieutenant General Zaborovsky, who led the recruitment of volunteers to participate in the war with Turkey. Literally a month before Napoleon's request for admission to the Russian army, a decree was issued on the acceptance of foreigners for service with a lower rank, to which Napoleon did not agree. In the heat of the moment, he ran out from Zaborovsky, shouting that he would offer his services to the King of Prussia: "The King of Prussia will give me the rank of captain." Bonaparte's first combat experience was participation in an expedition to Sardinia. The landing force landed from Corsica was quickly defeated, however, Lieutenant Colonel Buonaparte, who commanded a small artillery battery of four guns, distinguished himself: he made every effort to save the guns, but they still had to be riveted, since by the time they were brought to the coast there were already only small court. In 1789, having received a vacation, he went to his homeland in Corsica, where he was caught by the French Revolution, which he unconditionally supported. In 1793, Pasquale Paolo announced the independence of Corsica from France, Napoleon regarded this as a betrayal of the ideas of the Great French Revolution and renounced the ideas of Paolo, whom he considered his idol in childhood. He openly opposed the policy of the authorities of Corsica for complete independence and, in view of the threat of political persecution, having left the island, returned to France. By the time of his appearance near Toulon (September 1793), he was in the rank of captain of regular artillery, but in addition he also confirmed the rank of lieutenant colonel of volunteers (since September 17). Already in Toulon in October 1793, Bonaparte received the post of battalion commander (corresponding to the rank of major). Finally, appointed head of artillery in the army besieging Toulon, occupied by the British, Bonaparte carried out a brilliant military operation. Toulon was taken, and at the age of 24 he himself received the rank of brigadier general - a cross between the ranks of colonel and major general. The new rank was assigned to him on January 14, 1794.
| Prince of Parma |
Tuileries, Paris, France
Schönbrunn, Vienna, Austria
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After the defeat at Waterloo, Napoleon abdicated in favor of his son, whom he proclaimed emperor under the name of Napoleon II; but the King of Rome was not in France, and renunciation, under the conditions of that time, could not be of practical importance.
Eaglet in Austria
After the first abdication of Napoleon I in 1814, Marie-Louise moved to Austria and settled with her son near Vienna, in Schönbrunn Castle. When Napoleon I returned to France in 1815, he demanded the return of his wife and son from the Austrian government, but to no avail. The four-year-old Roman king stayed with his mother in Austria and was brought up there by Matthew Collinus.
When Marie-Louise, in 1816, moved to Parma, her son remained in Vienna with his grandfather Franz I of Austria. A treaty concluded in 1817 between the allies deprived him of his hereditary rights to Parma; for this the Austrian Emperor rewarded him with the Bohemian Duchy of Reichstadt, with the title of "Lordship".
At the court of his grandfather, in Vienna, they tried not to mention his father in his presence, he was considered "the son of Her Highness the Archduchess", from childhood he was taught the German name Franz, not Napoleon. Despite this, he knew about his father, was his ardent admirer and was burdened by the Austrian court. From the age of 12, the Duke of Reichstadt was considered in military service, in which by 1830 he had risen to the rank of major. Legends constantly formed around his name; everyone was well aware that in the event of any political complications, the name of Napoleon II alone could serve as a banner for a dangerous movement. It was for this reason that the timid attempt of the Bonapartists to put forward his candidacy for the throne of Belgium was immediately thwarted by Vienna, Paris and London. Napoleon II himself, who knew about his origin, carefully studied military affairs and constantly dreamed of glory and exploits. But he was a very sickly youth; his premature death on July 22, 1832 from tuberculosis at the age of 21 in Schönbrunn saved diplomacy and the Austrian court from many difficulties. There were rumors that he was poisoned.
posthumous fate
His cousin Prince Louis Napoleon, on proclaiming himself Emperor in 1852, took the name Napoleon III; thus, he considered, after the fact, Napoleon II as the head of the dynasty in -1832, and himself as his heir.
In 1940, on the orders of Adolf Hitler, the remains of the Duke of Reichstadt were transferred from Vienna (then part of the Third Reich) to Paris (German-occupied) and buried in Les Invalides near the tomb of his father; at the same time, the heart of the deceased, kept separately, according to the then custom, remained in Vienna. This happened exactly 100 years after the ashes of Napoleon himself were transferred to the Les Invalides.
The fate of Napoleon II inspired Edmond Rostand to the drama "Eaglet" ( L'Aiglon). Through this work, Marina Tsvetaeva became a fan of the personality of both Napoleons - father and son. It is believed that Janusz Korczak's book "King Matt I" was inspired by the fate of Napoleon II.
Awards
see also
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Notes
Literature
- Andre Castelo.. - M .: Zakharov, 2007. - 668 p. - ISBN 978-5-8159-0737-9.
- Charles Laurent. Son of Napoleon. Tashkent, Main edition of the publishing and printing concern "Sharq", 1994
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An excerpt characterizing Napoleon II
– To my great regret, Madonna Isidora! exclaimed the cardinal, with feigned disappointment. "Will you allow me to visit you sometime?" They say you have a very gifted daughter? I would love to meet and talk with her. I hope she's as beautiful as her mother...“My daughter, Anna, is only ten years old, my lord,” I replied as calmly as possible.
And my soul screamed from animal horror! .. He knew everything about me! .. Why, well, why did crazy Karaffa need me? .. Why was he interested in my little Anna ?!
