Medieval Europe. International relations in ancient Europe In what year did the Goths capture Rome

In 410, an extremely significant event for the entire Mediterranean took place. It went down in history as the capture of Rome by the Goths. At that time, the "eternal city" was no longer the capital of the empire. And the empire itself broke up into Western and Eastern. But Rome continued to maintain enormous political weight. It should also not be forgotten that for 800 years no enemy soldier has set foot on its streets. The last time this happened was in 390 or 387 BC. when the Gauls invaded the city. And so the "eternal city" fell. On this occasion, Saint Jerome of Bethlehem wrote: "The city that captured the whole world was itself captured."

background

The last emperor of the unified Roman Empire, Theodosius I the Great, died on January 17, 395. Before his death, he divided the once great power into 2 parts. Eastern with its capital in Constantinople went to his eldest son Arcadius. Subsequently, it began to be called Byzantium, and it existed for more than a thousand years, becoming the successor to the Roman Empire.

The western part went to the 10-year-old youngest son Honorius. The boy was appointed guardian Flavius ​​Stilicho, who became the de facto ruler of the Western Roman Empire. But this state lasted only 80 years and fell under the pressure of the barbarians.

Barbarians are Germanic tribes that have been in constant contact with the Roman Empire for 400 years. As a result of this, they acquired certain cultural skills, they had their own handicraft production, but most importantly, they learned how to competently conduct military operations.

The barbarians included the eastern Germanic tribes or the Goths. They consisted of 2 branches - the Ostrogoths and the Visigoths. It was they who played a decisive role in the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the emergence of medieval Europe. Under Emperor Theodosius, they were given lands in Thrace and Dacia in the Balkans. These lands were under Roman sovereignty and had the status of autonomy. It was assumed that the Goths would provide military protection for these territories.

However, Theodosius the Great died, the empire fell apart, and the scattered tribes united into a single force. In 395, they chose a king, who became one of the main leaders Alaric I. He is more often called the leader of the Visigoths, and not ready. The Visigoths are the western branch of the Goths, and it was these people who made up the bulk of the subjects of the newly-made king. But he also had other peoples under his control, also belonging to the Gothic tribes.

Having concentrated sole power in the hands, Alaric began to pursue an aggressive policy towards both Roman empires. He moved at the head of his army to Greece, where he ravaged and devastated many cities. Flavius ​​Stilicho, who commanded the still united Roman forces, tried to resist him. But Emperor Arcadius did not like this initiative. He made a pact with Alaric, who turned his attention to Italy.

At the end of 401, the Goths found themselves on the lands of the Apennine Peninsula. Stilicho marched out to meet them with his legions. Military operations were conducted in the Po Valley in northern Italy, and this campaign ended extremely unsuccessfully for the Goths. The Romans generally could destroy the invaders, but let go, making them allies.

For Stilicho, the barbarians were needed to use them in the political struggle with the Eastern Roman Empire. He wanted to annex Illyria (the western part of the Balkan Peninsula) to his state, and he intended to make the Goths the main striking force in this military company.

However, the capture of Illyria was thwarted by the invasion of the territory of Italy by the barbarians under the command of Radagaisus. In 406, they were defeated, but the very next year, Flavius ​​\u200b\u200bConstantine from Britain tried to usurp imperial power. He captured a large area in Gaul and demanded that Honorius recognize him as emperor.

All these internal upheavals had a negative impact on the alliance of Stilicho with Alaric. The latter commanded the army, which existed due to robberies. And here, since 403, they had to sit and wait until the Western Roman Empire solved its internal problems. This could not continue further: Alaric would simply be replaced by another king.

In 408, the Goths captured the Roman province of Noricum and demanded monetary compensation for so many years of inactivity. But Stilicho was no longer able to resolve this conflict. Emperor Honorius intervened, who by this time had noticeably matured. In Stilicho, he saw a real threat to his power, and therefore, relying on part of the aristocracy, he decided to end his guardian.

In August 408, Stilicho was arrested and executed, accused of treason. After that, many barbarians who settled on the lands of the empire after the union of Alaric with Stilicho were killed and their property was plundered. Upon learning of this, the Goths decided to move on Rome and capture the "eternal city".

I must say that by that time Rome was no longer the capital of the empire. In 402, Ravenna became it and remained in this capacity until 476, when the Western Roman Empire ceased to exist. But the "eternal city" retained its primary position and was considered the spiritual center of Italy. Its population was 800 thousand people, which was a lot at that time.

The Goths broke into Italy and on a quick march, without stopping anywhere, moved towards Rome. In October 408, they were already under the walls of the city and surrounded it, isolating it from the outside world. At the same time, Honorius settled in Ravenna, carefully fortifying his capital, and Rome was left to the mercy of fate.

Honorius - the first emperor of the Western Roman Empire

Diseases and famine began in the big city, and the Roman Senate was forced to send ambassadors to Alaric. He set a condition to give all the gold, silver, household items and slaves. The Romans asked: "What remains for us?" To this the formidable conqueror replied: "Your lives." The city went to these requirements, even pagan statues were melted down, which were an integral part of the greatness of the former capital. Having received everything they needed, the Goths lifted the siege and left. It happened in December 408.

