Stress and intonation in Chinese. The Influence of Chinese Tones in Teaching Russian Stress to Chinese Students
Chinese tone system
In Chinese, as in other languages, there is a sentence intonation. But besides this, each syllable that receives stress (strong or at least weak) is pronounced in one tone or another. Mandarin has four syllabic tones.
Tones are just as important for distinguishing meaning as the sound composition of a word. The same combination of sounds conveys completely different meanings depending on how it is pronounced.
Compare the following examples:
1st tone - ma (mother) shu (book)
2nd tone - ma (hemp) shu (ripe)
3rd tone - ma (horse) shu (count)
4th tone - ma (scold) shu (tree)
The melodic pattern of the four tones can be graphically depicted as follows:
1st tone
2nd tone
3rd tone
4th tone
The vertical bar with the numbers 1-5 is a common scale that conventionally indicates the range of the speech voice (as opposed to the singing voice, which has a much wider range), covering four tones. A thick line conditionally shows the direction of movement of the tone, and the different thickness of this line indicates a different degree of muscular tension of the speech apparatus during the pronunciation of a particular tone.
The melody of the first tone is high, even (5-5); gives the impression of an unfinished statement.
The melody of the second tone is short, rapidly ascending, with a range of 3-5 and a maximum of tension at the end of a syllable; gives the impression of a repeat.
The third tone, with a general low character, has a descending-ascending form (2-1-4), the maximum muscle tension falls on the low part; gives the impression of a puzzled question.
The fourth tone is short, rapidly descending from the highest point to the lowest (5-1), with a sharp weakening of tension towards the end of the syllable; gives the impression of a categorical command.
In Chinese alphabetic text, these four tones are denoted by icons that resemble the shape of the tone, for example: mа̃, mа́, mả, mа̀. The tone mark is placed only above the vowel.
The symbol ̉̉ is an analogue of the third tone in our layout of lessons.
Chinese tones, like any melody of the human voice, can be most accurately reproduced on musical instruments such as the cello or violin, giving a smooth glide from one note to another. On a piano or other instrument, you can only pick up the upper and lower limits of a particular tone, and the necessary slip must be filled with a voice.
The melody of four tones does not have to start from the note C, it can be transposed starting from any other note, depending on the pitch of the speech voice. However, under all conditions, strict observance of the specified intervals is absolutely necessary. It is recommended to learn the melody of four tones as a song, which will help in working on the tones.
Introduction
Chapter I. The Concept of Tone
2.1 Examining the Chinese Tone System
2.2 The system of tones of the modern Chinese language in the definition of Zadoenko T.P.
2.3 The system of tones in the classification of Speshnev N.A.
3.1 Partial tone change
3.2 Complete change of tone
3.3.1 Numerals yi-one, qi-seven, ba-eight
3.3.2 Negative particle bu
Conclusion
Introduction
Any language of the world has certain properties. Its lexical, grammatical and phonetic structure differs. One of the main features of the difference between one language and another is the peculiarity of its phonetic system and the laws of functioning of various units of the language.
From a phonetic point of view, the languages of the world form distinctions according to the composition of phonemes, melody, intonation and other phonological features. The Chinese language has another distinguishing feature - tone and belongs to the so-called tonal languages. At one time, many philologists were engaged in the study of the tones of the Chinese language. Such as Aleksakhin A.N., Zadoenko T.P., Speshnev N.A., Susov I.P. other. And now there are several opinions about the origin and composition of the tones of tonal languages.
In the flow of speech, many sounds of the language undergo numerous changes. Their melody, duration changes. The same applies to the tones of the Chinese language. In Chinese, a complete or partial change in tones is considered quite common. This phenomenon is called the sandhi of tones. The relevance of this problem is not difficult to trace, since in order to fully understand a foreign speech, Chinese learners need to fully master the phonetic features of the language, its rules, and even more so the exceptions.
In this thesis, we will try to collect a general picture of the tones of the Chinese language and trace their historical development, as well as examine in detail the phenomenon of sandhi tones.
The object of the thesis: the tones of the Chinese language.
The subject of this thesis is the features of the composition of tones of the modern Chinese language.
The purpose of the thesis is to summarize the experience of linguists' research on the tonal composition of the Chinese language, to study the phenomenon of sandhi tones.
Based on these objectives of the study, its main objectives are:
To study the peculiarities of the tones of the Chinese language;
Consider various classifications of Chinese tones;
Explore the formation of Chinese tones from a historical point of view;
Consider the phenomenon of sandhi tones;
To study the complete and partial change of tones;
Consider special cases of sandhi tones.
To accomplish these tasks, the following research methods were used: descriptive method, comparative method, critical analysis of literary sources.
The theoretical basis of the diploma work was the works of the following linguists: Zadoenko T.P., Speshnev N.A. Aleksakhin A.N., Solntseva V.M., Solntsev N.V. The compositional structure of the thesis is determined by the goals and objectives.
This thesis includes 3 chapters. At the beginning of the first chapter, we consider the general concept of tones, then we study the features of tonal languages and the definition of intonation and tone. In the second chapter of our thesis, we study the composition and features of the tones of the Chinese language, according to the classification of Zadoenko T.P. and Speshneva N.A. The basis of the third chapter is the phenomenon of sandhi of tones in the Chinese language. Here we consider the main features of a partial change in tones, a complete change in tones, as well as special cases of a change in tones. The chapter of the practical part of the thesis is supported by examples that prove the presence of sandhi tones in the Chinese language.
At the end of the theoretical part, we summarize the results of the study and attach a list of scientific literature.
Chapter I. The Concept of Tone
1.1 Definition of tone. Tonal languages
In no other part of the structure of the language has research been so deep as in phonetics. Since the sounds emitted by the human organs of speech are the medium through which language receives its expression, the key to the historical understanding of linguistic development in a very significant, even most significant part, lies precisely in its sound side. In this regard, a lot of new things have become clear. A more careful study of living languages has shown how great is the richness of sounds in languages and how great is the precision in their distinction. This was followed, mainly from the middle of the last century, and more precisely from the seventies, by a detailed study of the nature and methods of the formation of sounds, the whole physiology of speech or general phonetics, which gradually became an independent branch of science. Thus, in a completely new way, it was possible to penetrate into the understanding of the nature of sound transitions and see what actually happens to them, and happened, whereas previously they held on only to dead letters.
Studying the structure of any language, it is necessary, first of all, to single out its main units. The division of the language occurs at two levels. At the level of significant units, a sentence is distinguished - a syntagma (phrase) - a word - a morpheme - a phoneme. Segmentation here covers the units of all tiers of the language, so it can be called segmentation of the intertier type.
At the phonetic level, such units are distinguished as a phrase - a speech tact (phonetic word) - a syllable - a sound. Segmentation is limited here to only one level (phonetic), so it can be called intratier segmentation.
It should be noted that there are other units of phonetics that create the intonational structure of the language and are a means of updating the communicative task. Such means include intonation, stress and tones.
Speaking about the tones of any language, first of all, its definition should be given. Currently, there are two definitions of tone as a special phonetic unit.
Firstly, tone is a melodic variation in pitch (sound-pitch characteristics) during the pronunciation of syllables, which is phonologically significant in the language. Tone is realized in the form of a rise or fall of the voice, which can either be unchanged (equal pitch) throughout the syllable, or change from one pitch level to another. The number of such levels (registers) in different languages is different, but in general it presumably does not exceed 4 (upper, two middle and lower). Tones that do not change case throughout the syllable are called even; register-changing are called sliding (contour). The latter are grouped according to the nature of their orientation: unidirectional (ascending/descending), bidirectional (ascending descending/descending-ascending). For example, in Chinese, ma 1 is "mother" (even tone), nan 2 is "south" (rising tone), li 4 is "stand" (falling tone), xie 3 is "write" (falling-rising tone) .
In some languages (for example, in Vietnamese), other features are also important for distinguishing tones: intensity, duration, pharyngealization, the presence of a laryngeal stop.
The implementation of tones may also depend on the quality of the consonants included in the syllable (for example, in the Tangut language, voiceless initial consonants are combined with a high register of a syllabic tone, voiced - with a low one). High-pitched (tonal) voice modifications as an element of phrasal melody are characteristic of all languages, but not all have tones.
Languages where the toning of a syllable has a meaningful function are called tonal languages. Tones in such languages exist to distinguish between lexical and/or grammatical meanings. Tonal languages are common in Southeast Asia (Chinese, Vietnamese, Lao, Burmese and others), Africa (Nilotic, Kwa, Bantu), America (Mishtec, Mazatec, Trikei, and so on). In some tonal languages (for example, Sino-Tibetan), tones have a predominantly lexical significance, in others they can also express grammatical differences (the number or gender of nouns, verb tense, negation), for example, in Duala (the Bantu language): à màbòlà - “he gives", àmabòlà - "he gave", in Dinka (Nilotic language): рany - "wall", рany - "walls". For many tonal languages, the question of the relationship between tones and word stress is controversial; for some tonal languages, there is no reliable data on the presence and function of stress.
In some languages (for example, in Serbo-Croatian), tones differ only in the stressed syllable; in this case, tones are usually seen as a type of word stress. In languages where tones are characteristic of all syllables, they are also called syllabic accent.
Tones form a special system of supersegmental language units with their own paradigmatics and syntagmatics. They are a means of expressing lexical and grammatical meanings, for example, in Chinese 失shi 1 - "to lose", 十shi 2 - "ten", 事shi 3 - "business", 史shi 4 - "history"; in Nuer (Nilotic language) lei - "animal", lei - "animals",
In speech flow, differences between tones rest on linear contrast, not on absolute physical pitch; the same tone in different positions can change its absolute characteristics, but its recognizability will remain due to the contrast with other tones and the paradigmatic unity of the morpheme.
The number of tones in the languages of the world ranges from 2 to 10.
From another point of view, tone is defined as the acoustic characteristic of sound, determined by the concentration of energy in the region of high or low frequencies. In phonetics, instead of the term tone in this sense, the term "tonality" is used. A distinction is made between high-pitched and low-pitched sounds; for example, vowels in Russian "u", "o", "a" are low-pitched, "e", "i" are high-pitched. In phonology, this characteristic is used as one of the universal distinguishing features of phonemes, which is part of the system of features formulated by R. O. Jacobson and M. Hale.
1.2 The relationship of tones and intonation
The problem of the relationship between tone and intonation is to some extent indicated in almost all grammars of tonal languages, in numerous studies devoted to the prosodic composition, and at the same time it is one of the most poorly studied problems of prosody. There seem to be several reasons for this. The main one is that then, in the middle of the 20th century, both in domestic and foreign linguistics, research was carried out in line with what seemed to be a completely stable theoretical postulate that the prosodic system of tonal language is built only on tonal oppositions, and other units of prosody (intonation) are almost completely replaced or absorbed by these tonal oppositions. M.V. Gordina and I.S. Bystrov speak about this unambiguously, investigating this problem on the material of the Vietnamese language: “Phrase intonation as a means of designing a single syntactic whole does not have its own features in the Vietnamese language that would not be inherent in the corresponding tones.” And then even more categorically: “In the Vietnamese language, there is no special intonation design that would replace the tonal characteristics of words, and in this sense there is no contradiction between phrasal intonation and tone.”
However, in his well-known work “Tone and Intonation in the Chinese Language”, M.K. Rumyantsev comes to completely different conclusions: “Tones and their combinations in a sentence are not only tones, but also intonation. In any implementation of tone in a sentence, there is always something that belongs not only to the tone itself, but also to intonation. So, there are two approaches to the problem posed, two postulates opposed to each other. It is known that the main conclusions concerning the relationship between tone and intonation were made on the basis of studying the tonal languages of the Far East and Southeast Asia. The study of the tonal languages of West Africa, which was intensively carried out in the last decades of the last century, made it possible to take a fresh look at a number of linguistic problems, including the relationship between tone and intonation.
In this regard, one can express a paradoxical, at first glance, the idea that both points of view are legitimate to a certain extent, but with one significant amendment: each of them reflects the mechanism of the interaction of tone and intonation in Chinese and Vietnamese languages. The desire to develop some kind of universal mechanism for this interaction, equally flawlessly operating both, for example, in the tonal system of Hausa (2 tones) and in the tonal system of the Vietnamese language (6 tones), has come to a standstill.
As you know, there are “poor” (ibo, Hausa) and “rich” (Vietnamese) tonal systems. And although the tones in these languages carry the same functions, these functions are implemented in languages in different ways. This is the main reason why it is difficult, and perhaps simply impossible, to develop a single universal mechanism for the interaction of tone and intonation. If, in this global task, we slightly correct the conditions for its solution, then, in our opinion, we can achieve the desired result. That is, to develop one mechanism for the "poor" two-tone, register systems (Hausa, for, Akan), the other - for the "rich" (Vietnamese, Lao, Thai, and so on).
Summing up the results of the first chapter, we found out that along with some phonetic unit, like intonation, in some languages there is also the concept of tone, which in such languages has a meaningful function. Currently, there are disputes that intonation and tones are similar concepts, but how to explain the fact that intonation is inherent in all languages of the world, and tones exist only in a small number of languages?
Chapter II. Chinese tone system
2.1 Research into the Chinese tone system
Studies on the phonetics of tonal languages, including Chinese, have always been of great interest to linguists. The formation of phonetics in China began in ancient times. Then there were many contradictions regarding the phonological composition of the language.