Is it because I was reputed to be the famous Vidunya, and he considered me his worst enemy? .. After all, it didn’t matter to him what they called me, for the “Grand Inquisitor” I was just a witch, and he burned witches at the stake .. .
I strongly and wholeheartedly loved Life! And I, like every normal person, really wanted it to last as long as possible. After all, even the most notorious scoundrel, who may have taken the lives of others, cherishes every minute lived, every day lived of his precious life for him! .. But it was at that moment that I suddenly realized very clearly that it was he, Karaffa, will take her away, my short and such a valuable, unlived life for me...
- A great spirit is born in a small body, Madonna Isidora. Even holy Jesus was once a child. I will be very happy to visit you! - and bowing gracefully, Caraffa left.
The world was collapsing... It crumbled into small pieces, each of which reflected a predatory, thin, intelligent face....
I tried to somehow calm down and not panic, but for some reason it did not work. This time my usual self-confidence and in my abilities let me down, and this made it even more terrible. The day was as sunny and bright as just a few minutes ago, but darkness settled in my soul. As it turned out, I had been waiting for the appearance of this man for a long time. And all my nightmarish visions about fires were only a premonition... to today's meeting with him.
Returning home, I immediately persuaded my husband to take little Anna and take her somewhere far away, where the evil tentacles of Karaffa could not get her. And she herself began to prepare for the worst, because she knew for sure that his arrival would not be long in coming. And I wasn't wrong...
A few days later, my beloved black maid Kay (at that time it was very fashionable to have black servants in rich houses) reported that "His Eminence, the Cardinal, is waiting for me in the pink drawing room." And I felt that something was going to happen right now...
I was wearing a light yellow silk dress and I knew that this color suits me very well. But if there was one single person in the world in front of whom I did not want to look attractive, then it was certainly Caraffa. But there was no time left for changing clothes, and I had to go out just like that.
He was waiting, calmly leaning back in his chair, studying some old manuscript, of which there were a myriad of in our house. I put on a pleasant smile and went down to the living room. Seeing me, Caraffa for some reason froze without uttering a word. The silence dragged on, and it seemed to me that the cardinal was about to hear my frightened heart beating treacherously loudly ... But then, finally, his enthusiastic, hoarse voice rang out:
- You are amazing, Madonna Isidora! Even this sunny morning loses next to you!
“I never thought cardinals were allowed to compliment ladies!” - with the greatest effort, continuing to smile, I squeezed out.
- Cardinals are people too, Madonna, and they know how to distinguish beauty from simplicity ... And where is your wonderful daughter? Will I be able to enjoy double beauty today?
“She is not in Venice, Your Eminence. She and her father went to Florence to visit her sick cousin.
- As far as I know, there are no patients in your family at the moment. Who fell ill so suddenly, Madonna Isidora? There was an undisguised threat in his voice...
Caraffa began to play openly. And I had no choice but to meet the danger face to face ...
“What do you want from me, Your Eminence?” Wouldn't it be easier to say it directly, saving us both from this unnecessary, cheap game? We are smart enough people that, even with a difference in views, we can respect each other.
My legs were trembling with horror, but for some reason Karaffa did not notice this. He glared at my face with burning eyes, not answering and not noticing anything around. I could not understand what was happening, and all this dangerous comedy frightened me more and more ... But then something completely unforeseen happened, something completely beyond the usual framework ... Caraffa came very close to me, everything in the same way, without taking his burning eyes off, and almost without breathing, he whispered:
– You cannot be from God... You are too beautiful! You are a witch!!! A woman has no right to be so beautiful! You are from the Devil!
And turning around, he rushed out of the house without looking back, as if Satan himself was chasing him ... I stood in complete shock, still expecting to hear his steps, but nothing happened. Gradually coming to my senses, and finally managing to relax my stiff body, I took a deep breath and... lost consciousness. I woke up in bed, drinking hot wine from the hands of my sweet maid Kei. But then, remembering what had happened, she jumped to her feet and began to rush around the room, not really understanding what to do ... Time passed, and I had to do something, think of something in order to somehow protect myself and his family from this bipedal monster. I knew for sure that now every game was over, that the war had begun. But our forces, to my great regret, were very, very unequal... Naturally, I could defeat him in my own way... I could even just stop his bloodthirsty heart. And all these horrors would immediately end. But the fact is that, even at thirty-six years old, I was still too pure and kind to kill ... I never took life, on the contrary - very often gave it back. And even such a terrible person as Karaffa was, she could not yet execute ...
The next morning there was a loud knock on the door. My heart has stopped. I knew it was the Inquisition... They took me away, accusing me of "verbiage and witchcraft, intoxicating honest citizens with false predictions and heresy"... That was the end.
The room in which I was settled was very damp and dark, but for some reason it seemed to me that I would not stay in it for a long time. Caraffa came at noon...
On March 11, 1810, in Vienna, with great solemnity, in the presence of the entire Austrian imperial family, court and diplomatic corps, the solemn marriage of Archduchess Marie-Louise with Emperor Napoleon, who was represented by proxy by Marshal Berthier, took place. This marriage ended a long string of years during which the French emperor, who freely controlled the fate of European monarchies, could not solve his own dynastic problem and acquire offspring. The Bonaparte clan wove a very intricate intrigue to convince the emperor of the ability to bear children. As a result, after Napoleon, three sons remained, whose fate was very different. Photo: top: AKG/EAST NEWS
Napoleon married Josephine de Beauharnais in March 1796, but they never had children in ten years of marriage. Meanwhile, Josephine had two children from her first husband, Viscount Alexander de Beauharnais, and this circumstance terribly unnerved her new husband. A man accustomed to brilliantly solve any problems that arose before him, simply could not believe that in this family-dynastic business he had suffered a final failure.