After the siege was lifted from Rome, a time of troubles began in Italy. Alaric feared only Stilicho, but he was executed, and therefore the king is ready to feel like a master on the Apennine Peninsula. In such a situation, the most reasonable thing for Honorius was to ask for peace. Negotiations, he instructed to hold the patrician Jovius.

The king of the conquerors demanded gold, grain, as well as the right to settle the lands of Norica, Dalmatia and Venice as a tribute. Jovius decided to moderate the appetites of the Goths, playing on the vanity of Alaric. In his letter to the emperor, he proposed that he be given the honorary title of commander of the Roman infantry and cavalry. But the emperor refused, which outraged the proud king. After that, he broke off negotiations and moved a second time to Rome.

At the end of 409, the invaders laid siege to the city and captured Ostia, the main harbor of Rome. It contained large food supplies, and the huge city was on the verge of starvation. And then an unheard of event happened: the enemy, the invader, intervened in the holy of holies - the internal politics of the empire. In exchange for food, Alaric offered the senate to choose a new emperor. The senators had no choice, and they dressed in purple a Greek by nationality, Priscus Attalus.

The newly-made emperor, together with the king of the Goths, moved with a large army to Ravenna, where Honoria was hiding behind strong walls. In this critical situation, the legitimate ruler was saved by the Eastern Roman Empire. She sent 2 legions of selected soldiers to Ravenna. Thus, the military garrison of the capital of the Western Roman Empire was strengthened, and it became impregnable.

Attalus and Alahir found themselves in a difficult position, and political differences soon arose between them. An important role was played by the African province, which was the main supplier of grain to Rome. She refused to recognize Attalus as emperor, and the flow of grain to the "eternal city" stopped.

This caused food shortages not only among the Romans, but also among the barbarians. As a result, the problems of the invaders began to snowball. To defuse the situation, the Goth king stripped Attalus of the title of emperor and sent the regalia of power to Ravenna. After that, Honorius agreed to start negotiations with the Goths.

Capture of Rome by the Goths in 410

The emperor of the Western Roman Empire planned to meet with the king of the Goths in an open area 12 km from Ravenna. But this historic meeting did not take place. When Alahir arrived at the agreed place, the emperor was not yet there. But then a detachment of barbarians appeared under the command of Sarah. This Gothic leader had already served the Romans for several years, leading a military unit consisting of the same Goths as he was.

The peace treaty was unfavorable to Sar, and he, with three hundred people loyal to him, attacked Alahir and his retinue. A felling ensued, in which several people died. The Goth king left the place of the failed meeting, and attributed the attack to the treachery of Honorius. After that, he gave the order for the third time to attack Rome.

To this day, it is not clear how the capture of Rome by the Goths was carried out. The invaders approached the city and laid siege to it. At that time, the townspeople were already experiencing severe hunger, as there were no food supplies from the African province. Therefore, the siege did not last long. The Goths broke into the streets of the "eternal city" on August 24, 410.

The barbarians passed through the Salarian gates, which were made in the Aurelian walls. But it is not clear who opened these gates to the enemy. It is assumed that such an unenviable act was committed by slaves. However, they carried it out of mercy to the townspeople, dying of hunger. But be that as it may, the barbarians broke into the "eternal city" and robbed it for 3 days.

The capture of Rome by the Goths was accompanied by arson, robbery and beating of the townspeople. Many of the greatest buildings were looted. In particular, the mausoleums of Augustus and Hadrian. They contained urns containing the ashes of Roman emperors. The urns were smashed and the ashes scattered through the air. All goods were stolen, valuable jewelry was stolen. The gardens of Sallust were burned. Subsequently, they were never restored.

The inhabitants of Rome suffered greatly. Some were taken prisoner for ransom, others were made slaves, and those who were good for nothing were killed. Some residents were tortured trying to find out where they hid their valuables. At the same time, neither old men nor old women were spared.

At the same time, it should be noted that there was no massacre. Those residents who took refuge in the churches of Peter and Paul were not touched. Subsequently, they settled the devastated city. Many monuments and buildings have also been preserved. But everything of value was taken out of such buildings. After the capture of Rome by the Goths, many refugees appeared in the provinces. They were robbed, killed, and women were sold to brothels.

The historian Procopius of Caesarea subsequently wrote that when the emperor Honorius was told that Rome had perished, he at first thought that the conversation was about a rooster from a chicken coop, which bore such a nickname. But when the true meaning of the message reached the ruler, he fell into a state of stupor and for a long time could not believe that this had happened.

After 3 days, the Goths stopped plundering the "eternal city" and left it. Inspired by victory, they moved south, planning to invade Sicily and Africa. But they could not cross the Strait of Messina, as the storm scattered the ships they had assembled. After that, the invaders turned north. But Alahir fell ill and died at the end of 410 in the city of Cosenza in Calibria. Thus, the main culprit of the capture of Rome by the Goths left the mortal world, and history impassively continued its course, only with other heroes and events.

“The city to which the earth was subject was conquered!” - a contemporary of the events will exclaim, as a result of which the Eternal City will be captured by barbarian tribes, and the powerful empire will cease to exist. Why did the mighty Roman Empire fall, what state became its successor? You will learn about this in our today's lesson.

background

In the III century. Germanic tribes regularly raided the Roman Empire. In the IV century. the Great Migration of Nations began (see lesson), the Huns invaded the empire. The situation was further complicated by the fact that the Roman Empire by this time had already been significantly weakened from the inside.