Phonetics was formed in China under a certain influence of Buddhism, which brought with it from India an interest in sounding speech and, accordingly, in poetry, rhyme, melody and tone, as well as knowledge of the principles of Indian alphabetic-syllabic writing. Works on phonetics were carried out in the spirit of lexicographic traditions. These are the rhyme dictionaries as the most common type of initial works on phonetics: Li Deng's Sheng Lei, Lu Jing's Yun Ji, later reprinted many times, supplemented and commented on by Lu Fayan's Qie Yun (601). In the 2-3 centuries. the reading of hieroglyphs (and slogomorphemes) begins to be transmitted by the method of "cutting" slogomorphemes into initials and finals (rhymes). From the 5th c. there are experiments in the study of tones.
As a developed, independent science, phonetics established itself with the advent of phonetic tables, including information about rhyme, initials, intermediate vowels, and tones (Yun Ching, presumably 10th century).
Chinese linguists of the 11th - 19th centuries followed the basic principles of describing the language of the syllabic structure that developed in ancient times. At that time, what had been started in the 5th century continued. the study of tones and their role in versification.
In continuation of the ancient tradition, new rhyme dictionaries appeared: "Guan Yun" (1008), which is a revision of the dictionary "Tse Yun" (601). At the end of the 1st millennium, detailed multidimensional classifications of syllables were created in the form of phonetic tables, placing each given hieroglyph at the intersection of two axes - initials and finals, and also taking into account the nature of tones. So, in the dictionary "Yun Ching" ('Mirror of Rhymes', about the 8th century), there are 43 tables, each divided into four parts corresponding to four tones; initials are divided into five categories according to the nature of consonants; the presence or absence of intermediate vowels - medials is taken into account ; but at the same time, attention is not paid to the real pronunciation of words, which is mainly characteristic of most phonetic works.
In the 14th century, during the Mongol Yuan dynasty, oral literary genres, especially drama, developed, which necessitated the creation of reference books on metropolitan pronunciation. Then the corresponding dictionaries appeared, the beginning of which was laid by the dictionary of Zhou Deqing (1324): it reduced the number of rhymes, reflecting a new system of four tones, coinciding with the modern Beijing one.
In the 14th - 15th centuries. practical reference dictionaries were compiled for ordinary literate people: Lan Mao (1442); Bi Gongchen (17th century), whose dictionary in 1913 formed the basis of official recommendations on "national pronunciation"; Fan Tengfeng (17th century), who relied on the two named lexicographers and reduced the number of rhyme classes, described tones in a new way.
In addition to Chinese philologists, foreign linguists also studied the tones of the Chinese language. One of them includes scientists of the scientific school in the field of linguistics of Burma (present-day Myanmar), Tibet, Indonesia and Malaysia.
In the works of Burmese scholars, who followed mainly the Chinese linguistic tradition, quite early reflected the specific features of their language as a syllabic, tonal and isolating language. It was not so much the phonetic appearance of the word that was taken into account as its orthographic image. The term vowel actually denoted not a vowel, but a final as a part of a syllable that opposes the initial. Establishing the status of the medial, which is functionally part of the final, was not always correct due to the peculiarities of the language graphics. The syllable and the morpheme were essentially identified, since their linear boundaries basically coincide. Only three tones were listed, since the fourth occurred later and is not indicated by the tone mark.
Thus, it should be noted that the study of the tone composition of the Chinese language was of interest to a huge number of scientists. All of them considered the concept of tone from different points of view, but the composition of the tones of the Chinese language was determined in the amount of 3 or 4. The tones in the language were considered in the system of other phonetic units. Therefore, when we talk about tones, we necessarily touch on all the phonetic aspects of the language. Speaking about modern studies of the tonal composition of the Chinese language, in this thesis I would like to consider the classification of tones presented by Zadoenko T.P. and Speshneva N.A.
2.2 The system of tones of modern Chinese as defined by Zadoenko T.P.
Syllables in Chinese differ not only in their sound composition (consonants and vowels), but also in tone, or melody. Each syllable that receives stress (strong or at least weak) is pronounced in one tone or another. In the Chinese vernacular Putonghua, based on the Beijing dialect, there are four full tones, each of which is characterized by a combination of its inherent qualities.
Both the tone and the sound composition of the syllable are important for distinguishing meaning; the same combination of sounds conveys completely different meanings depending on the tone in which it is pronounced.
What is the characteristic of each of the four full tones?
Each of the full tones of the Chinese language is characterized by a set of certain features: 1) the direction of movement of the main tone (tone shape), 2) the distribution of intensity (strength of sound) within the tone, 3) the frequency range (the pitch interval between the initial and final points of the tone), 4) pitch,
5) sounding time (longitude of tone).
As you know, the pitch is determined by the number of vibrations per unit time; The unit is usually taken to be the second. From an increase in the number of vibrations, the tone rises; the number of vibrations decreases, and the tone also decreases.
The melody of the first tone is high, even, long, with uniform intensity and only a slight weakening towards the end (it gives the Russian listener the impression of an unfinished statement).
The melody of the second tone is short, rapidly ascending, with a maximum of intensity at the end of a syllable, giving the impression of a repeated question).
The third tone is low, long, has a descending-ascending form, with a maximum of intensity on a low note (it gives the impression of a bewildered question).
The fourth tone is short, sharply descending from the highest point to the lowest. The drop in tone is accompanied by a sharp decrease in intensity (the melody of the fourth tone gives the impression of a categorical command).
In Chinese, there are also cases where even two-syllable words differ only in tones. These words can be divided into three groups.
a) words that differ in the tone of the final syllable:
教师jiao 4 shi 1 is teacher and 教室jiao 4 shi 1 is classroom, 松鼠song 1 shu 3 is squirrel and 松树song 1 shu 4 is pine，病原bing 4 yuan 4 is hospital and 病员bing 4 yuan 1 is sick，同时tong 2 shi 2 is simultaneous and 同事tong 2 shi 4 is a colleague，修改xiu 1 gai 3 is to build and 修盖xiu 1 gai 1 is to correct.
b) words that differ in the tone of the initial syllable:
书皮shu 1 pi 2 book cover and 树皮shu 4 pi 2 tree bark，病床bing 4 chuang 2 hospital bed and 冰湟bing 1 chuang 2 sled，奴隶nu 2 li 4 slave and 努力nu 3 li 4 - diligent，大话da 2 hua 4 - boasting and 答话da 4 hua 4 - answer.
c) words that differ in tones of both syllables:
俄语e 2 yu 3 – Russian and 鳄鱼e 3 yu 2 – crocodile，包围bao 1 wei 2 – surround and 保卫bao 3 wei 4 – protect, 同意tong 2 yi 4 – agree, 统一tong 3 yi 4 – unity and 同一 tong 2 yi 1 is the same，同志tong 2 zhi 4 is a friend and 通知tong 1 zhi 1 is an announcement.
Zadoenko T.P. also highlights Essential and additional features of tones.
First of all, not all five features are equally important for characterizing a tone - there are essential features (the direction of movement of the main tone, the distribution of intensity and the height interval between the start and end points of the tone) and additional ones (pitch and sounding time, or tone longitude). Additional features appear only in the comparison of tones with each other and can vary in one direction or another when pronouncing a single syllable, without affecting the qualitative characteristics of the tone.
Consider tone length. On this basis, the difference between the tones goes in the following order: the third tone is characterized by the longest sounding time; the first tone, although it is called long, is noticeably shorter compared to the third; the second tone is somewhat shorter than the first; finally, the shortest is the fourth tone. If, for example, the time of pronouncing a syllable in the third tone is 500 ms, then the sounding time of the first tone, respectively, is approximately 400 ms, the second tone is 350-375 ms, and the fourth tone is approximately 200-225 ms. But these data are not constant, they can vary significantly depending on certain conditions: on the general tempo of speech, on its emotional coloring, on phrasal stress. And if we talk about the tone of a single syllable (without comparison with other tones), then the time of its sounding is realized by the speaker arbitrarily.
The same kind of sign is the pitch. The pitch of a single syllable is also realized by the speaker arbitrarily. The first tone, for example, can be pronounced both at a height of 200 hertz and 300 hertz, and vice versa, below 200 hertz - but this does not affect the quality of the tone in the least. In coherent speech, the pitch depends primarily on the range of the speaker's speech voice, as well as on phrasal stress and emotional factors.
In contrast to these two features, the other three features (essential) are inherent in an unchanged form to each given tone in any case, both when comparing tones with each other, and when pronouncing a syllable in isolation. It is they who make up the set of qualities that allows us to perceive the tone as such.
Let's take a look at each of these three features.
1. In the direction of movement of the main tone
the first tone is characterized as smooth, the second - ascending, the third - descending-ascending, the fourth - descending. The direction of movement of the fundamental tone is the most significant feature of the tone. Even small changes in tone movement can cause a completely different tone to be perceived by the ear. For example, if in the first tone an even melody is not sustained until the very end of the sound of a syllable and is lowered at the end of the syllable (as is often observed among students who master Chinese tones), then the first tone in this case will be similar to the fourth.
The most complex in form is the melody of the third tone.
2. According to the distribution of intensity (strengthening and weakening of the voice), the tones differ as follows: the first tone is characterized by uniform intensity; the second tone is characterized by a relatively weak beginning and a noticeable rise in intensity towards the end of the syllable; the third tone has a maximum intensity at the beginning, on a low note, with a noticeable weakening towards the end of the syllable; in the fourth tone, the beginning of the syllable is most intense, then the sharply descending melody is accompanied by the same sharp drop in intensity.
Thus, in terms of the direction of movement of the tone and the distribution of intensity, they are mutually opposite, for example, the second and fourth tones: the second tone with an ascending melody and an increase in intensity towards the end of a syllable, and the fourth tone with a descending melody and a decrease in intensity towards the end of a syllable. If we compare the second and third tones, then the melody of the third tone is not just ascending, but with an even beginning and an ascending end. With its ascending part, which accounts for most of the sounding time of a syllable, the third tone resembles the second. Under such conditions, another factor becomes important - the distribution of intensity: in the second tone, the maximum intensity occurs at the end of the syllable, and in the third - at the beginning. If the rising melody of the second tone is not accompanied by an increase in voice towards the end of the syllable (which students often admit), then such a tone will be similar to the third. And vice versa, if in the third tone the beginning is not pronounced intensively enough and by the end of the syllable the voice does not weaken or does not weaken enough, such a tone turns out to be similar to the second one. This also explains the fact that the second tone, pronounced rather low by a Chinese, or the third tone, pronounced rather high, can sometimes be determined only by the place of concentration of intensity.
3. And, finally, the last sign is the pitch interval between the start and end points of the tone. Compliance with the intervals between the start and end points of the tone is absolutely necessary, regardless of the pitch at which the tone is pronounced. However, in the practice of teaching Chinese tones, one often observes cases when students do not maintain the full range of the fourth tone, do not bring this tone to the required low point, and when pronounced quickly, it turns out to be similar to the first tone.
This is the general characteristic of the four tones, each separately and in comparison with each other. Distribution of Mandarin syllables by tones.
It is known that the Putonghua system contains about 400 syllables that differ in sound composition. The presence of tones multiplies this number. But it would be wrong to assume that each syllable of the Chinese language can be pronounced with four tones, while giving the corresponding morphemes (significant or, less commonly, auxiliary). Not every sound composition of a syllable is presented in all four tones. Only about half of the total number of syllables (174) has four tone variants; a slightly smaller number of syllables (148) has three tone variants; 57 syllables are presented in two tones; 25 syllables exist in only one tone.
2.3 The system of tones in the classification of Speshnev N.A.
Above, we considered the system of tones presented by Zadoenko T.P. Undoubtedly, this classification is the most familiar in the study of the Chinese language. But we would like to consider another well-known system of tones developed by N.A. Speshnev.
He said that tone in Chinese plays the same role in distinguishing the meaning of words as does sound. If instead of one tone (intonation) we pronounce a given syllable with a different tone (intonation), then we will get completely different words. Speaking of tones, N.A. Speshnev takes the syllable yes as an example. In Chinese, the syllable yes, pronounced with a high even intonation, means "construct", with an ascending - "answer", with a low even and at the end with an ascending - "beat", and with a descending - "big". Tone is a phonological unit of a special type, standing above the syllable. In the light of modern phonetic research, it is considered proven that the tone (the melodic characteristic of the Chinese syllable) is acoustically inherent not in the syllable as a whole, not in a separate sound - a syllable-forming vowel, but in finals. To emphasize the phonological role of tone, it is often called a toneme by analogy with a phoneme.
In contrast to the linear units of the Chinese syllable - sounds that are usually called segment units, tone is referred to as supersegment units.
The term tone usually denotes two concepts of different scope, tone in the narrow sense of the word - the frequency response of a syllable, its melodic coloring. In a broad sense, tone should be understood as a set of a number of interconnected acoustic signs, such as register, frequency range, determination of intensity within the final, duration, quality of a syllable-forming vowel, pharyngealization (there may be other signs of tone). In the future, the linguist suggests using the term "tone" only in a broad sense.
Listening to the selected elements of the syllable in a special way shows that the elements of the final carry a different load in the realization of the tone.