In 1805, Napoleon won the greatest victory of his career, defeating the combined forces of two emperors at Austerlitz - Russian and Austrian. At the beginning of 1806, he returned triumphantly to France and immediately struck up a relationship with the young beauty Eleanor Denuel de la Plaigne, his sister Caroline's lecturer.
She was a slender brunette with huge black eyes, lively, flirtatious and witty. A girl from a good family, the daughter of a Parisian bourgeois, who graduated from the famous boarding school of noble maidens Madame Campan (where she met Caroline Bonaparte), she unsuccessfully married. Her first husband introduced himself as a dragoon officer, Jean Revel, but turned out to be an ordinary swindler and soon ended up in prison. Having settled in the service of her friend, Eleanor soon became close to her loving husband, Marshal Joachim Murat. The emperor himself, who did not like to spend a lot of time on preludes, also did not have to persuade her for a long time - Caroline, who hated Josephine, who had influence on her older brother, took care of this. Napoleon had by this time been married to Josephine for ten years and considered himself barren. Therefore, he did not expect that young Eleanor would be able to give birth to a child for him. However, their love meetings soon led to a result that Caroline and the entire Corsican Bonaparte clan, who dreamed of divorcing Napoleon with the "foreigner" Josephine, were counting on. Eleanor became pregnant and gave birth to a boy nine months later. It happened on December 13, 1806 at two o'clock in the morning.
The emperor at that time fought in Poland. When Marshal François-Joseph Lefebvre told him the good news, overjoyed Napoleon exclaimed: “At last I have a son!” At first, a crazy idea even came to his mind to adopt a child, but he soon changed his mind - the emperor needed a legitimate heir. Napoleon refrained from formal recognition of his son and even forbade giving him his full name. But now he firmly decided to part with his beloved, but unable to give birth to an heir, Josephine.
Little Charles, Count of Leon, was placed in the care of Madame Loire, the former nurse of Achille, son of Caroline and Marshal Murat. Napoleon gave his son an annual allowance of 30,000 francs (in current prices, approximately 1 million euros), and his mother - 22,000 francs, but he no longer wanted to see her - she ceased to be interesting to him. When in 1807 Eleanor came to Fontainebleau without permission, the emperor even refused to accept her. After that, on February 4, 1808, she married the young lieutenant Pierre-Philippe Ogier, but four years later he went missing in Russia during the infamous crossing of the remnants of the French army across the Berezina.
And only in 1814 she successfully entered into a new marriage with a major of the Bavarian army, Count Karl-August-Emil von Luxburg. The first husband, who had been released from prison by that time, tried to protest the divorce and regain the newly-minted countess, but to no avail. The von Luxburgs lived comfortably for thirty-five years - first in Mannheim and then in Paris, where the count was appointed ambassador.
firstborn
Eleanor, who played her part, was no longer interested in the emperor, but he welcomed the young Charles and even spoiled him. The boy was often brought to the Tuileries to his father, who loved to play with him and gave him expensive gifts. It seemed that the emperor could not get enough of the child, who dispelled doubts about his ability to become a father. Napoleon appointed Baron Mathieu de Movière, father-in-law of his personal secretary Claude-Francois de Meneval, as the guardian of his son. And after Waterloo, when the Bonapartes from the august family became just private individuals, Napoleon's mother Letizia and his uncle, Cardinal Joseph Fesch, took up the upbringing of the child. From early childhood, Count Leon showed a violent and rebellious temper. He was like two drops of water similar to his father in childhood, which especially touched his grandmother Letizia.
In a will written on the island of Saint Helena, Napoleon allocated 300,000 francs to his son and expressed the wish that he become a magistrate. However, the imperial son was not interested in a quiet life. Having reached adulthood, the young man, whom everyone around called Count Leon, began to lead a dissolute and wasteful life. Being outwardly a copy of his father, he did not possess his purposefulness at all. He entered the University of Heidelberg, but quickly abandoned his studies. Then he tried to implement one after another a variety of projects (up to the construction of a submarine). He entered military service as the commander of a battalion of the National Guard of Saint-Denis, but he was soon dismissed "for negligent attitude to official duties." He even tried to become a priest, but failed. But he turned into an inveterate duelist. In 1832, Count Leon killed in a duel in the Bois de Vincennes Karl Hesse, the illegitimate offspring of one of the English princes (cousin of the future Queen Victoria), adjutant of the Duke of Wellington. It was not an act of revenge for his father, as one might think - Count Leon and Hesse quarreled at the card table. The Count was a passionate gambler. Once, in one night, he lost 45,000 francs (in modern money - about a million and a quarter euros).
With such squandering, the money left by the emperor could not be enough for a long time. Meanwhile, the count believed that, being the son of a great man, he had a natural right to an outstanding role in society. And many considered it an honor to make acquaintance with the son of Napoleon. But Count Leon did not accomplish great deeds. He spent his life at the gaming table, behind the scenes of theaters and in the boudoir of the ladies of the demi-monde, as well as in the stables. An excellent rider and great lover of horses, he could shell out a fortune for a good horse. And he threw huge sums left and right, and when the money ran out, he easily got into debt. In 1838, creditors even put him in jail, but not for long.