Developments

395- The Roman Empire is divided into Western (with its capital in Rome) and Eastern (capital - Constantinople).

410- The Goths, led by Alaric, entered Rome and sacked it.

451- battle on the Catalaunian fields with the Huns led by Attila. The Huns were stopped.

455 Rome is captured and sacked by the Vandals.

476- the last Roman emperor - Romulus - was deprived of power. The Western Roman Empire ceased to exist.

Members

In 395, the final political division of the previously unified Mediterranean Empire into two states took place: the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantium) (Fig. 1). Although both were headed by the brothers and sons of Emperor Theodosius, in fact they were two independent states with their own capitals (Ravenna and Constantinople).

Rice. 1. Division of the Roman Empire ()

In the III century. Rome was in grave danger. Germanic tribes made devastating raids on the territory of Italy. The Romans lost some of the provinces, but continued to resist. The situation will change at the end of the 4th century, when the so-called great migration of peoples begins, caused by the movement of tribes led by the Huns from the Caspian steppes in a westerly direction.

During the great migration of peoples at the end of the 4th-5th centuries. occurred on an unprecedented scale of movement of numerous peoples, tribal unions and tribes of Eastern and Central Europe. By the middle of the IV century. From the unification of the Gothic tribes, alliances of the Western and Eastern Goths (otherwise the West and Ostrogoths) emerged, occupying, respectively, the lands between the Danube and the Dnieper and between the Dnieper and the Don, including the Crimea. The composition of the unions included not only Germanic, but also Thracian, Sarmatian, and possibly Slavic tribes. In 375, the Ostrogothic alliance was defeated by the Huns - nomads of Turkic origin who came from Central Asia. Now the same fate befell the Ostrogoths.

Fleeing from the Hun invasion, the Visigoths in 376 turned to the government of the Eastern Roman Empire with a request for asylum. They were settled on the right bank of the lower Danube Moesia, as allies with the obligation to guard the Danube frontier in exchange for food supplies. Literally a year later, the interference of Roman officials in the internal affairs of the Visigoths (who were promised self-government) and the abuse of supplies caused an uprising of the Visigoths; separate detachments from other barbarian tribes and many slaves from the estates and mines of Moesia and Thrace joined them. In the decisive battle at Adrianople in 378, the Roman army was utterly defeated, while the emperor Valens died.

In 382, ​​the new emperor Theodosius I managed to suppress the uprising, but now the Visigoths were given not only Moesia, but also Thrace and Macedonia for settlement. In 395 they revolted again, devastating Greece and forcing the Romans to give them a new province - Illyria, from where, starting from 401, they raided Italy. The army of the Western Roman Empire by this time consisted mostly of barbarians, led by the vandal Stilicho. For several years, he quite successfully repulsed the attacks of the Visigoths and other Germans. A good commander, Stilicho, at the same time, understood that the forces of the empire were exhausted, and sought to pay off the barbarians whenever possible. In 408, accused of indulging his fellow tribesmen, who were ruining Gaul in the meantime, and in general of excessive compliance with the barbarians, he was deposed and soon executed. After the death of Stilicho, the Germans had no worthy opponents. The Visigoths invaded Italy again and again, demanding Roman treasures, slaves and new lands. Finally, in 410, Alaric (Fig. 2), after a long siege, took Rome, sacked it and moved to the south of Italy, intending to cross over to Sicily, but died suddenly along the way. The legend about his unprecedented funeral has been preserved: the Goths forced the captives to divert the bed of one of the rivers, at the bottom of it they buried Alaric with untold riches. Then the waters of the river were returned to the channel, and the captives were killed so that no one would know where the great leader of the Goths was buried.

Rome could no longer resist the barbarians. In May 455, a fleet of Vandals (a Germanic tribe) suddenly appeared at the mouth of the Tiber; panic broke out in Rome, the emperor Petronius Maxim failed to organize resistance and died. The vandals easily captured the city and subjected it to a 14-day rout, destroying many cultural monuments (Fig. 3). This is where the term “vandalism” comes from, which refers to the intentional senseless destruction of cultural property.

Rice. 3. Capture of Rome by the Vandals in 455 ()

Rome encountered the Huns as early as 379, when they, following on the heels of the Visigoths, invaded Moesia. Since then, they have repeatedly attacked the Balkan provinces of the Eastern Roman Empire, sometimes they were defeated, but more often they left only after receiving a ransom. In 436, the Huns, led by Attila (called the Scourge of God for their violence by Christian writers), defeated the kingdom of the Burgundians; this event formed the basis of the plot of the Nibelungenlied. As a result, part of the Burgundians joined the Hunnic union, the other was resettled by the Romans to Lake Geneva, where later, in 457, the so-called Burgundian kingdom arose with its center in Lyon. In the late 1940s, the situation changed. Attila began to interfere in the internal affairs of the Western Roman Empire and claim part of its territory. In 451, the Huns, in alliance with the Germanic tribes, invaded Gaul. In the decisive battle on the Catalaunian fields, the Roman commander Aetius, with the help of the Visigoths, Franks and Burgundians, defeated the army of Attila. This battle is rightfully considered one of the most important in world history, since the fate of not only Roman rule in Gaul, but of the entire Western civilization was decided on the Catalaunian fields to a certain extent. However, the strength of the Huns was by no means exhausted. The following year, Attila undertook a campaign in Italy, taking Milan and a number of other cities. Deprived of the support of the German allies, the Roman army was not able to resist him, but Attila, fearing the epidemic that struck Italy, himself went beyond the Alps. In 453 he died, and strife began among the Huns. Two years later, the Germanic tribes subordinate to them revolted. The state of the Huns fell apart.