Tones in isolated syllables deserve special attention, the characteristics of which will be discussed.
1. Frequency (melodic) characteristic of tone.
The number 3 indicates the average level of the speaker's voice. Naturally, the absolute height of any tone will vary greatly depending on who pronounces it: a man or a woman, a tenor or a bass, a child or an adult. But the ratio of the pitch to the average level of the speaker's voice is a constant value, so from this point of view the "recognition" of the tone will not be disturbed. A tone generally located above the middle level of the voice belongs to the tone of the upper register; if the main part of the tone is located below the middle level of the voice, then the tone should be referred to the lower register. The scale allows you to indicate the start and end points of the pitch, i.e. indicate not only the pitch, but also its direction, for which numbers can be used.
Picture 1 . Figure 2.
5 1 5
The first tone is high and flat (200 Hz). The horizontal line 5-5 (Fig. 2) indicates the direction of movement of the tone and its initial and final pitch.
Like the first tone, the second is a high-pitched tone. This is an ascending tone from a starting point at the 3 level and an ending point at the 5 level (140-200 Hz). It can be denoted by a straight line 3-5.
The third tone is the most contrasting in comparison with the first tone. This is a low register tone that has a smooth beginning and a rising end. Considering kymographic and oscillographic records, one can sometimes observe some downward movement of the melody at the very beginning of the sound (120-100-180 Hz). However, this slight downward movement is not felt by ear, and therefore it can practically be considered that the third tone begins with an even low melody and should be designated as 1-1-4. In the other plane, the traditional designation of the third tone as descending-ascending has a significant drawback and is unsuitable for pedagogical purposes.
The fourth tone in Chinese is characterized by a descending intonation from the highest level to the lowest (200-100 Hz), which can be graphically indicated by the numbers 5-1. The fourth tone belongs to the high register.
2. Intensity of tone
Tone intensity is an acoustic concept. At the level of perception, the term "intensity" corresponds to the term "loudness". The distribution of intensity within the finale has significant fluctuations depending on the tone.
In the first tone, the beginning is the most intense. The decrease in intensity occurs gradually and is perceived poorly by ear. The second tone is opposed to the first in this respect. The greatest intensity falls at the end of the finale at the moment of approaching the highest point of the melodic sound.
Third tone. If there are several numbers in the designation of the tone, the middle numbers fix its intermediate height, characterized by an increase in intensity at the beginning and in the middle of the sound. At the first stage of training, it is important to emphasize the sharp frequency drop at the end of the tone when it is pronounced in isolation. In this case, students more easily catch the initial even low level of the beginning and middle of the tone. For this purpose, it is permissible to make a sharp increase at the very end of the tone, at its top, in order to fix the boundary of the frequency transition.
The fourth tone is distinguished by a strong beginning and a gradual weakening of intensity towards the end.
Thus, the first and fourth tones can be contrasted with the second and partially third in terms of intensity distribution within the finale.
3. Tone duration.
If we take the average duration of the first tone as 1, then the relative average duration of the other tones will be: for the second tone - 1.1, for the third - 1.4 and for the fourth - 0.6. The duration of the finale does not depend on the quantity and quality of the components, its components, but on the nature of the tone itself. So says the law of the constancy of the duration of the finals of the Chinese language.
An interesting regularity arises: the duration of the final within one tone with the same central is a constant value. In other words, the duration of, say, the finals in the syllables ban, bang, bai, bao is the same. The ratio of the durations of the components of the final reflects the existence of the principle of compensation in the Chinese syllable. This means that the brevity of the central is compensated by the increase in the duration of the terminal, or, conversely, a longer central reduces the duration of the terminal. If the final semivowel as the second element of the diphthong is always shorter than the syllable-forming vowel, then the sonant, especially the back lingual one, accounts for a significant part of the duration of the final, especially in the third tone. Note that a similar situation is observed in other syllabic languages (for example, Vietnamese).
4. Tone and quality of the syllable-forming vowel.
If it can be argued that the quality of the vowel in an open syllable is not affected by tone, then in syllables of a different structure the picture changes. Tone affects the quality of the syllable-forming vowel in those syllables that include descending diphthongs and triphthongs. At the same time, they undergo partial assimilation of the vowel at the place of formation. The syllable-forming vowel in such cases in the first and partially in the second tone becomes more closed than, for example, in the third. The fourth tone is heterogeneous in this regard and allows some fluctuations in the very quality of the syllable-forming vowel. Let us take for illustration the syllables of the indicated type in the first tone as the most characteristic of this case. For example, the syllable tian "sky" in the first tone is pronounced as
(the syllabic vowel [a] is replaced by), while the same syllable in the third tone sounds like. The higher the basic tone and the shorter the duration of the syllable-forming vowel, the greater the shift occurs in its quality. It becomes higher in elevation, that is, more closed.
5. Pharyngealization.
Pharyngealization in Chinese is an additional articulation and is associated with a vowel. It consists in narrowing the walls of the pharynx and in reducing the arches of the soft palate. Pharyngealized vowels give the impression of being uttered in a "stifled" voice. In addition, pharyngealization gives the vowel a higher timbre. All these phenomena are often observed in open-type syllables (monophthong or diphthong) pronounced in the fourth tone.
So, it is believed that tone fulfills its phonological role due to the totality of all signs. The question arises of how Chinese speech is perceived if one or more tone components are missing for any reason. The most typical case is connected with the absence of the melodic coloring of the word, i.e. frequency modulation. It is known that the literate speech of a foreigner who speaks Chinese, even if supersegmental units are not clearly expressed in it or they are completely absent, is satisfactorily perceived by the Chinese. Most often, we explain this by the presence of context, less often by the fact that the correct placement of stress and precise pausing of speech almost eliminates the possibility of misunderstanding it.
The absence of a melodic characteristic of tone is found in whispered speech, where, as is known, there are no vibrations of the vocal cords. Most researchers of this problem agree that in the absence of a frequency characteristic of a syllable, the phonological role of tone is played by its other components: intensity, duration, pharyngealization.
So, having considered the two most common classifications of Chinese tones, we found out that at present there are 4 tones that differ in their melody, duration, have their own intensity and direction of voice. We saw that Speshnev N.A. and Zadoenko T.P. allocate the same number of tones, and, in addition, highlight the main features and properties of tones that are similar or even the same to each other.
Chapter III. Tone Sandhi in Chinese
One of the features of tonal languages is expressed in the modification of the characteristics of tone in cases where it is combined with other tones. Such a positionally determined tone change is called tone sandhi in linguistics.
sandhi ( connection, connection), a term introduced by ancient Indian grammarians to denote sound and tone alternations (both phonetic and morphonological) at the junctions of morphemes and words.
There are "internal sandhis" (at the junctions of morphemes within a simple word) and "external sandhis" (at the junctions of individual words or components of a compound word). In modern linguistics, the term "sandhi" is used almost exclusively to refer to external sandhis. This is due to the fact that the Sanskrit "internal sandhi" typologically does not differ in any way from the sound changes on morphemic sutures, which are well known to the European grammatical tradition and have long been described using the concept of alternation (alternation). On the contrary, external sandhis, which are the most striking feature of Sanskrit morphonology, are completely uncharacteristic of most European languages, both ancient and modern.
More generally, tone sandhi in Chinese is a dissimilation, or dissimilarity, of tones (except in cases related to lexical meaning). A situation arises in which a certain sequence of tones for various reasons becomes "uncomfortable" for pronunciation. In such cases, the issue is resolved by changing the melody of one or more tones.
Considering the acoustic features of Chinese tones, one can notice that the nature of their change (sandhi) depends on various factors and is not the same in different positions. Some combinations cause only a partial change in tone, expressed, for example, in a reduction in its duration or a partial drop, others cause a complete change in tone, which is associated with combinatorics, the rate of speech and the lexical meaning of the modified morpheme. Let's consider each of these cases in more detail.
3.1 Partial tone change
A partial change in tone is expressed in its incomplete realization. This means that some part of the tone is truncated: its duration becomes correspondingly shorter. The Chinese phonetic tradition calls such tones semitones. As a rule, a partial change in tone occurs with two identical tones following one after another, for example, within a two-syllable word or phrase.
The first tone before the first becomes shorter and slightly lower. According to the generally accepted scale given by N.A. Speshnev, the pitch of the first tone should be indicated as 44, not 55.
The explanation for such a modulation of tone can be the low stress of the syllable in which it is realized. At the same time, the tone partially loses its clarity, which is expressed, in particular, in a certain decrease in its melody in register. The second syllable is strongly stressed in such two-syllable combinations. You can try to catch a partial decrease in the level of the melody of tone in the first syllable when listening to the next chain of disyllabic syllables, in which the same syllable occupies either the first or the second place in the word: jun 1 fen 1 - fen 1 gong 1 - gong 1 zi 1 - ai 1 jin 1 - jin 1 king 1 - xing 1 qi 1 - qi 1 kan 1 - kan 1 deng 1 - deng 1 gao 1 - gao 1 yin 1 - yin 1 biao 1 and so on.
Thus, the first tone in combination before the first, both within one word and at the junction of two words, partially changes its melody and becomes less intense. In Chinese, this phenomenon is quite common. For example:
1) 吹风chui 1 feng 1 - hint at something;
2) 黑貂 hei 1 diao 1 – sable;
3) 哀思 ai 1 si 1 – grief;
4) 工资 gong 1 zi 1 - salary;
5) 刁钻 diao 1 zuan 1 - cunning;
6) 披肝沥胆 pi 1 gan 1 li 4 dan 3 - with all my heart;
7) 苏丹 Su 1 dan 1 - Sudan;
8) 拘押ju 1 ya 1 – take into custody;
9) 千夫所指qian 1 fu 1 suo 3 zhi 3 – an object of general hatred;
10) 他乡 ta 1 xiang 1 - foreign land;
11) Jin 1 tian 1 wo 3 jue 2 de ni 3 chuan 1 hei 1 se 4 zui 4 hao 3 . Today I think you look best in black.
12) 张师问我。。。Zhang 1 shi 1 wen 4 wo 3 … Master Jan asked me…
13) 家鸡 jia 1 ji 1 - chicken;
14) 当初 dang 1 chu 1 – in due time;
15) 哭天抹泪 ku 1 tian 1 mo 3 lei 4 – become limp;
16) 先锋派 xian 1 feng 1 pai 4 – avant-garde;
17) 这件大衣迂拙。Zhe 4 jian 4 da 4 yi 1 yu 1 zhuo 1 This coat is impractical and clumsy.
With a partial change, the second tone before the second becomes shorter, and the ascending part of its melody does not reach the maximum height of 5 and ends at level 4. Thus, the digital designation for the combination of two consecutive second tones will look like 34 35. For example:
1) 鱼苗yu 2 miao 2 – fry;
2）前途qian 2 tu 2 – future;
3）结石jie 2 shi 2 – stone;
4）隔离室ge 2 li 2 shi 1 - insulator;
5）鼻梁儿bi 2 liang 2 r – bridge of the nose;
6）他赞说：“是个男人。” Ta 1 zan 4 shuo 1: “Shi 4 ge 4 nan 2 ren 2 .” He said admiringly: "This man."
7）时时shi 2 shi 2 - constantly;
8） 银河 yin 2 he 2 - the Milky Way;
9）哲学学说 zhe 2 xue 2 xue 2 shuo 1 – philosophical doctrine;
10）达成 da 2 cheng 2 – reach;
11）今夜里下了皑皑白雪。Jin 1 ye 3 li xia 4 le ai 2 ai 2 bai 2 xue 3 . That night, sparkling white snow fell.
12）全区生猪存栏头数达两万余。Quan 2 qu 1 sheng 1 zhu 1 cun 2 lan 2 tou 2 shu 1 da2 liang 3 wan 4 yu 2 . The number of pigs in the entire region has reached more than 20,000.
In the examples above, it can be seen that when combining the second tone with the second, the first syllable should be pronounced shorter than the second syllable. This circumstance, it should be noted, takes place only with fluent speech.
The fourth tone before the fourth partially loses its descending part, that is, it ends at level 3 instead of 1. Thus, the accepted designation of the fourth tone through 51 is modified into 53. Some reduction in the second syllable with the fourth tone due to truncation of its beginning is also possible - 41. For example : 宿舍su 4 she 4 "dormitory", 热爱re 4 ai 4 "love passionately" should be written as 53 51 (41) . Here are some more examples of this phenomenon in Chinese:
1) 电话dian 4 hua 4 - telephone;
2) 请褪下一只袖子！Qing 3 tun 4 xia 4 yi 1 zhi 1 xiu 4 zi! Please take your hands out of your pockets!
3) 诱惑力 you 4 huo 4 li 4 – temptation;
4) 实际上恰恰相反. shi 2 ji 4 shang 4 qia 4 qia 4 xiang 1 fan 4 . In fact, the opposite happened.
5) 这占去了我三个钟点. Zhe 4 zhan 4 qu 4 lewo 3 san 1 gezhong 1 dian 3 . It took me three hours.
6) Dong 1 xi 1 bu 4 zhi 1 dao 4 qu 4 xiang 4 le, wo 3 zhao 3 ta 1 banshi 4 tian 4 , 4 dan 4 3 bu 4 dao 4 . The thing had gone somewhere, I was looking for it for half a day, but I did not find it.