In 1840, Count Leon decided to try his luck in England, where his wealthy relative, Prince Charles-Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte, Napoleon's nephew and grandson of Josephine de Beauharnais, lived in exile, and began to extract money from his cousin. He did it in such a brazen manner that it came to a duel. But, fortunately, not to bloodshed. The seconds of Charles-Louis-Napoleon brought two swords to the intended place of the duel in Wimbledon, and the seconds of Count Leon brought two pistols. A long argument about which weapon to choose ended with the appearance of the police, who separated the failed duelists. Deported back to France, Count Leon successfully led a lawsuit against his mother, Countess von Luxburg, the court ordered her to pay him an annual allowance of 4,000 francs. He was also good at malicious and vicious pamphlets. They began to bring good fees, which, however, he immediately squandered.
In the late 1840s, Napoleon's son finally had the opportunity to try his hand at political battles. On the Apennine Peninsula, there was a struggle for independence from Austria and unification, and many expected that Pope Pius IX would help the Italian states unite. Count Leon wrote to the pope and offered himself as king of Italy, but apparently no one but Leon himself could imagine him in this role.
Having suffered a fiasco in Italy, Count Leon seriously took up French affairs. In March 1848, after the expulsion of King Louis-Philippe, he solemnly promised to preserve the French Republic, speaking out against all monarchists, including Bonapartists, who wanted to enthrone his cousin Charles-Louis-Napoleon. When the unloved relative nevertheless became Emperor Napoleon III, Count Leon began to seek his appointment to the public service and the payment of his debts. The cousin could not forgive the Wimbledon duel and did not give the post. But he provided a pension of 6,000 francs and allocated 255,000 francs, of which 45,000 went to pay off the count's debts, and the remainder provided an annual income of 10,000 francs. But even this money turned out to be too little for a hardened player. And soon Count Leon began again to beg for money from his crowned kinsman. Old age was approaching, funds were becoming scarcer, and the old reveler finally settled down somewhat. He reconciled with his mother, with whom he had been at enmity for so long, and in 1862 he married a woman with whom he had already lived for nine years and who bore him six children. And although Francoise Jaunet was immeasurably lower than his position - her father once served as a gardener for Count Leon - she remained faithful to her husband and was 25 years younger than him.
Finally, the first-born of the great emperor went bankrupt after the overthrow of Napoleon III, the man he once wanted to kill in a duel was the last one who helped him stay afloat. Poverty has set in. Count Leon died in Pontoise on April 14, 1881 at the age of 75, and was buried at the expense of the municipality as a beggar vagabond.
Polish novel
The need for a divorce from Josephine became finally clear to the emperor after the news of the pregnancy of his new girlfriend, Maria Walewska, whom he met in 1807 in Warsaw. If Eleanor Denuel de la Plaigne was a rather windy person and Napoleon could still have some doubts about his paternity, then this time he was ready to vouch for the loyalty of his beloved. They say that at first Mary gave in to the courtship of the emperor out of patriotic feelings: the gentry hoped that a love affair with a Polish woman would make Napoleon think more about the interests of her homeland. But soon the twenty-year-old girl, not out of love given by her parents to the elderly aristocrat Anastasia Colonna-Valevsky, fell head over heels in love with Napoleon. Having moved to Paris at the beginning of 1808, she settled on Victory Street, not far from the apartment in which Eleanor Denuel de la Plaine, already known to us, lived, who had already received her resignation at that time. And in 1809, Maria, in love, followed the emperor to Austria. It was there, in Schönbrunn, that Maria announced to Napoleon that she would soon become a mother.
In October 1809, Walewska went to Poland to give birth there on May 4, 1810, to a child named Alexander. Six months later, with her son in her arms, she returned to Paris, but the place next to Napoleon, and all his thoughts, was already occupied by another woman - Princess Marie-Louise of Austria.
Marriage of convenience
Having divorced Josephine, Napoleon immediately began choosing a new wife, who was supposed to give birth to a legitimate heir to the throne. On January 28, 1810, a special meeting of the highest dignitaries of the empire was convened on this issue. The choice was not rich. The marriage alliance was supposed to guarantee the Napoleonic dynasty a place in the sun, and therefore, it had to be concluded with a great power. In addition to France, there were three of them in the then world. But with England there was a constant war not for life, but for death, and the choice remained between Russia and Austria.
Most ministers supported the candidacy of Grand Duchess Anna Pavlovna, sister of Emperor Alexander I, and only a few, including Foreign Minister Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord, for the Austrian Archduchess Marie-Louise, daughter of Emperor Franz I. Russia was much stronger than Austria , just once again defeated by the French troops. However, Alexander I clearly did not want to marry his sister to a “Corsican”, coming up with more and more excuses: young age, different religions, and, finally, the fact that only her mother could marry her, and he did not have such power. Napoleon, irritated by the obstinacy of the Russian court, declared that he was leaning towards the "Austrian version."