In 476 the barbarians demanded land in Italy for settlement; the refusal of the Romans to satisfy this demand led to a coup d'état: the leader of the German mercenaries, Odoacer, deposed the last Western Roman emperor, Romulus Augustulus, and was proclaimed king of Italy by the soldiers. Odoacer sent the insignia of imperial dignity to Constantinople. The Eastern Roman basileus Zeno, forced to recognize the current state of affairs, granted him the title of patrician, thereby legitimizing his power over the Italians. Thus the Western Roman Empire ceased to exist.

Bibliography

1. A.A. Vigasin, G.I. Goder, I.S. Sventsitskaya. Ancient world history. Grade 5 - M.: Education, 2006.
2. Nemirovsky A.I. A book to read on the history of the ancient world. - M.: Enlightenment, 1991.
3. Ancient Rome. Book for reading / Ed. D.P. Kallistova, S.L. Utchenko. - M.: Uchpedgiz, 1953.

1. istmira.com ().
2. Bibliotekar.ru ().
3. Ischezli.ru ().

Homework

1. What states were formed on the territory of the Roman Empire?
2. What tribes took part in the Great Migration?
3. How did the winged words "vandals", "vandalism" come about? What do they mean?

1. The beginning of the war with the Gauls

In 391 B.C. ambassadors from Clusium arrived in Rome and asked for help against the Gauls. This tribe, writes Livy, crossed the Alps (), attracted by the sweetness of Italian fruits, but most of all - wine, pleasures unknown to them, and occupied the lands that the Etruscans used to cultivate.

The Clusians were afraid of the impending war: they knew how numerous the Gauls were, how unheard of tall, how armed; they had heard how often the Etruscan legions fled before their face, both on this side and on the other side of the Pad. And so the Clusians sent ambassadors to Rome. They asked the Senate for help, although no treaty connected them with the Romans, neither about an alliance, nor about friendship. The only reason could be that they did not at one time oppose the Roman people in defense of the Weyans, their fellow tribesmen (). Assistance was refused, but an embassy was sent to the Gauls - the three sons of Mark Fabius Ambustus, so that in the name of the Senate and the Roman people they demanded not to attack their friends and allies, who, in addition, did not cause any offense to the Gauls.

This embassy would have been peaceful if the ambassadors themselves had not been violent and more like the Gauls than the Romans. When they stated everything that they were entrusted to at the council of the Gauls, they answered: although they hear the name of the Romans for the first time, they believe that these are brave men, since it was to them that the Clusians rushed for help when they were in trouble. They, the Gauls, prefer to look for allies during negotiations rather than battles, and do not reject the peace proposed by the ambassadors, but only on one condition: the Clusians must cede part of their arable land to the Gauls in need of land, since they still have more of them than they can process. Otherwise, they will not agree to the world. Let them immediately, in the presence of the Romans, be given an answer, and if their demand for land is denied, then they will go into battle in the presence of the same Romans, so that the ambassadors can tell at home how much the Gauls are superior in valor to other mortals.

When the Romans asked by what right the Gauls demanded land from its owners, threatening with weapons, and what kind of business they had in Etruria, they arrogantly declared that their right was in arms and that there were no prohibitions for brave men. Both sides flared up, everyone grabbed their swords, and a battle ensued. The ambassadors, in violation of the rights of nations, also took up arms. And this could not go unnoticed, since the three noblest and bravest Roman youths fought ahead of the Etruscan banners - the valor of these strangers was striking. Quintus Fabius, having ridden out of order on a horse, killed the Gallic leader, who was furiously rushing towards the Etruscan banners. He pierced through his side with a spear, and when he began to take off his armor, the Gauls recognized him, and it spread through all the ranks that he was a Roman ambassador.

The Clusians were instantly forgotten; sending threats to the Romans, the Gauls blew the all-clear. Among them there were those who offered to immediately go to Rome, but the elders prevailed. They decided first to dispatch ambassadors to complain of the offense and to demand the extradition of the Fabii for defiling the rights of peoples. When the Gallic ambassadors handed over what they were entrusted with, the senate did not approve of the Fabii's act and considered the barbarians' demand legitimate. But since it was about men of such nobleness, servility blocked the path of duty and the decision was not made. The Senate referred this matter to the popular assembly in order to relieve itself of responsibility for possible defeats in the war with the Gauls. And there, favoritism and bribery prevailed so much that those who were going to be punished were elected military tribunes with consular powers for the next year. After that, the Gauls hardened and, openly threatening war, returned to their own.