7) 固定 gu 4 ding 4 - permanent;
8) 跨院儿 kua 4 yuan 4 r – side patio;
9) 入射线 ru 4 she 4 xian 4 – incident beam;
10) 玉树 yu 4 shu 4 - eucalyptus;
11) 你先要分清利弊. Ni 3 xian 1 yao 4 fen 4 qing 1 li 4 bi 4 . You first figure out where is the benefit and where is the harm.
12) 发蜡fa 4 la 4 - diamond;
13) 涉猎 she 4 lie 4 – skim through;
14) 起外号 qi 3 wai 4 hao 4 - give a nickname;
15) 爱莫能助 ai 4 mo 4 neng 2 zhu 4 - I would be glad to help, but I can’t;
16) 他老是害病. Ta 1 lao 3 shi 4 hai 4 bing 4 . He is sick all the time.
And finally, the third tone before any tone other than the third loses its ascending part and actually becomes an even low tone, which can be designated as 1 on the accepted scale. For example:
1) 小孩子还不懂事呢！xiao 3 hai 2 zi hai 2 bu 4 dong 3 shi 4 ne! The child is still very stupid!
2) 买通 mai 3 tong 1 - to bribe;
3) 展现 zhan 3 xian 4 – to open;
4) 舛误 chuan 3 wu 4 is a mistake;
5) 抚慰病人 fu 3 wei 4 bing 4 ren 2 - comfort the patient;
6) 板油 ban 3 you 2 - fat;
7) 品行 pin 3 xing 2 - behavior;
8) 早茶 zao 3 cha 2 - breakfast;
9) 省略 sheng 3 lue 4 – abbreviation;
11) 拱门 gong 3 men 2 - arch.
Thus, we see that a partial change in tones in Chinese is a fairly common phenomenon. The accepted designation of tones according to N.A. Speshnev’s scale. objectively only when pronouncing individual syllables, and in a combination of toned syllables, and even more so when pronouncing words and phrases fluently, a tone change occurs. But besides a partial change in tone, there is also their complete change.
3.2 Complete change of tone
A complete change of tone is quite common in Chinese. This circumstance is explained, first of all, by the rate of speech of native speakers. In this case, unlike a partial change in tone, here there is either a loss of the tonality of the syllable, or its complete change. Tone sandhi is quite common in Chinese.
Most often, the complete change of tones concerns the third tone in combination with the third, both within the word and at the junction of words. This is due to the rather complex articulation of the third tone in speech. Thus, the third tone before another third tone is replaced by the second. Experimental studies have shown that the newly formed second tone is not acoustically equal to the full second tone of an isolated syllable. Some researchers designate the modified third tone through 24, not 35, in order to emphasize its difference from the usual second tone.
Note that qualitative changes in syllable-forming vowels in some triphthongs pronounced with an etymological second tone are absent in syllables with a second, modified third tone. Let's compare for example such pairs of words as 油井you 2 jing 3 "oil well" and 有井you 2 jing 3 "there is a well". In the first case, the first syllable is pronounced with an etymological second tone, and the syllable-forming vowel in it undergoes qualitative changes. In the second case, the quality of the vowel
9) 钢笔不知哪儿丢了，你给我找一找。 Gang 1 bi 3 bu 4 zhi 1 na 3 r diu 4 le, ni 3 gei 3 wo 3 zhao 3 yi 1 zhao 3 The pen has gone somewhere, find it for me.
10) 买的大衣不错，我很喜欢。 Mai 3 de da 4 yi 1 bu 2 cuo 4 , wo 3 hen 3 xi 3 huan. The purchased coat is not bad, I really like it.
11) 以己度人yi 3 ji 3 du 2 ren 2 - judge by yourself.
These examples present cases where two or more syllables have an etymological third tone. According to the rules of sandhi, the first syllable is pronounced in the second tone.
If the second morpheme of a two-syllable combination etymologically goes back to the third tone, but in the modern language it lost its tone and began to be pronounced in zero tone, then the first morpheme with an etymological third tone, as a general rule, passes into the second tone. For instance:
1) 打缲da 2 sao - clean up;
2) 给我gei 2 wo - give me;
3) 雪里xue 2 li - in the snow;
4) 老鼠 lao 2 shu – mouse;
The exceptions are some types of doubling, such as kinship terms: 姐姐jie 3 jie - older sister, 姥姥laо 3 lao - grandmother, as well as nouns with the 子zi suffix: 本子 ben 3 zi - notebook，果子guo 3 zi - fruits, 码子ma 3 zi - numbers, 领子ling 3 zi - collar, 里子li 3 zi - lining, 胆子dan 3 zi - courage, 杆子gan 3 zi - stem, 口子kou 3 zi - wound, and so on.
In Chinese terms of kinship in the so-called vocative case, the stress on the first syllable is transferred to the second. Previously, an unstressed syllable, having received stress, is pronounced in the first tone in all cases without exception, regardless of its etymological tone. So, the word 姐姐jie 3 jie - the elder sister (the second syllable with an etymological third tone) in the vocative case will be pronounced as .
In Chinese, it is not uncommon for several syllables to follow in a row in the third tone. In such cases, the phenomenon of sandhi tones is also observed, which depends largely on the tempo and rhythm of speech, as well as on the logic of the utterance itself. There are three types of such changes.
1. All syllables, except for the last one, are pronounced in the second tone. For instance:
1) 我有表wo 3 you 3 biao 3 -wo 2 you 2 biao 3 - I have a watch;
2) 你有几本书？Ni 3 you 3 ji 3 ben 3 shu 1 ? - Ni 2 you 2 ji 2 ben 3 shu 1 ? How many books do you have?
3) 我口紧。wo 3 kou 3 jin 3 . - Wo 2 kou 2 jin 3 . I'm not the talkative type.
4) 妈妈不允许买水果。Ma 1 mabu 4 yun 3 xu 3 mai 3 shui 3 guo 3 . - Ma 1 mabu 4 yun 2 xu 2 mai 2 shui 2 guo 3 . Mom doesn't let me buy fruit.
5) 岛屿很小dao 3 yu 3 hen 3 xiao 3 – dao 2 yu 2 hen 2 xiao 3 . The islands are very small.
6) 他的意见完全可取. Ta1deyi 4 jian 4 wan 3 quan 3 ke 3 qu 3 . - Ta 1 deyi 4 jian 4 wan 2 quan 2 ke 2 qu 3. His opinion is absolutely worthy.
7) 你家里有几口人？Ni 3 jia 1 li 3 you 3 ji 3 kou 3 ren 2 ? - Ni 3 jia 1 li 2 you 2 ji 2 kou 3 ren 2 ? How many people do you have in your family?
8) 我缱缱姥姥。wo 3 qian 3 qian 3 lao 3 lao. - Wo 2 qian 2 qian 2 lao 3 lao. I am deeply attached to my grandmother.
9) 我想给你请帖。Wo 3 xiang 3 gei 3 ni 3 qing 3 tie 3 . – Wo 2 xiang 2 gei 2 ni 2 qing 2 tie 3 . I want to invite you .
2. Changes in tone occur through the syllable, in a checkerboard pattern. For example: 5) 1) 老古董lao 3 gu 3 dong 3 - lao 2 gu 3 dong 2 . old thing
2) 岂有此理! Qi 3 you 3 ci 3 li 3 ! - Qi 2 you 3 ci 2 li 3 ! What a disgrace!
3) 窈窕傀儡yao 3 tiao 3 kui 3 lei 3 - yao 2 tiao 3 kui 2 lei 3. Charming doll.
4) 不可取巧bu 2 ke 3 qu 3 qiao 3 - bu 2 ke 3 qu 2 qiao 3. Tricks are not allowed here.
5) 笔者举语句. Bi 3 zhe 3 ju 3 yu 3 ju 3 . - Bi 2 zhe 3 ju 2 yu 3 ju 2. The author raises the issue.
6) 两口吵嘴liang 3 kou 3 chao 3 zui 3 - liang 2 kou 3 chao 2 zui 3 . Scene between spouses.
7) 你的扯谎侮辱我. Ni 3 deche 3 huang 3 wu 3 ru 3 wo 3 . - Ni 3 deche 2 huang 3 wu 2 ru 3 wo 2 . Your lies offend me.
3. The change in tone occurs depending on the lexical and grammatical structure of the phrase, the rhythm and logic of the phrase. For instance:
1) Wo 3 xiang 3 mai 3 ji 3 zhong 3 li 3 pin 3 - Wo 2 xiang 2 mai 2 ji 2 zhong 3 li 2 pin 3 . I want to buy several kinds of gifts.
2) 请你给我两把雨伞。Qing 3 ni 3 gei 3 wo 3 liang 3 ba 3 uu 3 san 3 . - Qing 2 ni 3 gei 2 woliang 2 ba 3 yu 2 san 3 . Give me two umbrellas, please.
In Chinese colloquial speech of medium or fast pace, sandhi of tones is found in weakly stressed syllables located between two heavily stressed syllables. In particular, this applies to syllables with a second tone, which in a similar position pass into the first tone, that is, they lose their ascending part. For instance:
1) 清洁工qing 1 jie 2 gong 1 – qing 1 jie 1 gong 1 cleaner;
2) 虚无缥缈xu 1 wu 2 piao 1 miao 4 – xu 1 wu 1 piao 1 miao 4 nebula;
3) 家学渊源jia 1 xue 2 yuan 1 yuan 1 – jia 1 xue 1 yuan 1 yuan 1 comes from an intelligent family;
4) 我捞着空就去wo 3 lao 1 zhao 2 kong 1 jiu 4 qu 4 – wo 3 lao 1 zhao 1 kong 1 jiu 4 qu 4. I will go as soon as I have time.
5) 方言学fang 1 yan 2 xue 2 – fang 1 yan 1 xue 2 dialectology;
6) 咽峡炎yan 1 xia 2 yan 2 - yan 1 xia 1 yan 2 angina;
7) 孤零零gu 1 ling 2 ling 2 – gu 1 ling 1 ling 2 lonely;
8) 超群绝伦chao 1 qun 2 jue 2 lun 2 – chao 1 qun 1 jue 2 lun 2 out of the ordinary;
9) 收回本钱 shou 1 hui 2 ben 3 qian 2 – shou 1 hui 1 ben 3 qian 2 return your money;
10) 销行全国各地xiao 1 xing 2 quan 3 guo 2 ge 4 di 4 – xiao 1 xing 1 quan 3 guo 2 ge 4 di 4 to be in demand throughout the state;
11) 交谈起来jiao 1 tan 2 qi 3 lai 2 – jiao 1 tan 1 qi 3 lai 2 start a conversation;
12) 昏黄灯光hun 1 huang 2 deng 1 guang 3 – hun 1 huang 1 deng 1 guang 3 dim light;
13) 深宅大院shen 1 zhai 2 da 4 yuan 4 – shen 1 zhai 1 da 4 yuan 4 large buildings and courtyards;
14) 乌云四合wu 1 yun 2 si 4 he 2 – wu 1 yun 1 si 4 he 2 the sky is clouded;
15) 西红柿xi 1 hong 2 shi 4 – xi 1 hong 1 shi 4 tomato;
16) 观察地形guan 1 cha 2 di 4 xing 4 – guan 1 cha 1 di 4 xing 4 viewing the terrain.
Thus, when the first and any other tones are combined with the second between them, the second tone passes into the first.
A double change in tone occurs if the syllable in the second tone etymologically goes back to the third tone. This applies equally to words and phrases. In such three-syllable combinations, the environment of a weakly stressed syllable can be represented by a syllable with any tone. For instance:
1) 出版者chu 1 ban 3 zhe 3 – chu 1 ban 1 zhe 3 publisher;
2) 根本法gen 1 ben 3 fa 3 – gen 1 ben 1 fa 3 basic law;
3) 德国接壤法国De 2 guo 2 jie 1 rank 3 Fa 3 guo 2 – De 2 guo 2 jie 1 rank 1 Fa 3 guo 2. Germany borders on France.
4) 惊险小说jing 1 xian 3 xiao 3 shuo 1 – jing 1 xian 1 xiao 3 shuo 1 adventure novel;
5) 成本很低cheng 2 ben 3 hen 3 di 4 – cheng 2 ben 1 hen 3 di 4 cost is very low;
6) 您好老师！Nin 2 hao 3 lao 3 shi 1 ! – Nin 2 hao 1 lao 3 shi 1 ! Teacher, hello!
7) 洪水猛兽hong 2 shui 3 meng 3 shou 4 – hong 2 shui 2 meng 3 shou 4 the greatest evil;
8) 狐假虎威hu 2 jia 3 hu 3 wei 1 – hu 2 jia 1 hu 3 wei 1. The fox is so formidable that it is next to the king of beasts.
9) 你有够吗？Ni 3 you 3 gou 3 ma? – Ni 2 you 1 gou 3 ma? You have a dog?
10) 可以想象有什么结果. Ke 3 yi 3 xiang 3 xiang 4 you 3 shen 2 mejie 2 guo 3 . – Ke 2 yi 1 xiang 3 xiang 4 you 3 shen 2 mejie 2 guo 3 . It's easy to imagine what will happen.