Prince Klemens Wenzel von Metternich, while still the Austrian ambassador in Paris (since October 1809 - Minister of Foreign Affairs of Austria), assured him that Austria agreed to marry Napoleon to her young Archduchess. In early February 1810, a marriage contract was prepared, completely copied from a similar contract drawn up at the marriage of the French king Louis XVI to another Austrian archduchess, Marie Antoinette, the aunt of Napoleon's bride. The Austrian emperor ratified the treaty, and on February 21 a message about this arrived in Paris. And the very next day, Marshal Louis-Alexandre Berthier, Napoleon's chief of staff, went to Vienna to represent the emperor of the French during the solemn marriage ceremony. He arrived in the capital of Austria in early March 1810, and already on March 11, a traditional marriage by proxy was concluded - in the presence of the entire Austrian imperial family, the entire court, the entire diplomatic corps, dignitaries and generals. The next day, Bertier went to France, and 24 hours later, the future Empress Marie-Louise left Vienna after him. The eighteen-year-old princess was on her way to a country she had always been taught to hate.
Napoleon met her on March 27, 1810, near Paris, and only then did the couple see each other for the first time in their lives. When concluding a marriage, the emperor sought to find a wife who could give birth to an heir to him, and was not very worried about appearance and feelings. But in the carriage, he found a delightful, childishly naive young woman and fell in love with her. On April 2, 1810, the wedding of Napoleon and Marie Louise was celebrated again at the Tuileries Palace.
Middle-brother
A month later, Alexander Walevsky was born, the son of Napoleon from his Polish lover. The emperor allocated 10,000 francs a month for its maintenance. Of course, this was a huge amount, which spoke of how important his “Polish wife” was to him, but the emperor’s romance with Walewska was finally interrupted - largely due to the jealousy of his legal wife. The countess quietly left for Warsaw, but remained faithful to her former lover for a long time. When the deposed Napoleon was exiled to the island of Elba and many of his former friends and associates turned their backs on him, Valevskaya secretly visited him there with four-year-old Alexander. However, the deposed emperor met his “Polish wife” rather dryly, who was ready to voluntarily share exile with him.
Only after Napoleon was exiled to the island of St. Helena, Maria Walewska considered herself free from obligations towards him. In September 1816, in Brussels, she married the former colonel of the Napoleonic Guards, Philippe-Antoine d'Ornano. But she did not have long to enjoy the happiness of a new marriage. The birth of a child on June 9, 1817, named Rodolphe-Auguste-Louis-Eugene, became fatal for her. Seriously ill, the beautiful Polish woman died on December 11 at the age of only 31 years.
Alexander-Florian-Joseph Colonna-Walevsky, Napoleon's second son, was brought to Poland after his mother's death. At the age of 14, he turned down an offer from Grand Duke Konstantin to become his personal aide-de-camp, and he was closely monitored by the Russian police. So in 1827 he fled to France. In December 1830, the Minister of Foreign Affairs, Count Horace de Sebastiani, entrusted Alexander with a secret mission in Poland - thus Napoleon's son was among the participants in the Polish uprising of 1830-1831.
On February 13, 1831, with the rank of captain, as an adjutant to the commander, he took part in the famous battle of Grochow, in which the Russian army under the command of Field Marshal Ivan Dibich and the Polish army under the command of Prince Radziwill opposed. In this battle, both sides suffered huge losses, but the Poles considered themselves victorious, since the Russian troops did not dare to storm the Polish capital and retreated.
For this battle, Alexander Walevsky received a military cross, and then was sent by the Polish rebel government to London to negotiate the future fate of Poland. After the defeat of the Polish uprising, he again returned to Paris, where, as the son of Napoleon, he met a very gracious reception and was enlisted as a captain in the French army. After retiring in 1837, Alexander became a publicist and playwright: he wrote a number of pamphlets ("Speech on the Algerian Question", "English Alliance" and others), as well as one five-act comedy. At the same time, he began to carry out various diplomatic missions for influential members of the government of Guizot and Thiers. He was sent on especially important assignments to many countries, including Egypt and Argentina. When Alexander Valevsky returned from Buenos Aires and was assigned to Copenhagen, the French Revolution of 1848 broke out, and he, unlike his brother Count Leon, immediately joined Charles-Louis-Napoleon, the future Emperor Napoleon III. He was appointed envoy of France by a distinguished relative, first in Florence, then in Naples, and finally in London, where Alexander managed things so flexibly that he managed to achieve recognition of the Second Empire by the British, despite all the horror that the name of Napoleon caused in them. It was he who organized the visit of Napoleon III to England and Queen Victoria to France, and also ensured the cooperation of the two powers in the Crimean War. As a reward for such a brilliant success, in May 1855, Alexander was appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs of France and had the pleasure of presiding over the Congress of Paris in 1856, where Russia, which he hated, was humiliated. During the negotiations, he became a Knight Grand Cross of the Legion of Honor.
But the career of the Napoleonic offspring did not end there either. In 1868 Walewski was elected president of the Legislative Corps and a member of the Academy of Fine Arts. However, the earl's health was undermined, and on September 27, 1868, at the zenith of his success, he died, leaving behind seven children. His wife Maria-Anna di Ricci, in which the blood of Italian and Polish aristocrats mixed (she was the daughter of Count Zanobio di Ricci and the great-niece of the last king of Poland, Stanislaw August Poniatowski), bore him four children, including the son of Charles-Zanobi-Rodolf, who became a lieutenant colonel and died in 1916 in World War I, fighting for France. But the most beloved son of Valevsky was Alexander-Antoine, whom the actress Rachel Felix gave birth to. His father not only recognized him, but also left him the title of count as an inheritance. The current Count Colonna-Walevsky, born in 1934, is the great-grandson of Alexandre Antoine.