2. Battle of Allia. Defeat of the Roman army

The Gauls immediately raised their banners and made a hasty march on Rome. The moving columns occupied a huge space; masses of people and horses stretched out both in length and in width. Ahead of the enemies, rumors about them rushed, messengers from the Clusians hurried after it, and then from other peoples in turn - and yet the swiftness of the enemy caused the greatest fear in Rome: the hastily assembled army that came out to meet him, no matter how in a hurry, met him only eleven miles away. from the city, where the river Allia, running down a deep hollow from the Krustumerian mountains, flows into the Tiber a little below the road.

Here the military tribunes, without choosing a place for the camp in advance, without having built a rampart ahead of time in case of a retreat, lined up battle formation. They did not take care not only of earthly, but also of divine affairs, neglecting auspices and sacrifices. The Roman formation was stretched in both directions so that the hordes of enemies could not enter from the rear, but it was still inferior in length to the enemy - meanwhile, in the middle this extended formation turned out to be weak and barely closed.

Fear of an unknown enemy and the thought of flight reigned in all souls. The horror was so great that the soldiers fled as soon as they heard the cry of the Gauls. The Romans fled without even trying to measure their strength with the enemy, without receiving a single scratch and without answering his call. No one died in the battle, all those killed were hit in the back when the stampede began, and the crowd made it difficult to escape. A terrible massacre took place on the banks of the Tiber, where, having thrown their weapons, the entire left wing fled. Many who could not swim or weakened under the weight of armor and clothes were swallowed up by the abyss. Nevertheless, the vast majority reached Vei without difficulty, whence they did not send to Rome not only help, but even news of the defeat. From the right wing, which stood far from the river, under the mountain, everyone rushed to the City, where they took refuge in the Fortress.

3. Surrender of the City

Since most of the army fled to Veii and only a few to Rome, the townspeople decided that almost no one managed to escape. The whole City was filled with lamentations for both the dead and the living. But, when it became known about the approach of the enemy, the personal grief of each receded in the face of general horror. Soon the howls and discordant songs of the barbarians began to be heard, gangs prowling around the walls.

There was no hope of defending the City with such a small force remaining, and therefore the Romans decided that young men capable of fighting, as well as the strongest of the senators, should retire with their wives and children to the Fortress and to the Capitol, bring there weapons, food and from there, from the fortified places, protect the gods, citizens and the name of the Roman. It was decided that if the Fortress and the Capitol, the abode of the gods, survive the destruction that threatens the City, if combat-ready youth and the Senate, the center of statesmanship, survive, then it will be easy to sacrifice the crowd of old people left in the City to certain death. And in order for the mob to bear it more calmly, the old men - victors and former consuls - openly declared that they were ready to die with them: superfluous people who are not able to carry weapons and defend the fatherland should not burden the belligerents with themselves, who will endure need in everything.

For those who left, the thought was terrible that they were taking with them the last hope and the spade of those who remained, they did not even dare to look at the people who decided to die along with the captured city. But when the women’s weeping arose, when the matrons began to rush about in unconsciousness, rushing first to one, then to the other, asking their husbands and sons what fate they were doomed to, then human grief reached its last limit. Yet most of the women followed their loved ones to the Fortress. No one called them, but no one prevented them: if there were fewer unfit for war, this would benefit the besieged, but it would be too inhuman. The rest of the people, mostly plebeians, who would not have had enough space on such a small hill, nor food, poured out of the City and in a dense crowd, like a column, rushed to Janiculum. From there, part scattered to the villages, and part rushed to neighboring cities. They had no leader, no coordination in actions, but each sought salvation as best he could and was guided by his own interests, having already given up on the common ones.

4 The Gauls Take Rome

During the night, the belligerence of the Gauls subsided somewhat. In addition, they did not have to fight, they did not have to fear defeat in battle, they did not have to take the City by attack or by force at all - therefore, the next day they entered Rome without malice and zeal. Through the open Colline Gate they reached the forum, looking around the temples of the gods and the Fortress, which alone looked ready to fight back. Leaving a small guard against them, the invaders rushed for prey along the deserted streets. Some crowded into nearby houses, others rushed to those farther away, as if it was there that all the prey was collected intact. But then, frightened by the strange lack of people, fearing that the enemies would not think of some trick against those who wandered alone, the Gauls began to gather in groups and return to the forum, as well as to neighborhoods in the neighborhood. The houses of the plebeians were locked there, and the houses of the nobles were open, and yet they entered them almost with more apprehension than the closed ones. The Gauls looked with reverence at those men who sat on the threshold of their houses114: in addition to decorations and clothes, more solemn than mortals, these people looked like gods also in that majestic severity that was reflected on their faces. The barbarians marveled at them as if they were statues. But that one of the old men, Mark Papirius, struck with an ivory rod of that Gaul who took it into his head to stroke his beard. He went berserk, and Papirius was the first to be killed. Other old people also died in their chairs. After their murder, none of the mortals were spared, the houses were robbed, and then set on fire.

The sight of Rome being devoured by flames, however, did not break the spirit of the besieged. Even though the fires and destruction before their eyes razed the city to the ground, even though the hill they occupied was poor and small, they still prepared to bravely defend this last shred of freedom.