11) 成果累累cheng 3 guo 3 lei 3 lei 3 – ling 3 dao 2 lei 1 lei 3 numerous successes;
12) 讲语法jiang 3 yu 3 fa 3 – jiang 2 yu 1 fa 3 explain grammar;
13) 旅馆老板lu 3 guan 3 lao 3 ban 3 – lu 3 guan 2 lao 1 ban 3 innkeeper;
14) 富有想象力fu 4 you 3 xiang 3 xiang 4 li 4 – fu 4 you 1 xiang 3 xiang 4 li 4 gifted with a rich imagination;
15) 请，唤醒我！Qing 3 , huan 4 xing 3 wo 3 ! – Qing 3 , huan 4 xing 1 wo 3 ! Please wake me up!
16) 父母赡养我. Fu 4 mu 4 shan 4 yang 3 wo 3 . – Fu 4 mu 4 shan 4 yang 1 wo 3. My parents support me.
Zero tone, as mentioned above, acoustically depends on the tone of the previous stressed syllable. A slightly different situation occurs when one or more syllables follow the zero tone. If the zero tone is followed by a toned syllable, resulting in the zero tone being between two toned syllables:
1) if the zero tone is in a position between the first or second tone and the fourth, then it is pronounced high. For example: 学不会xue 2 bu hui 4 not learned, 吃得上chi 1 de shang 4 will get to eat, 拿拙报na 2 zhuo bao 4 to hold a newspaper, 吃了菜chi 1 le cai 4 ate vegetables;
b) if the zero tone is between the third tone and the first or second, then it is pronounced low. For example: 两个人liang 3 ge ren 2 two people, 买了书mai 3 le shu 1 bought a book, 起了床 qi 3 le chuang 2 got out of bed, 喇叭花儿la 3 bahua 1 rpetunia (flower name);
2) after the zero tone, another zero tone follows. In this case, the pitch of the second zero tone depends on the pitch of the first zero tone and changes according to the same rules that exist for the zero tone after the toned syllable. For example: 听见了ting 1 jianle heard, 走进去zou 3 jinqu enter, 爬起来pa 2 qi lai climb, 走出去了 zou 3 chuqule went out.
The lexical type of sandhi of tones also includes doubled forms of adverbs with an erized second component and the particle 的de. The second component of doubling, regardless of its etymological tone, passes into the first tone. This phenomenon is especially characteristic of colloquial speech. For example: 快快的 kuai 4 kuai 4 de° - 快快儿kuai 4 kuair 1 de° quickly；好好的hao 3 hao 3 de 0 – 好好儿的hao 3 haor 1 de good; 长长的chang 2 chang 2 de° - 长长儿的chang 2 changr 1 de° long - at long .
3.3 Special cases of tone change
In Chinese, in addition to the general rules for changing tones in speech, there are also special cases of tone sandhi. The numerals "一yi 1 one", "七qi 1 seven" and "八ba 1 eight", as well as the negative particle "不bu 4 no" can serve as a striking example here. The change in etymological tone in these words depends, first of all, on neighboring toned syllables. Consider the sandhi rules of tones in these words.
3.3.1 Numerals 一yi-one, 七qi-seven, 八ba-eight
1. Numeral "一yi 1 one".
The numeral "一yi 1 one" has its own etymological first tone. In its etymological first tone it is pronounced:
1) as part of cardinal and ordinal numbers: 第一个人di 4 yi 1 geren 2 first person，一加一是二yi 1 jia 1 yi 1 shi 4 er 4 one plus one equals two，三十一san 3 shi 2 yi 1 31，一九九一年yi 1 jiu 3 jiu 3 yi 1 nian 2 1991，第一课di 4 yi 1 ke 4 first lesson，请给我一碗茶Qing 3 ni 3 gei 3 wo 3 yi 1 wan 3 cha 2 . Give me a cup of tea, please，他一见就明白了Ta 1 yi 1 jian 4 jiu 4 ming 2 bai 4 le. He took one look and immediately understood，比例尺为一比百bi 3 lie 4 chi 3 wei 4 yi 1 bi 3 bai 3 scale 1:100，最后一次zui 4 hou 4 yi 1 ci 4 most recent，不管三七二 十一bu 4 guan 3 san 1 qi 1 er 4 shi 2 yi 1 was or was not，下了头一场大雪xia 4 letou 2 yi 1 chang 2 da 4 xue 3 the first big snow fell，一，二，三！ Yi 1 , er 4 , san 1 ! One two Three!
2) as part of set phrases: 一生一世yi 1 sheng 4 yi 1 shi 4 all life，一位不名yi 1 wei 4 bu 4 ming 2 not a penny，百无一失bai 3 wu 2 yi 1 shi 1 without mistake， 背城借一bei 4 cheng 2 jie 4 yi 1 give the last fight，串通一气chuan 4 tong 1 yi 1 qi 4 join the conspiracy，大年初一da 4 nian 2 chu 1 yi 1 first day of the new year，倒打一耙dao 4 3 yi 1 pa 2 big head to big head，独一无二du 2 yi 1 wu 2 er 4 unique，一把抓yi 1 ba 3 zhua 1 take on everything yourself，一程子yi 1 cheng 2 zi period，一板一眼yi 1 ban yan 3 carefully .
3) as the second element of disyllabic words, before a pause. For example: 纯一chun 2 yi 1 single，单一dan 1 yi 1 mono，第一di 4 yi 1 first，同一tong 1 yi 1 together，万一wan 4 yi 1 join，统一tong 3 yi 1 combine.
The change in etymological tone in the numeral "一yi 1 one" is primarily associated with its position relative to adjacent syllables and their tone. Depending on the position, this numeral can take on a second or fourth tone. For example, before syllables in the fourth tone, "one" is pronounced in the second tone: 3 , fei 1 yi 2 ri 4 zhi 1 han 2 everything has its deep roots，白吃竿大，更进一步bai 4 chi 1 gan 1 da 4 , geng 4 jin 4 yi 2 bu 4 do not stop there; 一日三秋yi 2 ri 4 san 1 qiu 1 day feels like a year，吃一堑，长一智chi 1 yi 2 qian 4 , zhang 3 yi 2 zhi 4 learn from mistakes；请你给我传达一下qing 3 ni 3 gei 3 wo 3 chuan 2 da 2 yi 2 xia 4 report me；一簇花yi 2 cu 4 hua 1 bunch of flowers，一不小心yi 2 bu 4 xiao 3 xin 1 and see，一定yi 2 ding 4 must，一 并办理yi 2 bing 4 ban 1 li 3 do at the same time，一旦yi 2 dan 4 same day，一部教学yi 2 bu 4 jiao 1 xue 2 single shift，一二yi 2 er 4 few，一会儿yi 2 hui 4 r few ，一溜烟yi 2 liu 4 yan 1 instantly, 一问三不知yi 2 wen 4 san 1 bu 4 zhi 1 no matter what you ask, he doesn't know.
In addition, changing the etymological first tone of the numeral to the second, "one" also changes its tone to the fourth in position before syllables in the first, second and third tones. For example: 彼一时，此一时bi 3 yi 4 shi 2 , ci 3 yi 4 shi 2 now is not the same time，他们一边讲，一边吃饭了。Ta 1 menyi 4 bian 1 jiang 3 , yi 4 bian 1 chi 1 fan 4 le. They talked and ate. 惩一儆百cheng 2 yi 4 jing 3 bai 3 to be discourteous，苹果太酸，要甜一些。Ping 2 guo 3 tai 4 suan 1 , yao 4 tian 2 yi 4 xie 1 . Apples are too sour, need something sweeter, 我一点儿会说汉语。Wo 3 yi 4 dian 3 rhui 4 shuo 1 han 4 yu 3 . I speak a little Chinese. 块吧，已经一点钟！Kuai 4 ba, yi 2 jing 4 yi 4 dian3zhong1! Hurry, it's already time! 我吃一点来。Wo3 chi1 yi 4 dian 3 lai 2 . I'll come later. 一口气yi 4 kou 3 qi 4 breath，一己yi 4 ji 3 personal，一览yi 4 lan 3 handbook, 一马当先yi 4 ma 3 dang 1 xian 1 be in front，一连串yi 4 lian 2 churen 4 chain，中i 2 ban 1 one for all，一声不响yi 4 sheng 1 bu 4 xiang 4 no sound，一天到晚yi 4 tian 1 dao 4 wan 3 morning to evening，一言一行yi 4 yan 2 yi 2 xing 4 in all their actions.
Another feature of the numeral 一yi one is its complete loss of tone. This fact can be found in cases of finding a numeral between the verbs of doubling. For instance:
1) 让我看一看。Rang 4 wo 3 kan 4 yi 0 kan 4 . Let me see.
2) 你来尝一尝。Ni 3 lai 2 chang 2 yi 0 chang 2 . Come here and try.
3) 我也想试一试吗？Wo 3 ye 2 xiang 3 shi 3 yishi 3 ?can I measure too?
4) 谢尔盖箱根你聊一聊。 Xie 4 er 2 gai 3 xiang 3 gen 1 ni 3 liao 4 yi 0 liao 4 . Sergei wants to talk to you.
5) Ma 1 ma gei 3 xiao 3 hai 2 r jiang 3 yi 0 jiang 3 yi 2 ge gu 3 shi 4 . The mother told the child a story.
6) Wo 3 ying 1 gai 1 jin 1 tian 1 ba 3 yi 1 fu xi 1 yi 0 xi 1 . I have to wash my clothes today.
7) 我在这儿等一等老王。Wo 3 zai 4 zhe 4 r deng 3 yi 0 deng 3 Lao 3 wang 2. I'll wait here Xiaowang.
8) 请对一对。Qing 3 dui 4 yi 0 dui 4 . Check, please.
In addition, the numerals 七 qi 1 - families 八 ba 1 - eight change their etymological tone. Scientists have found that before syllables in the fourth tone they are pronounced in the second:
1) 一共多少钱？-- 一共七块。Yi 2 gong 4 duo 1 shao qian 2 ? – Yi 2 gong qi 2 kuai 4 . How much is? – Only 7 yuan.
2) Jin 1 nian 2 wai 4 guo 2 qong 1 ci 2 zhuang 4 le qi 2 zuo 4 gao 1 lou 2 . This year, a foreign enterprise built eight multi-storey buildings.
3) Xiao 3 wang 2 jin 1 tian 1 chi 1 le ba 2 dun 4 fan 4 . Today Xiaowanel 8 times.
4) 八字没一撇 ba 2 zi 4 mei 2 yi 1 pie 3 - has not yet found a thread that you can grab onto;
5) 八面光 da 2 mian 4 guang 1 – dodgy;
6) 七上八下 qi 2 shang 4 ba 2 xia 4 - the heart is in the wrong place;
7) 七窍生烟 qi 2 qiao 4 sheng 1 yan 1 - burst into anger;
8) 七个人一起 qi 2 ge 4 ren 2 yi 1 qi 3 - in seven;
9) 七叶树 qi 2 ye 4 shu 4 - chestnut.
In the role of ordinal numbers (without the prefix 第 di 4), the numbers "seven" and "eight" retain their etymological tone even before the fourth tone: 七册 qi 1 ce 4 队 ba 1 dui 4 eighth squad.
True, in parallel, there is also the option of pronouncing them in the second tone: 七册 qi 2 ce 4 seventh volume，七界 qi 2 jie 4 seventh session，七日 qi 2 ri 4 seventh day，八月ba 2 yue 4 August，八队 ba 2 dui 4 eighth order.
3.3.2 Negative particle 不bu 4
Research and analysis of various sources showed that the negation of 不bu 4 changes its etymological fourth tone to third only before syllables in the fourth tone:
1) 不必 bu 2 bi 4 is not necessary;
2) 不信 bu 2 xin 4 not to believe;
3) 不三不二bu 4 san 1 bu 2 er 4 neither this nor that;
4) 他总不大肯信。Ta 1 menzong 3 bu 2 da 4 ken 3 xin 1 . He never trusted him too much.
5) 不要！Bu 2 yao 4 ! Do not!
6) 不愿意听。Bu 2 yuan 4 yi ting 1 . reluctant to listen.
7) 不论如何，我们要赢田径比赛。Bu 2 lun 4 ru 2 ci 3 , wo 3 men yao 4 ying 4 tian 2 jing 1 bi 3 sai 4 . Whatever happens, we need to win the track and field competitions.
8) 我们的教室不大。Wo 3 mende jiao 4 shi 4 bu 2 da 4 . Our audience is small.
9) Ta 1 men dou 1 bu 2 shi 4 De 2 guo 2 ren 2 . They are all Germans.
10) 不客气。Bu 2 ke 4 qi 4 . Not worth it.
11) 不奉上司。Bu 2 feng 4 shang 4 si 1 . To the unfortunate boss.
12) Ta 1 tong 1 ku 3 le, bu 2 chu 4 tong 4 jiu 4 chuang 1 . He is already unhappy, do not reopen his old wounds.
13) Ta 1 zuo de bu 2 cuo. He did wrong.
14) Huo 2 wu 3 zai hao 3 bu 2 guo le. The goods are good.
15) 说不尽话。Shuo 1 bu 2 jin 4 hua 4 . Endless conversations.
16) 不论怎样讲，也是他们不对。Bu 2 lun 4 zen 2 yang 4 jiang 3 , ye 3 shi 4 ta 1 men bu 2 dui 4 . Whatever you say, they are still wrong.