Eaglet
The third son of the great emperor from Marie Louise of Austria, who was named Napoleon-Francois-Joseph, was born a year after the first meeting of his crowned parents - on March 20, 1811. Immediately after his birth, he was proclaimed King of Rome and heir to the empire. It would seem that this legitimate son had a great future ahead of him. But fate decreed otherwise. In early April 1814, Napoleon abdicated in favor of Napoleon-Francois-Joseph, who was proclaimed emperor of the French, but was never crowned: the victorious emperor Alexander I, not without the assistance of the ubiquitous Talleyrand, insisted on returning to the Bourbon throne. The four-year-old son of Napoleon left with his mother to visit relatives in Vienna. It was decided to isolate Marie Louise and her son from Napoleon as well as from each other.
The former empress, who received the Duchy of Parma in exchange for her former possessions, began to be accompanied everywhere by the Austrian officer Adam-Adalbert von Neipperg. He was about forty years old, and he had a very attractive appearance, except for a wide black band that hid an empty eye socket. Neipperg was ordered by the Austrian emperor to spy on Marie-Louise and stop any attempts to contact the exiled emperor. But soon the spy became a lover, and in 1821 the husband of the Duchess of Parma. Marie-Louise never saw Napoleon again, and gave birth to four children to her new husband. She lived the rest of her life in Parma. Widowed for the second time (Adam-Adalbert von Neipperg died in 1829), she remarried on February 17, 1834 - to her chamberlain, Count Charles-Rene de Bombell.
Meanwhile, Napoleon-Francois-Joseph, the dream and hope of all the Bonapartists of the world, lived in Vienna, and he was guarded as carefully as even the most dangerous criminals are sometimes not guarded. He was forced to practically forget the French language and speak only German, and everyone called him exclusively “in Austrian” - Franz. In 1818, Napoleon's son was given the title of Duke of Reichstadt. They say that, while living at the court of his grandfather, the young man, in spite of everything, remembered his great father, was his ardent admirer (believing that Napoleon was unlucky with Marie-Louise) and was weary of the Schönbrunn orders. Unfortunately, his life was short - he died of tuberculosis on July 22, 1832. This young man went down in history under the dynastic name of Napoleon II, given to him by the Bonapartists. In fact, he never reigned, although from June 22, 1815 (that is, after the second abdication of Napoleon) in Paris for several weeks, it was he who was recognized as emperor. Under the repressive Bourbon regime, it was not safe to talk aloud about Napoleon. Therefore, everyone sang eagles - the eagle was the heraldic symbol of the French emperor. And his son, whom it was also not recommended to talk about, became Eaglet. This nickname was glorified by Edmond Rostand, who wrote the drama "Eaglet" in 1900 - about the sad life of Napoleon II, who lives in a golden German cage.
He was buried in the famous Viennese Kapuzinerkirche next to other Habsburgs. And when Adolf Hitler was looking for a way to show respect to the French, he remembered the young heir and decided to transfer his remains from Vienna to German-occupied Paris (at the same time, interestingly, the drama "Eaglet" was banned by the Nazis). In December 1940, Napoleon II rested in the Cathedral of the Les Invalides, next to the tomb of his father, whose ashes were transferred here exactly one hundred years before. So the crowned father and his unfortunate son finally met.
In the history of France there were many upheavals and revolutions, monarchies were replaced by republics, and vice versa. One of the significant figures in the history of this country and all of Europe was Bonaparte.
Few people know that after his defeat, he abdicated in favor of his young son. The Bonapartists gave him the name Napoleon II. What happened to the rightful heir, how many more Napoleons were there in the history of France?
Sons of Napoleon
The French emperor had three sons, two of them illegitimate. The fate of each of the offspring has developed in different ways.
The first son appeared to the ruler from a connection with Eleanor de la Plaigne. At that time, Napoleon was married to Josephine Beauharnais, but the couple had no children in ten years of marriage. The boy was born on December 13, 1806 at two in the morning. The emperor received good news while in Poland. His first thought was to adopt a child, but soon she disappeared. Napoleon wanted to have a legitimate heir.
The boy was named Charles. Mother and son received annual money for their maintenance. The father loved and spoiled the boy. After his death, he left him a considerable sum. However, Charles squandered it very quickly, because he liked to spend money, play cards, participate in duels. He was dismissed from military service for non-compliance with the charter, he tried to study for a clergyman. As a result, the young man found a way to exist - he sued the annual allowance from his mother, and later received a pension from his cousin, who became emperor. After the overthrow of Napoleon III, Count Leon went bankrupt, later he was buried as a beggar tramp.
The birth of Charles prompted the emperor to think about parting with his official wife, who was unable to give birth to an heir. He meets Maria Valevskaya, who on 05/04/1810 gives birth to her son Alexander. When the mistress returned to Paris with her son in her arms, the emperor had already found a replacement for her. He allocated a substantial amount for the maintenance of his son. Maria Valevskaya died very early, and Alexander had to take care of his own life. In 1830 he took part in the Polish uprising. After his defeat, the young man moved to Paris, where he became the captain of the French army. After retiring, he was engaged in journalism, dramaturgy, carried out diplomatic missions, was Minister of Foreign Affairs under Napoleon III, and participated in the Paris Congress of 1856. He died in 1868, leaving behind seven children.
Napoleon II, whose biography will be discussed below, was the third son of the emperor. He became the only legitimate child. Who was his mother?