At dawn, the hordes of Gauls, at command, lined up in the forum; from there they, forming a "tortoise", with a cry, moved to the foot of the hill. The Romans acted against the enemy without timidity, but not recklessly: all the rises to the Fortress, on which the advance of the Gauls was observed, were fortified, and the most selective warriors were stationed there. However, the enemy was not prevented from climbing up, believing that the higher he climbed, the easier it would be to throw him off the steep. The Romans were held approximately in the middle of the slope, where the steepness, as it were, pushes the warrior towards the enemy. From there, they suddenly fell upon the Gauls, beating them and pushing them down. The rout was so devastating that the enemy never again dared to undertake such undertakings, either by a single detachment or by the whole army. So, having lost hope of winning by force of arms, the Gauls began to prepare for a siege, which until that moment had not been thought of. But food was no longer in the City, where it was destroyed by fire, nor in the vicinity, from where it was just at that time taken to Veii. Then it was decided to divide the army, so that part of it would rob the surrounding peoples, and part would besiege the Fortress. Thus the ravagers of the fields would supply the besiegers with provisions.

5. Camillus repels the Gauls from Ardeus

Robbing the environs of Rome, the Gauls soon reached Ardea, where Camillus, expelled from his native city, settled (). Grieving over public misfortune much more than over his own, he grew old there in reproach to gods and people. He was indignant and amazed at where those brave men who took Veii with him, Falerii, who always won wars thanks to courage, and not luck, had gone. And suddenly he learned about the approach of the Gallic army and that the Ardeans, frightened by this, were gathering for advice. Previously, Camillus had always refrained from participating in meetings, but now he resolutely went to the meeting, as if guided by divine inspiration.

Speaking to the townspeople, Camillus tried to inspire courage in their hearts. He pointed out that the Ardeans had an opportunity to thank the Roman people for their many services. And they should not be afraid of the enemy. After all, the Gauls approaching their city in a discordant crowd, not expecting to meet resistance. The easier it is to fight back! “If you are going to defend your native walls,” Camillus said, “if you don’t want to put up with the fact that all this will become Gallic, then arm yourself at the first guard and follow me without exception. Not for a fight - for a beating. If I do not deliver into your hands the sleep-destroyed enemies, if you do not slaughter them like cattle, then let them do the same to me in Ardea as they did in Rome. This proposal was accepted by the Ardeans, who immediately perked up. Both friends of Camillus and his enemies were convinced that no other such commander existed at that time anywhere. Therefore, after the closing of the meeting, all of them began to gather their strength and only tensely awaited the signal. When he sounded, the Ardaeans in full combat readiness converged at the city gates and Camillus led them. There was such silence around, such as happens at the beginning of the night. Shortly after leaving the city, the warriors, as predicted, stumbled upon the Gallic camp, undefended and unguarded on either side. With a loud cry, they attacked him and gave the enemies a severe beating. There was no battle - there was a massacre everywhere: sleeping, unarmed Gauls were simply chopped up by the attackers.

6. Camille is hailed as a dictator

Meanwhile, in Veii, the Romans were gaining not only courage, but also strength. People gathered there, scattered around the neighborhood after the ill-fated battle and the disastrous fall of the City, volunteers flocked from Latium, who wanted to take part in the division of booty. It was clear that the hour for the liberation of the motherland was ripening, that it was time to wrest it from the hands of the enemy. But so far there was only a strong body, which lacked a head. With the general consent, it was decided to summon Camillus from Ardea, but first to request the Senate, located in Rome, to remove all charges against the exile.

Penetrating through enemy posts into the besieged Fortress was a risky business - for this accomplishment, the brave young man Pontius Cominius offered his services. Wrapped in tree bark, he entrusted himself to the current of the Tiber and was brought to the City, and there he climbed the rock closest to the shore, so steep that it never even occurred to the enemies to guard it. He managed to climb the Capitol and convey the request of the troops to the officials for consideration. In response to it, an order was received from the Senate, according to which Camillus, returned from exile by the curate comitia, was immediately proclaimed dictator on behalf of the people; the warriors also received the right to choose the commander they wish. And with that, the herald, descending the same road, hurried back.

7. Night assault on the Capitol. The feat of Mark Manlius

This is what happened in Veii, while in Rome the Fortress and the Capitol were in terrible danger. The fact is that the Gauls either noticed human footprints where the messenger from Wei passed, or they themselves noticed that a gentle ascent to the rock begins at the temple of Carmenta. Under cover of night, they first sent an unarmed scout ahead to scout the road, and then they all climbed up. Where it was cool, they passed weapons from hand to hand; some put their shoulders up, others climbed on them in order to later pull the first ones out; if necessary, everyone pulled each other up and made their way to the top so quietly that they not only deceived the vigilance of the guards, but did not even wake the dogs, animals so sensitive to night rustles. But their approach was not hidden from the geese, which, despite the acute shortage of food, have not yet been eaten, since they were dedicated to Juno. This circumstance turned out to be salutary. From their cackle and flapping of wings, Mark Manlius, the famous warrior who had been consul three years ago, woke up. Grabbing his weapon and at the same time calling the rest to arms, he rushed forward in the midst of general confusion and, with a blow of his shield, knocked down the Gaul, who was already standing on top. Rolling down, the Gaul in the fall dragged away those who rose after him, and Manlius began to smash the rest - they, throwing down their weapons in fear, clung to the rocks with their hands. Other Romans also came running: they began to throw arrows and stones, throwing the enemies off the rocks. Amid the general collapse, the Gallic detachment rolled towards the abyss and collapsed down. At the end of the alarm, everyone tried to sleep for the rest of the night, although with the excitement that reigned in the minds, this was not easy - the past danger affected.