17) 不破不立。Bu 2 po 4 bu 2 li 4 . You can't break the old, you can't build the new.
Being between the components of doublings, and also as an infix in words and phrases, the negation 不bu 4 completely loses its tone:
1) 去不去qu 4 bu° qu 4 . Will you go?
2) 搬不动ban 1 bu° dong 4 . Do not budge.
3) 好不好hao 3 bu°hao 3 . Good?
4) 起不来qi 3 bu°lai 2 . Don't get up.
5) 打不开da 3 bu°kai 1 . Do not open.
6) 你累不累。Ni 3 lei 4 bu° lei 4 ? Are you tired?
7) 这个东西大不大？Zhe 4 gedong 1 xida 4 bu° da 4 ? Is this thing big?
8) 明天出发，你想不想？Ming 2 tian 1 chu 1 fa 3 , ni 2 xiang 3 bu° xiang 3 ? We leave tomorrow, how are you?
9) 连一次打不下来。Lian 2 yi 1 ci 4 da 3 bu° xia 4 lai. Didn't even hit once.
10) Ta 1 menhui 4 bu° hui 4 yi 3 jing 4 jie 2 guo 3 gong 1 zuo 4 ? Is it possible that they are already finishing the work?
11) 新鲜不新鲜？Xin 1 xian 2 bu° xin 1 xian 2 ? Fresh?
12) 你想休息不休息？Ni 2 xiang 3 xiu 1 xibu° xiu 1 xi? Do you want to rest?
13) Zhe 4 gezini 2 xie 3 dechu 1 laixie 3 bu° chu 1 lai? Can you write this hieroglyph?
14) zai 4 zhe 4 r fang 4 bu° xia liu 4 zhang 1 zhuo 1 zi. 6 tables will not fit here.
15) 第一课的汉字我写不上来。Di 4 yi 1 ke 4 de han 4 zi 4 wo 3 xie 3 bu° shang 4 lai. I am not writing the hieroglyphs of the first lesson.
16) 这个人是哪国人，你看不出来？Zhe 4 ge ren 2 shi 4 na 3 guo 2 ren 2 , ni 3 kan 4 bu° chu 1 lai? Who is this person by nationality, you can not determine?
Another case of tonal change is curious, in particular the change that occurs with the adverb of the degree 很 hen 3 very. Caught between the negation 不 bu 4 and the syllable in the third tone, the adverb changes its etymological third tone to the fourth, causing a corresponding change in tone in the negation as well. For instance:
不很好bu 4 hen 3 hao 3 - bu 2 hen 4 hao 3 not very good; 不很远bu 4 hen 3 yuan 3 - bu 2 hen 4 yuan 3 is not very far.
The word 多么 duome is interesting - how, what (exclamation), the first syllable of which can be pronounced both in the first and in the second tone. A complete change of tone occurs constantly in the Chinese language and requires great attention to itself in the process of mastering the basics of Chinese phonetics. As for the polysyllabic combinations and tonal changes associated with the rhythm, tempo and logic of the phrase, this issue should be considered at a later stage, when some fluency appears in the students' speech.
Conclusion
Summing up the results of our thesis work, we can say that the tasks set by us were fully completed. We have clarified the meaning of the term tone, which is the melodic variation of pitch in the pronunciation of syllables, which is phonologically significant in the language. Tone is realized in the form of a rise or fall of the voice, which can either be unchanged throughout the syllable, or change from one pitch level to another. The number of such levels in different languages is different, but in general it presumably does not exceed 4. Tones that do not change case throughout the syllable are called even; register-changing are called sliding. The latter are grouped according to the nature of their orientation: unidirectional (ascending/descending), bidirectional (ascending-descending/descending-ascending).
Some linguists assume that the tone and intonation of the concept are the same. We tried to challenge this point of view and found out that although tone and intonation interact with each other indivisibly, they still perform different functions. To solve this problem, Kaplun M.I. proposes not to separate tone and intonation and study them together as a single mechanism.
Next, I would like to sum up the study of the tones of the Chinese language. From the history of the issue, we learned that at all times the number of tones in the Chinese language varied from three to four, that is, tones in their own way did not change throughout the existence of the Chinese language. Studies of tones have been carried out since the 1st century and were of great interest to philologists of that time. Various dictionaries and reference books were compiled, which at that time were rhymes.
Currently, there are two main classifications of tones. They are given by Zadoenko T.P. and Speshnee N.A. we studied their theories in detail and found that the tone systems of both linguists are similar, only the main characteristics of tones differ and different formulations are given.
The main purpose of this thesis is to study the features of changing tones in the Chinese language. We found out that tone sandhi in modern Chinese is a fairly common phenomenon.
It follows from the study that a partial and complete change of tones takes place in the language. A partial change in tones is typical if there are some inconveniences in pronouncing consecutive toned syllables. This is especially true for fluent speech. Thus, a partial change in tones occurs at the junction of two syllables with the same tone, or within one word. In this case, the first syllable loses its brightness and intensity and is more easily pronounced. Partial tone change applies to all tones in Chinese. So, for example, when combining two consecutive third tones, the first syllable is usually pronounced in the second tone. If several third tones follow in a row, then the third tone changes to the second one in all syllables except the last or in a checkerboard pattern. There are also exceptions, which are kinship terms. In this case, the second syllable is pronounced with zero tone.
In Chinese colloquial speech of medium or fast pace, sandhi of tones is found in weakly stressed syllables located between two heavily stressed syllables. In particular, this applies to syllables with a second tone, which in a similar position pass into the first tone, that is, they lose their ascending part. Thus, it turns out that in the modern Putonghua language there are four basic tones, which differ in their melody, pitch and intensity of sound, as well as direction and longitude of sound.
The second tone between the first two passes into the first tone. If there is a zero tone between the first and second, then the zero tone is pronounced high, but if the zero tone is between the third and first, then it is pronounced low. In the case of doublings, the second element is pronounced in the first tone.
There are interesting cases of tone change in the negation of 不bu 4 . This particle has its own etymological 4th tone, but in combination before the fourth it changes its tone to the second. In addition, we considered the features of tone change in the numerals 一yi one, 七qi seven, 八ba eight. These numerals have their own etymological first tone. But in combination before the fourth tone, the tone is changed to the second. But it should be noted that in ordinal and cardinal numbers they retain their etymological tone. As for the numeral "one", it does not change its tone in stable combinations, like the second element of a disyllabic word. The change in tone in the numeral "one" also occurs in combination before the first, second and third to the second tone.
Thus, the main objectives of our thesis were achieved in full. We found out and examined in detail the composition of the tones of the Chinese language from different points of view, studied and gave a sufficient number of examples of sandhi of tones in the Chinese language.
List of used literature
1. Aleksakhin A.N. Theoretical phonetics of the Chinese language: [textbook]. - M.: AST: East-West, 2006. - 204, p.
2. Great Soviet encyclopedia. - 3rd ed. - T.30. - 467s.
3. Zadoenko T.P. Fundamentals of the Chinese language. Main course. - M .: The main editorial office of scientific literature of the publishing house "Nauka". - 1986. - 712p.
4. Zvegintsev V.A. Essays on general linguistics. – M.: Enlightenment, 1981. – 235p.
5. Zenkov G.S., Sapozhnikova I.A. Introduction to linguistics. - M.: VSh, 1969. - 95s.
6. Chinese-Russian dictionary. - Revised edition. - M.: Veche, 2003. - 1280s.
7. Kurdyumov V.A. Chinese language course. Theoretical grammar. – M.: CITADEL-TRADE; LADA, 2005. - 576s.
8. Serebrennikov B.A. General linguistics. - M .: "Science". - 1970. - 115p.
9. Speshnev N.A. Phonetics of the Chinese language. - L .: Publishing house of the Leningrad University. - 1980. - 142p.
10. Susov I.P. History of linguistics. - Tver: Tver State University. - 1999. - 162c.
11. Thomsen V. History of linguistics until the end of the 19th century. - M .: State educational and pedagogical publication of the People's Commissariat of Education of the RSFSR. - 1938. - 108s.
12. “读者”，2003，No.7. – 57-63页。
13. “读者”，2000，No.1. – 5-3页。
14. “读者”，1998，No.10. – 12-18 。
15. “读者”，2001，No.3. – 47-50。
16. 经货俄语。- 黑龙江教育出版发行，1993。1
17. 桥顺：实用汉语中级教程（下）。
18. 现代俄汉词典/张建华等编。- 北京：外语教学与研究出版社，1998。10
19. Yip Po-Ching and Dom Rimmington. Chinese: A comprehensive grammar. - Routledge: London and New York, 2004. - 436c.
20. http://linguistica.spb.ru
21. www.profchina.ru
22. www.studychina.ru
23 www. umao.ru
Thomsen V. History of linguistics until the end of the 19th century. – c.13.
Chinese-Russian Dictionary.
Yip Po-Ching and Dom Rimmington. Chinese: A comprehensive grammar. – c. 149
“读者”，2001，No.3. – 47-50。
“读者”，2000，No.1. – 5-3页。
桥顺：实用汉语中级教程（下）。- 170 页
Chinese-Russian Dictionary. – c. 981.
“读者”，2003，No.7. – 57-63页。
Zadoenko T.P. Fundamentals of the Chinese language. Main course. – c. 104.
现代俄汉词典/张建华等编。
桥顺：实用汉语中级教程（下）。
Yip Po-Ching and Dom Rimmington. Chinese: A comprehensive grammar. – c.173.
www.studychina.ru
Kurdyumov V.A. Chinese language course. Theoretical grammar. – c. 49.
Have you ever met someone on YouTube or in real life who speaks amazingly good Chinese? The first sensation will probably be admiration and surprise. Admiration then gives way to doubt: how did they achieve such an incredible level of language proficiency?
Until a few years ago, the Mandarin Chinese language was shrouded in an aura of mystery. It was considered an exotic language, undoubtedly difficult to learn. Foreigners, like the Chinese themselves, thought that mastering northern Chinese was really an unattainable goal. Then came Dashan.
This short documentary showcases how Dashan shocks the public with impeccable Chinese in a TV program that has been watched by nearly half a billion people. As a result, Dashan became an instant celebrity in China.
Much has changed since that distant 1988 and the number of foreign students who have come to terms with the Chinese language and living in China has been growing very rapidly in the past 20 years. And now it is no longer considered unusual to meet a foreigner in Mainland China. However, many students continue to struggle when it comes to speaking Chinese, and this is mainly due to an aspect that is seen as "essential" from a Westerner's point of view: intonation in Chinese.
When it comes to talking about intonation, two things immediately come to mind:
1) Why is intonation so difficult in Chinese? Difficulty learning intonation in Chinese Usually they suggest looking at the diagram, listening to the corresponding sound and trying to repeat it. This approach seems logical: the student starts with the basic building blocks (syllables) and then moves on to words (which can be one, two, or three syllables) and finally to whole sentences. In engineering and computer slang, one should talk about the “bottom-up” technique: the wall is built, starting from the foundation, brick by brick. While the methods developed seem to be very well received by students, learning Chinese is not possible with a simple algorithm. They say: "A good start is half the battle." Unfortunately, everything is not as simple as it seems. (If you want to know more about this issue, my friend Vlad wrote an excellent blog post about it). Ma che hai fatto oggi? ==> Mā chē hā-ī fàt-to ŏg-gí? Ma dove sei andato? ==> Mā dō-vē sē- ī ā-ndàtó? Imagine that gigantic effort in pronouncing a whole sentence through the keys of each individual syllable. Things get much more complicated when it comes to thinking about a sentence, in which you also need to remember every key. And even if you are good at pronouncing tones, the sentence will still sound "robot" to a native speaker. The reason for this is that the sentence is not a simple aggregation of individual sounds. When we speak, all the individual components follow the general intonation of the sentence, and a "tonal shift" occurs. This "tonal shift" means that the pronunciation of the syllables that make up the words change depending on the position held by that word in the sentence. In Italian (as in other languages), the same word has a different tone if it is at the beginning or at the end of a sentence. La polenta * E un Cibo Tipico dell "Italia del Nord." ("Polenta" is a typical NorthenItaly dish) As you can see, the word "polenta" at the beginning of a sentence sounds like the first third of the second tone, while it becomes the first fourth-fifth (neutral) tone when at the end of the sentence. A few tips on how to learn Chinese tones The bottom-up has suddenly turned into a top-down approach: one starts by saying in general, just a sentence, and then moves down to its individual components. 1) Read the introduction to phonetics: it's always good to know that Chinese is a tonal language anyway, and that it has 5 tones (4 + neutral). This will always be a good reference. Also, at an early stage, one should immediately learn how to pronounce consonants, paying special attention in differentiating retroflex consonants (e.g., zh, ch, shi) from normal ones (Z, j, s), and aspirated (p, t) from not the atmospheric ones (B, D). 2) If you have a basic understanding of Chinese phonetics, start looking at very simple sentences. Listen to the sentences dozens of times, and repeat them with your eyes closed, without looking at the tones that make up the individual words. In addition to tones, it's important to note that Chinese also has a common pitch (way of suggesting flows) that needs to be taken into account. There is a very interesting YouTube video by my friend Marco on this topic. Marco explains that Chinese breaks introduces at certain positions in a sentence. These breaks, which I represent with a "/", give one sort of guide on how to pronounce a Chinese sentence other than tones. It is part of the "phonetic analysis, pronunciation and step approach that I use to teach languages to my students (via Skype and face to face) 1) Finally, after having learned how to listen, you should just start listening...! Do this for at least half an hour a day, preferably an hour, and when you're ready, try spending even more time on this activity. This is the key to speaking native like Chinese. Starts with audio and the corresponding script. conclusions (*) In 2006, Harold Goodman, author of three audio courses created an approach to color-code Mandarin tones. In addition to colors, each tone also has an accompanying gesture. For example, for a sound, the thumb moves in a straight line, lateral direction, points the index finger up for, the index and middle fingers form a V sign to indicate the third tone (ǎ), and so on. This approach was tested with student volunteers at Theus and they seemed to remember the tones very well. For more information, please contact:
2) Is there a suitable way to study?