Mother of the heir
After a divorce from Josephine, the ruler of France began looking for a wife who would give birth to a legitimate heir. At a special council, it was decided that Napoleon should enter into a marriage alliance with a great power. This would allow him to guarantee his rights in the international arena.
Most of the ministers saw the best candidate in the sister of the Russian Emperor Alexander the First, Anna Pavlovna. There were also those who were inclined towards an alliance with Austria through marriage to Marie-Louise, the daughter of Emperor Franz the First.
Alexander the First did not want such a relationship, so he came up with new excuses. Napoleon tired of waiting, he turned his gaze towards the Austrian party. The contract was signed in 1810, at the same time a marriage by proxy was concluded in Vienna. Only after that the couple met. Before that, they had not seen each other.
The emperor fell in love with the young woman as soon as he saw her. A year later (04/20/1811) she gave him an heir, who was named Napoleon-Francois-Joseph. What fate awaited the heir named Napoleon II?
King of Rome
At the birth of the boy, he was proclaimed the King of Rome. However, this title was formal. In 1814 the Emperor abdicated. He did this in favor of his legitimate heir, and Napoleon II was declared French emperor. Only the Bonapartists considered him a ruler, who called the boy like this: Napoleon II Eaglet.
The history of such a nickname is connected with the repressive regime that was introduced after the abdication of Napoleon. The name of the former emperor turned out to be unsafe to mention, so his followers called him the Eagle. The bird was the heraldic symbol of the ruler. It was dangerous to mention the son who left France, so he was called Eaglet. Who came up with the nickname is unknown, but Edmond Rostand glorified him. In 1900, he wrote the drama The Eaglet about the life of Napoleon II. In it, a young man is forced to live in a golden German cage.
The three-year-old heir was not crowned, as the power in France changed. In addition, the Russian emperor opposed the coronation. Together with Talleyrand, he insisted that the Bourbons be returned to power.
Marie-Louise took her son and returned to her family in Vienna. There she received the Duchy of Parma and met her future husband, who was originally assigned to watch over her.
From Napoleon to Franz
Napoleon II remained the main hope of the Bonapartists. That is why he was guarded much more carefully than the most dangerous criminal. Everyone understood that the boy's origins could lead to a serious Bonapartist movement, not only in France, but throughout the world.
The son of the deposed emperor lived near Vienna (Schoenbrunn Castle). He was forced to speak only in German, and they addressed him by his middle name - Franz. In 1818 he was given the title of Duke of Reichstadt.
The duke was involved in military service from the age of twelve. Despite all the prohibitions, or maybe in spite of them, Franz remembered his origin. He was an ardent admirer of his great father.
Early death
By 1830, Napoleon II, whose height was about the same as his father, rose to the rank of major. It is not known whether he could justify the hopes of the Bonapartists. His life was short. He died in 1832 from tuberculosis.
They buried Napoleon-Francois in Vienna, next to other Habsburgs.
posthumous fate
A hundred years later, Napoleon II (photos have not survived to this day) was disturbed. In 1940, Adolf Hitler gave the order to transfer his remains to the cathedral of Les Invalides. He was placed next to the tomb of his father.
Heir of Napoleon II
The last monarch of France was Napoleon III Bonaparte. He was the nephew of the illustrious emperor and cousin of the Duke of Reichstadt. At the birth of the future monarch, they named Charles Louis Napoleon. Father was Ludovic Bonaparte. Mother - Hortense de Beauharnais. The marriage between them was contracted under duress, so the couple lived in constant separation.
The boy grew up at the court of his uncle. Since childhood, he literally worshiped him and was devoted to "Napoleonic" ideas. He strove for power and went to his goal, clearing the way in front of him.
After the overthrow of Bonaparte, the boy with his brother and mother moved to Switzerland, where Hortense acquired the Arenenberg castle. Louis did not receive a systematic school education due to constant moving. In Switzerland, he entered the military service.
After the death of Napoleon II, Charles Louis became the one who represented Napoleonic ideas and claims. Four years later, he tried to seize power in France. His act went down in history as the Strasbourg conspiracy. The attempt was unsuccessful, Bonaparte was sent to America. He stayed there for a year, after which he settled in Switzerland, and then in England.
The second attempt to become the head of France was made in 1840. She also failed. As a result, Charles Louis was arrested with other conspirators, put on trial by peers. His punishment was life imprisonment with all rights reserved. Surprisingly, no such punishment existed in French law. The unfortunate conspirator spent six years in the Gam fortress. At this time, he wrote articles, published books, and communicated with friends. In 1846, Bonaparte fled from the fortress to England. On the island he met Harriet Howard, who was an actress, wealthy and with many useful contacts. She helped her lover in many ways.
Reign of Napoleon III
In 1848 there was a revolution in France. Louis hastened to Paris. He took a wait-and-see attitude until the opportunity arose to put forward his candidacy for the presidency. According to the election results, he received 75% of the vote. At the age of forty he became President of the Republic.
He was not satisfied with being president, so in 1851 he dissolved the Assembly and established an empire in the state.
A year later, he was proclaimed emperor under the name Napoleon III. According to the Bonapartist tradition, it was taken into account that Napoleon II (the son of Emperor Bonaparte) was the head of state for fourteen days.
The monarch was in power until 1870. The Franco-Prussian War put an end to his reign. During these years, he suffered greatly from gallstones and took opiates. Because of this, he was lethargic and thought badly.