At dawn, the trumpet called the soldiers for advice to the stands: after all, it was necessary to repay according to merit both for the feat and for the crime. First of all, Manlius received gratitude for his courage, gifts were made to him from the military tribunes, and by the unanimous decision of all the soldiers, each brought to his house, which was in the Fortress, half a pound of spelt and a quart of wine. In conditions of famine, this gift became the greatest proof of love, because in order to honor a single person, everyone had to snatch from their own basic needs, denying themselves food.

8. Negotiation and payment of the ransom

More than all the horrors of war and siege, both sides were tormented by hunger, and the Gauls also by pestilence, since their camp lay between the hills, in a place burned by fire and filled with fumes. With any breath of wind, ash rose along with the dust. All this the Gauls could not endure at all, since their tribe was accustomed to a humid and cold climate. They were tormented by suffocating heat, mowed down by illness, and they died like cattle. There was no longer the strength to bury the dead separately - their bodies were piled up in heaps and burned indiscriminately.

The besieged were no less depressed than the enemy. No matter how exhausted the guards on the Capitol were, they overcame all human suffering - nature did not allow to overcome hunger alone. Day after day, the warriors looked into the distance for help from the dictator, and in the end they lost not only food, but also hope. Since everything remained the same, and the exhausted warriors were already almost falling under the weight of their own weapons, they demanded either to surrender or pay a ransom on any terms, especially since the Gauls made it clear that for a small amount they could easily be persuaded to end the siege . Meanwhile, just at this time, the dictator was preparing everything to equalize with the enemy: he personally recruited in Ardea and ordered the head of the cavalry, Lucius Valerius, to lead the army from Vei. However, by this time the Senate had already met and instructed the military tribunes to make peace. The military tribune Quintus Sulpicius and the Gallic leader Brennus agreed on the amount of the ransom, and the people who were to rule the whole world in the future were valued at a thousand pounds of gold. The Romans had to endure another humiliation. When they began to weigh out the set amount, the Gallic leader unfastened his heavy sword and threw it on the bowl of weights. To the reproaches of the Romans that he was acting illegally, the barbarian arrogantly replied: “Woe to the vanquished!”

9. Defeat of the Gauls

"But neither the gods nor the people, writes Titus Livius, did not allow the life of the Romans to be redeemed for money." Even before the reward was paid, the dictator suddenly appeared. He ordered that the gold be taken away and the Gauls removed. They began to resist, referring to the fact that they were acting under an agreement, but Camillus declared that the latter had no legal force, since it was concluded after he was elected dictator, without his permission, an official of the lowest rank. Camillus ordered the Gauls to line up for battle, and his own to pile up their camping equipment and prepare their weapons for battle. It is necessary to liberate the fatherland with iron, not gold, having the temples of the gods before our eyes, with the thought of wives, children, of our native land, disfigured by the horrors of war, of everything that the sacred duty commands to defend, win back, take revenge! Then the dictator drew up his army, as far as the uneven nature of the terrain and the ruins of the dilapidated city allowed. He foresaw everything that military art could help him in these conditions. Frightened by the new turn of affairs, the Gauls also took up arms, but they attacked the Romans more out of anger than on sound reflection. At the first collision, the Gauls were overturned as quickly as they had won at Allia.

Under the leadership and command of the same Camillus, the barbarians were defeated in the next battle, which, unlike the first, unfolded according to all the rules of military art. The battle took place on the eighth mile of the Gabi road, where the enemy had gathered after their flight. All the Gauls were slaughtered there, and their camp was captured. There was no one left of the enemy who could report the defeat.

10. Veii Resettlement Bill

Having saved his homeland in the war, Camillus saved it a second time later, in the days of peace: he prevented the resettlement in Veii, although after the burning of Rome, the tribunes very strongly advocated for this, and the plebeians themselves were more inclined than before to this plan. Seeing this, Camillus, after the triumph, did not resign his dictatorial powers and yielded to the requests of the Senate, who begged not to leave the state in a threatening position.

Since the tribunes at the meetings tirelessly incited the plebeians to leave the ruins and move to the city of Veii ready for habitation, the dictator, accompanied by the entire senate, appeared in the assembly and addressed his fellow citizens with a heated speech.
“Why did we fight for the City? - he asked, - why did they rescue the fatherland from the siege, wrested it from the hands of the enemy, if now we ourselves will abandon what we have liberated? When the Gauls were the winners, when the whole city belonged to them, the Capitol with the Fortress still remained with the Roman gods and citizens, they continued to live there. So, now that the Romans have won, when the City has been recaptured, should we leave the Fortress with the Capitol? Will our luck bring more desolation to the City than our failure? Our ancestors, aliens and shepherds, built this city in a short time, and then there was nothing on this place but forests and swamps - now the Capitol and the Fortress are intact, the temples of the gods stand unscathed, and we are too lazy to rebuild on a burnt one. If one of us had a house burned down, he would build a new one, so why don't we, as a whole, want to deal with the consequences of a common fire?