Let's consider the first problem. It must be emphasized, again, the following: Chinese is an intonational language. This not only means that intonation makes words, but also that the meaning of the words themselves is based on intonation.
In non-intonational languages such as Italian or English, intonation exists. We do not realize this simply because the meaning of words does not depend on their variation. Thus, in theory, the same intonation could be used to visually represent the syllables that make up words in non-tonation languages.
The very first thing you will encounter when you start speaking Mandarin Chinese is intonation. The following diagrams clearly demonstrate the 4 "heights" of sound in Chinese.
Now, imagine you want to learn Italian and your teacher suggests the above bottom-up learning method. So, it all starts with the sound quality of syllables and then progresses to words and sentences. After tedious explanations and diagrams, present the practice on the following sentences:
Mi Piache la polenta. * (I love polenta.)
Obviously, such an approach to learning Italian would be a disaster. No one, fortunately, dares to take such an approach. However, even with the large differences between Italian and Chinese, this is the only approach taken in the vast majority of Chinese courses, whether at universities or private schools. Now, is there an alternative to all this?
Very often, Chinese characters combined with tones cause many language learners to give up pretty quickly. At the same time, more than one and a half billion Chinese, as well as a huge number of foreign students, are fluent in Chinese, proving that it is quite possible to learn the tones of the Chinese language.
We are used to thinking that children learn language better and faster, and we attribute this success to the flexibility of the mind that we, adults, have already lost. Someone may not agree with the wording "flexibility of the mind", but in the learning process the main circumstance is often missed: children's perception of a foreign language differs from ours.
Children hear sentences in their entirety. They don't start with single words. And they just hear the phrase and then they themselves recognize its individual parts. As adults, we tend to think that we can understand the structure of language by analyzing each of its sides, and thus lose the whole picture. We adults have retained the ability to hear, but have almost lost the ability to listen.
To regain this ability, patience and some breadth of views are needed.
After starting to learn Chinese in the traditional way, after just a few months, I realized how important it is to listen to the whole sentence. This thought occurred to me when I first used a computer program in which a native speaker says a sentence and you have to repeat it. Then the program compares both proposals and evaluates your option in points - from 1 (very bad) to 7 (excellent).
Even though I was judged by a machine with all its shortcomings, the exercise was interactive and fun, and before I realized it, I had tried over 300 hundred sentences this way. I repeated the sentences without even thinking about the tones.
Based on my experience I would suggest that one follow these simple steps:
3) Then consider individual words and try to focus on them when they are "embedded" in a sentence. If necessary, write down a list of words until you learn them.
4) move on to more complex sentences (main clause + relative clause / conditional clause, etc.)
Quality at the beginning is stated quantitative at a later stage is a great way to achieve excellent pronunciation!
Chinese tones are definitely a problem, but they can be extracted with the proper approach. The one I suggest is simple: consider the whole sentence and listen to it, try to figure out how it sounds in general without focusing on the tones. You will see that this is an effective approach to acquiring tones naturally.
- http://www.michelthomas.com/learn-mandarin-chinese.php
- MANDARIN_CHINESE.pdf
6. Stress and tones. Intonation
2. Emphasis
2.1. word stress
2.1.1. Types of word stress
2.1.2. Functions of word stress
2.1.3. Languages without word stress
2.2.
3. Intonation
3.1. Main functions of intonation 3.2. Intonation types Literature
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1. Segmental and supersegmental phenomena
In the speech flow, all phonetic units - sounds, syllables, words, measures, phrases - are represented linear segments(segments), which are sequentially arranged one after another. They're called segment units.
Phonetic phenomena are superimposed on a linear chain of segmental units, which cannot exist independently. Therefore they are called supersegment units(= suprasegmental, supersegmental). A linear segment can be isolated and pronounced separately, and a supersegment one - only with it.
Supersegmental speech flow units are also called prosodic means. Prosody (Greek prosōdia ‘stress, chorus’) includes stress, tones and intonation (sometimes only intonation) [Girutsky, p. 72].
2. Emphasis
Stress (=accent from lat. accentus ‘stress’) is the allocation in speech of a particular unit in a sequence of homogeneous units using phonetic means [LES, p. 530].
The science of stress is called accentology.
Depending on which segment unit the stress is functionally correlated, they distinguish:
verbal,
syntagmatic (clock),
phrasal stress [LES, p. 530].
2.1. word stress Under word stress(accent) most often understand the emphasis of a syllable
in a word by phonetic means.
2.1.1. Types of word stress:
1) phonetic types:
on selection method stressed syllable,
on force (degree) of impact,
by the number of ways to highlight the stressed syllable;
2) structural types:
regarding the syllabic structure of the word,
regarding the morphemic structure of the word.
stress and tones. Intonation (cor.)
1. Phonetic types
1.1. According to the method of highlighting the stressed syllable
Usually, 3 components of stress are distinguished (3 means, or ways of highlighting a stressed syllable):
1) strength, or intensity of articulation (achieved by increasing muscle tension and increasing exhalation),
2) duration, or longitude (number) of the stressed vowel,
3) change in pitch against the background of a neutral tone of other syllables.
Accordingly, allocated three types of word stress:
power, or dynamic (less often - expiratory),
quantitative, or quantitative, longitudinal (not registered in its pure form),
musical, or melodic (not to be confused with tones!).
Dynamic and quantitative stress is also called monotonic, and musical - polytonic.
Table number 1.
polytonicmonotonic
A. A. Reformatsky, referring to A. Meie, cites Modern Greek as the only example of a language with a purely quantitative accent [Reformatsky, p. 197]. However, modern researchers argue that duration is not used in any of the known languages as an independent way to highlight a stressed syllable.
Sometimes they also distinguish qualitative = qualitative stress (L. V. Shcherba) - a special quality (timbre) of the vowels that make up the stressed syllable (lack of reduction) [Zinder, p. 264; Maslov, p. 73].
Usually the stressed syllable is stressed in several ways at the same time, but one way is dominant. For example,
- in Czech and Modern Greek -articulation power,
- in Lithuanian, Swedishpitch change,
- In russian language - the strength and length of the stressed vowel (quantitative-dynamic, or dynamic-complex stress).
Of these two components, a number of scientists consider duration to be the most important.
An argument in favor of such a decision is, in particular, the fact that Russians in languages where long and short vowels are opposed tend to perceive syllables with a long vowel as stressed:
- Czech words with a long The 2nd syllable like motýl ‘butterfly’ is perceived as having an accent on the 2nd syllable.
stress and tones. Intonation (cor.)
On the other hand, native speakers of languages with long vowels and diphthongs perceive Russian stressed vowels as long [LES, p. 530]. Yakuts, for example, replace Russian stressed vowels with long vowels or diphthongs:
- lamp - laampa, moss - muoh, seed - sieme[Kodukhov, p. 124].
Other researchers believe that for the Russian language the most important features are
duration and
The quality of the stressed vowel [Bondarko et al., p. 117].
The qualitative, timbre component of the Russian accent needs less support than other components with the help of contrast [Maslov, p. 73]. An example of L. V. Shcherba: in a phrase
- Here brother took a knife
4 clearly felt word stresses, although each stressed syllable is neither stronger, nor longer, nor higher compared to neighboring syllables, because There are no unstressed syllables in this sentence. Therefore, stress is something absolute, not relative. A sign of shock is a special quality of stressed syllables compared to unstressed ones [Zinder, p. 264].
In Czech, Finnish, English, intensity plays a greater role than in Russian, because in these languages there is an opposition between long and short vowels.
For languages with a dynamic component of stress, the reduction of vowels in unstressed syllables is typical.
musical accent represented, for example, in literary Swedish:
In some words - an acute accent (smooth movement of pitch in a stressed syllable: either rising or falling),
In others, a grave accent (the tone in the stressed syllable rises and falls again, and again rises slightly in the stressed syllable:
Stegen with acute accent on the second syllable - ‘steps’;
Stegen with grave accent on the second syllable – ‘portable ladder’ [Maslov, p. 79].
1.2. By the strength (degree) of impact
In some languages (Russian, English, German, etc.) in polysyllabic words, two stresses of the same type are possible:
main,
secondary (side) [LES, p. 530].
Side stress is especially common in compound words. In German, for example, this is always the case. In German, the main stress usually falls on the first syllable:
- "aufst" ehen;
- "Haust"ür ‘door of the house’.
In Russian, side stress in compound words is not necessary, and if it is, then it falls on the second basis:
- locomotive, plumbing ..., but
Radiolocation, electrical wiring ...
Side stress is weaker than the main one, therefore, in Russian speech, such pairs are easily distinguishable:
- rocket launcher - launch vehicle,
- potent - powerfully active[Zinder, p.261; Maslov, p. 78].
1.3. By the number of selection methods stressed syllable languages are divided into
monoaccent languages - a stressed syllable can be distinguished in only one way (Russian, English, and many others);
polyaccented languages - a stressed syllable can be distinguished in two or more ways (Lithuanian, Croatian, Swedish, Norwegian, Punjabi, etc.) - a rather rare case.
stress and tones. Intonation (cor.)
In Swedish, most disyllabic and polysyllabic words have a dynamic stress on the first syllable and a musical stress on one of the following:
Flicka ‘girl’ is pronounced with an increase on the first syllable and with an increase in tone on the second [Zinder, p. 264; LES, p. 530].
2. Structural types
2.1. Relatively syllabic structure words stand out
connected (fixed, single),
free (non-fixed, non-local) stress.
The associated stress in all words of the language falls on specific syllable
relative to the beginning or end of a word:
1 syllable: Czech, Slovak, Latvian, Finnish, Hungarian, Chechen;
2 syllable from the beginning: Lezgi;
- penultimate syllable: Polish, Swahili, Highland Mari, some. Indonesian;
Last syllable: Armenian, Persian, Tajik, Udmurt [Zinder, p. 259; LES, p. 24; Shaikevich, p. 37].
If the stress is associated with the end of the word, then when a syllable is added, for example, when declining, the stress remains on the same syllable from the end:
Polish: człówiek – człowiéka ‘man – man’;
Kirg.: kalá – kalada ‘city – in the city’ [Reformatsky, p. 198].
Sometimes the terms "bound" and "fixed" are used differentially. In this case, the associated stress is divided by
1) fixed - having a single permanent seat (Czech, Hungarian, Estonian, Polish);
2) limited ( semi-connected) - having a certain localization zone.
For example, in other Greek. and Latin, the position of the stress was related to the length of the vowels, but was counted from the end of the word form:
Latin: natūra ‘nature’ – naturālis ‘natural’;
Nēbŭla ‘fog’, ratĭo ‘mind [LES, p. 531].
In the Ossetian language, the stress falls on the first syllable, if it is strong (long), and on the second syllable in other cases [Shaikevich, p. 37].
Free stress can fall on any syllable (Russian, Lithuanian, Mordovian, Abkhazian). For example, in Russian:
- kitchen, pine, dairy, seconded, pasteurize etc.
At the same time, in every word and in every grammatical form, the place of stress is usually fixed strictly: only kitchen is possible, but not kitchenI. Fluctuations of the type cottage cheese - cottage cheese occur only in some cases. I
According to Larry Hyman, who surveyed 444 languages,
- in 33% of languages the stress is free,
- in 25% the stress falls on the initial syllable,
- in 20% - for the final,
- in 18% - to the penultimate one [LES, p. 24].
2.2. Relatively morphemic structure words distinguish
mobile (transitional),
fixed (constant) stress.
Movable stress can move from one morpheme to another
a) when inflecting: city - city-á (stress moves from the root to the ending); b) in word formation: city - foreign city-n-y - city-sk-óy - out-of-town.
stress and tones. Intonation (cor.)
In Russian, stress is free and mobile. Such an accent can play a) additional or b) independent grammatical role:
a) table - table, write - write(a change in the place of stress accompanies a change in the ending);
b) windows - windows, rivers - rivers, cities - cities (stress is the only thing that distinguishes forms with different grammatical meanings).
moving accent is not is bound to shift in all words and forms. For example, in Russian, 96% of words have a fixed stress:
a) pea - pea ... b) pea, pea, stun.
In languages with associated stress, it may also be movable. This is typical of languages in which grammatical morphemes are attached before or after the root. When adding an affix consisting of at least one syllable to a word, the stress automatically transferred:
Polish: pólski - polskégo;
Kazakh: kala – klár ‘city – city’;
Czech: vézt – dovézt ‘to carry – to bring’ (é is a long vowel, and the stress is on 1 syllable) [Zinder, p. 259].