Napoleon III surrendered to William the First. A day later, the September Revolution took place in Paris. The empire has ceased to exist. The deposed ruler moved to England, where he died in 1873.
Baron Munchausen prototype
Many art historians suggest that for the illustrative image of the famous Baron Munchausen, the artist Gustave Dore took the appearance of Napoleon III as a prototype. The similarity is manifested in the oval of the head, the shape of the nose, mustache and beard. Munchausen's emblem was three ducks, which can be considered an allusion to the coat of arms of the Bonapartes (three bees).
Dynastic connection
There are five Napoleons in history. All of them were relatives.
It is customary to start the Bonaparte genealogy with Carlo Buonaparte. He had five sons: Joseph, Napoleon, Lucien, Louis, Jerome. Napoleon II is the son of Napoleon the First, Napoleon the Third is the son of Louis, Napoleon the Fourth is the grandson of Louis, Napoleon the Fifth is the grandson of Jerome. In fact, only two of the list ruled, the rest were considered rulers only by the Bonapartists.
Abstract on the topic:
Plan:
- Introduction
- 1 Roman king and nominal emperor
- 2 Eaglet in Austria
- 3 posthumous fate Literature
Introduction
Napoleon II(fr. Napoleon II), full name Napoleon Francois Joseph Charles Bonaparte, King of Rome(fr. Napoleon Francois Joseph Charles Bonaparte ), he is Franz, Duke of Reichstadt, (German. Franz Herzog von Reichstadt; March 20, 1811( 18110320 ) , Tuileries Castle, Paris - July 22, 1832, Schönbrunn Castle, Vienna) - son (only legitimate child) of Napoleon I Bonaparte, Emperor of the French. He went down in history under the dynastic name given to him by the Bonapartists. In fact, he never reigned (although from June 22 to July 7, 1815, the Paris legislature recognized him as emperor). Known in Bonapartist circles as "Eaglet".
1. Roman king and nominal emperor
He was born on March 20, 1811 from his second marriage to Marie Louise of Austria in Paris at the Tuileries Castle. Immediately after the birth, the long-awaited son was proclaimed King of Rome by Napoleon (fr. Roi de Rome) and heir to the empire. Twice: the first time in 1814 and the second time in 1815, after the Hundred Days, Napoleon abdicated in favor of his son, but both times the allies proclaimed the Bonapartes deposed, and Louis XVIII the legitimate monarch of France.
After the defeat at Waterloo, Napoleon abdicated in favor of his son, whom he proclaimed emperor under the name of Napoleon II; but the King of Rome was not present in France, and the abdication, under the conditions of that time, could not be of practical importance. .
2. "Eaglet" in Austria
Napoleon II as a child.
After the first fall of Napoleon I in 1814, Napoleon Francois was brought to Austria and settled, together with his mother, near Vienna, in Schönbrunn Castle. When Napoleon I returned to France in 1815, he demanded the return of his wife and son from the Austrian government, but to no avail. The four-year-old Roman king stayed with his mother in Austria and was brought up there by Matthew Collinus.
When Marie-Louise, in 1816, moved to Parma, her son stayed in Vienna with his grandfather Franz I of Austria. A treaty concluded in 1817 between the allies deprived him of his hereditary rights to Parma; for this the Austrian Emperor rewarded him with the Bohemian Duchy of Reichstadt, with the title of "Lordship".
At the court of his grandfather, in Vienna, they tried not to mention his father in his presence, he was considered “the son of Her Highness the Archduchess”, from childhood he was taught the German name Franz, not Napoleon. Despite this, he knew about his father, was his ardent admirer and was burdened by the Austrian court. From the age of 12, the Duke of Reichstadt was considered in military service, in which by 1830 he had risen to the rank of major. Legends constantly formed around his name; everyone was well aware that in the event of any political complications, the name of Napoleon II alone could serve as a banner for a dangerous movement. Napoleon II himself, who knew about his origin, carefully studied military affairs and constantly dreamed of glory and exploits. But he was a very sickly youth; his premature death on July 22, 1832 from tuberculosis at the age of 21 at Schönbrunn Castle in Vienna, saved diplomacy and the Austrian court from many difficulties. There have been rumors of poisoning, but they are baseless [ ] .
3. Posthumous fate
Duke of Reichstadt.
His cousin Prince Louis Napoleon, having proclaimed himself emperor in 1852, took the name Napoleon III; thus, he considered, after the fact, Napoleon II as the head of the dynasty in 1821-1832, and himself as his heir.
In 1940, on the orders of Adolf Hitler, the remains of the Duke of Reichstadt were transferred from Vienna (then part of the Third Reich) to Paris (German-occupied) and buried in Les Invalides near the tomb of his father; at the same time, the heart of the deceased, kept separately, according to the then custom, remained in Vienna. This happened exactly 100 years after the ashes of Napoleon himself were transferred to the Les Invalides.
The fate of Napoleon II inspired Edmond Rostand to the drama "Eaglet" ( L'Aiglon). Through this work, Marina Tsvetaeva became a fan of the personality of both Napoleons - father and son. It is believed that Janusz Korczak's book "King Matt I" was inspired by the fate of Napoleon II.
Literature
- Andre Castelo Son of Napoleon. Biography. - M .: "Zakharov", 2007. - 668 p. - ISBN 978-5-8159-0737-9
This abstract is based on an article from the Russian Wikipedia. Synchronization completed on 07/09/11 10:00:20
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