Livy writes that Camillus's speech made a great impression, especially the part of it that spoke of piety. However, the last doubts were resolved by one phrase sounded to the place. Here is how it was. After some time, the Senate gathered in the Hostile Curia to discuss the issue of resettlement. It happened that at the same time, cohorts returning from guard duty passed through the forum in formation. At the Comitium, the centurion exclaimed: “Standard-bearer, raise the banner! We are staying here." On hearing this command, the senators hurried out of the curia, exclaiming that they recognized it as a happy omen. The plebeians who crowded immediately approved their decision. After that, the resettlement bill was rejected, and everyone together began to rebuild the City. (3) Tiles were provided by the state; each was given the right to quarry stone and wood, whoever from where he wants, but with a guarantee that the house will be built within a year. (Livy; V; 35 - 55).

Patricians and plebeians. Roman conquest of Italy

The Roman Empire

The first serious blow was dealt to her by the Goths. Among them, even during the life of Theodosius, there was a strong party, dissatisfied with the treaty concluded with the emperor and standing for the resumption of hostilities. Its influence increased after the death of Theodosius, when the salary promised to them under the contract was reduced for the Goths. At the head of the dissatisfied was one of the Gothic tribal leaders Alaric. He participated in the expedition against Arbogast and believed that his services were not sufficiently rewarded.

Taking advantage of internal unrest in the Eastern Empire, the Goths raised a new uprising. As before, slaves, columns and deserters from the emperor's army flocked to them. Almost unopposed, the Goths captured Macedonia and Greece, and the government was forced to make peace with them, giving them the eastern Danubian provinces. According to the customs of the ancient Germans, the Goths raised Alaric on a shield and proclaimed him their konung (king). Now they wanted him to lead them to Italy.

Having received excellent weapons from the workshops in the provinces they captured, the Goths set out on a new campaign. The forces of the government of the Western Empire were small. It pinned its main hope on the army of the Sarmatian tribe of the Alans, who lived as federates in the province of Retsia.

With their help, he managed to repel the first onslaught of the Goths. However, having retreated to the Balkans, the Goths quickly began to recruit a new army. At the same time, a 300,000-strong army of Suebi, Vandals and Burgundians invaded Italy from Germany. Only by an extreme effort of forces, with the help of the same Alans, did the Roman army defeat them.

Part of the Germans managed to break into Gaul and Spain. Some areas of these provinces willingly recognized their authority, which delivered them from Roman oppression. The population of other parts of Gaul, along with Britain and Spain, took the side of the next contender for the title of emperor.

Then Alaric offered his alliance and help to the emperor Honorius. He promised to return to him the fallen provinces so that one of them would be given to the Goths. The commander-in-chief and de facto ruler of the Western Empire, the vandal Stilicho, who was well aware of the weakness of the empire, insisted on an alliance with Alaric.

But the Roman nobility, hostile to the “barbarians” who were pushing it away from higher positions, achieved the breakdown of negotiations and the resignation and execution of Stilicho himself. At the same time, in all the cities of Italy, under the pretext of the persecution of the Arians, a mass slaughter of the families of the Germans in the Roman service began. Then about 30 thousand Germans came to Alaric, demanding that he lead them to Rome. Having concluded an alliance with the Huns, who by that time had already reached Pannonia, Alaric again entered Italy and approached Rome.

The city was besieged, a terrible famine began in it. The daily distribution of bread was reduced to 1/2, then to 1/4 of a pound, and finally abolished altogether. The army of the Goths was replenished daily with slaves, columns, artisans who fled to them, without receiving help from the emperor who lived in Ravenna, the senate began negotiations with Alaric.

He agreed to lift the siege if he was given all the property and all the slaves of the Romans. "What will you leave us?" - asked the parliamentarians. "Life," he replied. Finally they agreed on a ransom of 5,000 pounds of gold, 30,000 pounds of silver, 4,000 pieces of silk, 3,000 red skins and 3,000

pounds of pepper. When the ransom was paid, Alaric lifted the siege and settled in Tuscany. Soon his army already numbered 40 thousand fugitives from different parts of Italy. Negotiations began again with the government of Honorius and again they did not lead to anything, Alaric again laid siege to Rome, vowing that he would not leave without taking it.

On the night of August 24, Alaric entered Rome. According to some authors, the city's slaves opened the gates of the city to the Goths. For three days the Goths devastated Rome, and the slaves and columns that joined them dealt with the hated masters.

Many of the nobility managed to flee to their provincial estates, spreading the news of the capture of the "capital of the world". The impression was amazing. “The light of the world went out,” wrote Jerome, a well-known figure in the church. Despite the fact that the weakness of the empire was obvious, most Romans were sure that Rome was eternal and would never fall. Now that confidence is gone.

The secret adherents of paganism blamed the Christians for averting the mercy of the gods from Rome, the Christians grumbled at God for allowing such a catastrophe. Link to