A. A. Reformatsky [p. 198] believes that fixed stress can be
Single and
- heterogeneous: ital. cása ‘house’, libertá ‘freedom’, témpera ‘tempera’ (type of mineral paint),
récitano ‘they say / read by heart’ (4 syllable from the end).
However, with this understanding, this term turns out to be superfluous: in fact, we are talking about the fact that the stress falls on any syllable in the word and does not move when the word changes (cf.: [LES, p. 206]).
Table number 2. |
|||
fixed |
free |
||
(associated with a syllable identified by count) |
(can be on any syllable in a word) |
||
motionless |
mobile |
motionless |
mobile |
(does not move |
(can move |
(does not move |
(can move |
when it changes |
to another morpheme |
when it changes |
to another morpheme |
when changing the word) |
when changing the word) |
||
(Swahili: accent |
Polish, Kazakh |
Russian : |
Russian : |
on the penultimate |
peas - peas ... |
||
syllable, and affixes |
pea, |
||
are joining |
pea, |
||
before root) |
stun |
||
prefix you- |
|||
pulls the accent |
|||
on yourself in verbs |
|||
perfect look |
|||
More often, mobile stress is spoken of in relation to languages \u200b\u200bwith free stress. Moving the fixed accent is automatic, not connected
With morphemic composition of the word, and thereforecannot play a grammatical role.
In the history of language, types of stress may change. So, in the Slavic languages there was a transition
From musical stress to dynamic: (Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian, Polish);
From free to bound (Czech, Polish) [LES, p. 531].
stress and tones. Intonation (cor.)
2.1.2. Functions of word stress
1. Constitutive, or derivational- stress, like the phoneme, is an essential element of the sound image of the word. Word recognition, especially in difficult communication conditions, is closely related to the correct perception of the stressed syllable, because when the place of stress changes, in particular due to reduction, the phonetic appearance of the whole word can change significantly:
Weather [n Λ year] - weather [pogdα] - weather [pgΛ dá] [Zinder, p. 259].
2. Culminative ( vertex-forming) function. Emphasis is the most common means of organizing phonetic integrity syllables that form
word [LES, p. 531; Bondarko and others, p. 116].
Another means of phonetically combining a word is synharmonism. In languages
With synharmonism often question the existence of word stress.
3. Distinctive (significative, distinctive ) the stress function is found in the minimum pairs of words and forms of the type:
- puli - saw, crying - crying, flour - flour;
- hands - hands, herbs - grasses I, lakes - lakes;
English contrast ‘contrast’ – contrást ‘to contrast’.
This function is secondary to the constitutive one because
1) distinctive function can be realizedonly in languages with mixed accents;
2) constitutive function inherent in stress in any word, while the distinctive is realized just a couple of words(forms) with the same phonemic composition;
3) the number of minimal pairs that differ in the place of stress is small.
4. Delimitative (delimitative ) function - it is often attributed to the associated stress. According to some scientists, it is imaginary. A fixed stress on the first or last syllable indicates which syllable it is, but not exact border between words [Zinder, p. 249; Maslov, p. 77; Bondarko and others, p. 119].
2.1.3. Languages without word stress
1. Languages without word stress include
- Paleoasian languages(languages of the north and northeast of Asia and North America), for example, Chukchi [LES, p. 530].
- Tungus-Manchu languages: Evenki, Even [Zinder, p. 262].
2. Many researchers believe that there is no word stress inFrench: the stress is not a single word, but rhythm group (measure)[Zinder, p. 262].
3. In tonal languages, not stress, but tones. These are syllabic languages morpheme equals syllable, and often coincides with the word.
This is how most of the languages of Southeast Asia (Chinese, Burmese, Vietnamese, etc.) are arranged, as well as many languages of Tropical Africa and Central America.
Each syllable is characterized by a tone. In non-monosyllabic words, all vowels in the word are tinted, i.e. each syllable in the word is marked in its own way. There is no opposition between tone and its absence., there are only different ways of toning a syllable [Bondarko et al., p. 116; EDD, p. 344; Kodzasov, Krivnova, p. 187–188]. In stressed languages, as a rule, one syllable is emphasized, and not all.
Tone can have a variety of phonetic characteristics: voice pitch, its change, intensity of syllable elements, voice quality, syllable duration, and often some other characteristics (pharyngealization, glottal stop) [Bondarko et al., p. 116].
In Chinese, 4 tones are usually distinguished: 1 - high even,
stress and tones. Intonation (cor.)
2 - high rising,
3 - low descending-ascending,
4 - descending from the highest to the lowest level. Sometimes they also talk about a neutral (zero) tone.
Syllables with the same sound composition, but in different tones are different words:
Da 1 ‘construct’,
Da 2 ‘answer’,
Da 3 ‘beat’,
Da 4 ‘big’.
Vietnamese has 6 tones: |
|||
- tall straight |
ba1 ‘three’ |
||
- low weakly descending |
ba2 ‘woman’ |
||
- high intermittent |
'garbage' |
||
- low descending-ascending |
'old woman' |
||
- high rising |
'to embrace' |
||
- low sharply falling |
‘at random’ [Bondarko et al., p. 116]. |
||
Emphasis historically can develop out of tone. Such a path is assumed, for example, for Indo-European languages:
tone → musical stress → dynamic stress [LES, p. 531].
2.2. Syntagmatic and phrasal stressSyntagmatic stressis the selection of the last stressed syllable in the syntagma:
Yesterday in black
Phrase stress is the intensive emphasis on the last stressed syllable in
Yesterday evening // when the clock struck ten // my brother arrived ///
Phrase stress shapes
- complete sentence and
- its communicative type: narrative, interrogative, exclamatory.
Along with phonetic types of stress, logical or semantic stress is also distinguished. Its purpose consists in semantic underlining (actualization) of the most important word in the given speech situation in the statement:
- We will go to the cottage on Saturday.
We will go to the dacha on Saturday.
We will go to the cottage on Saturday.
We will go to the cottage on Saturday.
Only in the first case, the logical stress coincides with the phrasal one.
Any component can be updated in a sentence, even one that usually does not have verbal stress:
The letter is not on the table, but in the table.
3. Intonation
Intonation (lat. intono ‘I speak loudly’) is a set of interrelated rhythmic and melodic characteristics of speech: melody, intensity, tempo of speech and timbre of pronunciation.
Together with stress, intonation forms prosodic system of language[LES, p. 197].
Components of intonation:
1) melodic (raising and lowering the tone in a phrase) - main component of intonation; melody in each language has its own pattern [Reformed, p. 191];
stress and tones. Intonation (cor.)
2) intensity: the strength or weakness of the utterance of the statement; cf. different intensity of speech at the rally and in the room [Rosenthal, Telenkova, p. 97];
3) tempo: the speed of pronouncing the elements of speech (sounds, syllables, words), the speed of the flow, the duration of the sound in time; for example, by the end of the utterance, the pace of speech slows down; segments containing secondary information are pronounced faster than informatively significant segments [LES, p. 508];
4) timbre: sound coloring of speech, giving it emotional and expressive shades: playful, gloomy intonation, distrust intonation, etc.) [Rosenthal, Telenkova, p. 98]; the timbre of speech should not be confused with the timbre of the voice (soprano, contralto, baryon, bass) and the timbre of sound [Reformatsky, p. 191].
Some scholars include intonation components
5) pauses - breaks in sound: the presence or absence of intra-phrase pauses that can highlight separate parts of a phrase or divide a phrase into half-phrases ( The crows sat // on an old birch.) [Reformed, p. 191];
6) rhythm: the ratio of strong and weak long and short syllables - in itself is a fact of tact, but within the phrase gives it a rhythm [Reformatsky, p. 191], as well as
7) stress, with the exception of verbal.
3.1. Basic functions of intonation
Functions of intonation are divided into
- linguistic,
- non-linguistic[Bondarko et al., p. 128].
1. Linguistic functions of intonation
Intonation is an essential feature of a sentence:
1) forms a statement as a whole (cf. intonation of completeness and incompleteness of the sentence);
2) distinguishes between types of statements in terms of goal setting (communicative type): intonation of the narration, question, motivation;
3) transmits syntactic relations between sentence parts or sentences: cf. intonation of enumeration, introduction, explanation, comparison, etc.;
4) expresses emotional coloring: cf. exclamatory intonation.
2. Non-linguistic features- this is, for example, the ability of intonation to convey a) the individual characteristics of the speaker:
- his psychological state,
Temperament;
b) sociolinguistic peculiarities:
- communication situation,
speech style,
- normativity - non-normativity of speech [Bondarko et al., p. 128; Girutsky, p. 77].
3.2. Intonation types
The melody of a phrase forms its intonation pattern, which underlies the intonation model of the phrase - intotoneme, or intonation construction. The intooneme is the basic unit of intonation. The number of intoonemes is limited, and their system is specific for each language [Kodukhov, p. 137; Girutsky, p. 76].
Intonemes are associated with certain syntactic constructions.
When classifying intonation types, two approaches are used: 1) from content to form,
stress and tones. Intonation (cor.)
2) from form to content.
Currently, both approaches are widely used in the scientific and practical literature [Bondarko et al., p. 129].
1. When approaching from content to form classification is given basic values transmitted by intonational means, and then described intonational means The that are used in passing each of these values.
In Russian, the following intonation types are distinguished: 1) narrative intonation, 2) interrogative intonation, 3) intonation of incompleteness,
4) intonation of emotional emphasis (exclamation point).
These basic intonation types make up minimal paradigm, on the basis of which the whole variety of prosodic organization is built.
2. When approaching from form to content researchers rely on proper phonetic characteristics and try to classify those
implementations found in a particular language.
For example, the French phonetician P. Delattre identified 10 main models of intonation [Kodukhov, p. 137].
An example of an approach from form to content is the classification of Russian
intonation constructions (IC), created by E. A. Bryzgunova . It first presents the characteristics 7 IC , and then describes the values that these ICs are associated with.
Table number 3. |
|||||||||||
Main implementation |
Values |
||||||||||
– – – – – |
narration |
||||||||||
Such are their customs. |
gain |
statements, |
disagreements |
||||||||
objections. |
|||||||||||
question with a question word |
|||||||||||
will |
|||||||||||
What are their customs? |
|||||||||||
a question without a question word |
|||||||||||
What are their customs? |
incompleteness, repetition of a question, high degree |
||||||||||
symptom manifestations |
|||||||||||
_ _ _ _ / – – – – |
framing a question related to the previous |
||||||||||
What about them? What are their customs? |
statement; incompleteness of the statement; |
||||||||||
expression of a high degree of manifestation of the trait; |
|||||||||||
gain |
values |
regrets |
|||||||||
What are their customs! |
|||||||||||
preferential voting |
|||||||||||
registration |
unfinished |
syntagmas; |
expression |
||||||||
manifestations |
sign, |
||||||||||
What are their customs! |
|||||||||||
clarifying question, misunderstanding |
|||||||||||
impossibility or denial |
|||||||||||
What are their customs! |
|||||||||||
[Bondarko et al., p. 130].
Literature
Bondarko L. V., Verbitskaya L. A., Gordina M. V. Fundamentals of general phonetics. St. Petersburg: Publishing house St. Petersburg State University, 2000. VII. Syntagma and sentence. intonation characteristics. WITH. 121–132.
stress and tones. Intonation (cor.)
Vendina T. I. Introduction to linguistics. M.: Higher school, 2001. Stress and its types. pp. 80–83. Intonation and its elements. pp. 83–84.
Girutsky A. A. Introduction to linguistics. Moscow: TetraSystems, 2001. Stress and intonation. pp. 72–77.
Zinder L. R. General phonetics. M., 1979. Chapter VII. Prosody. pp. 257–280.
Kodzasov S. V., Krivnova O. F. General phonetics. M., 2001. 3.5. Acoustic characteristics of super-segment sound means. pp. 183–193.
Kodukhov V. I. Introduction to linguistics. Moscow: Enlightenment, 1979 (2nd ed. - 1987). § 26. Syllable, stress, intonation. pp. 132–134.
LES - Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary. Moscow: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1990. Accentology. pp. 24–25; stress. pp. 530–531; Intonation. pp. 197–98; Prosody. pp. 401–402.
Maslov Yu. S. Introduction to linguistics. M.: Higher. school, 1997. Ch. II. Phonetics and phonology. § 8. Prosodic phenomena. pp. 72–81.
Reformatsky A. A. Introduction to linguistics. Moscow: Aspect Press, 1997. § 34. Emphasis. pp. 196–200. § 53. Method of stress. pp. 305–308. § 54. Method of intonation. pp. 308–310.
Rosenthal D. E., Telenkova M. A. Dictionary-reference book of linguistic terms. Moscow: Enlightenment, 1985 (or other editions).
Shaikevich A. Ya. Introduction to Linguistics. M.: Academy, 2005. § 13. Emphasis. pp. 36–40.
EDD - Encyclopedia for children. T. 10. Linguistics. Russian language. Moscow: Avanta+, 2000. Stress and syllable. pp. 342–344.
ERJ - Russian language. Encyclopedia. M .: Great Russian Encyclopedia - Bustard, 1997. Accentology. pp. 22–24; Intonation. pp. 157–158. stress. pp. 574–575.
