Lexical, morphological and syntactic features of administrative and business jargon. Scientific style of speech, its lexical, morphological and syntactic features Functionally colored vocabulary of the Russian language

Official business style is a style that serves the legal and administrative and public spheres of activity. It is used when writing documents, business papers and letters in government agencies, courts, as well as in various types of business oral communication.

Among book styles, the official business style stands out for its relative stability and isolation. Over time, it naturally undergoes some changes, but many of its features: historically established genres, specific vocabulary, morphology, syntactic phrases - give it a generally conservative character.

The official business style is characterized by dryness, the absence of emotionally charged words, conciseness, and compactness of presentation.

In official papers, the set of linguistic means used is predetermined. The most striking feature of the official business style is linguistic cliches, or so-called cliches (French. clich). A document is not expected to show the individuality of its author; on the contrary, the more clichéd a document is, the more convenient it is to use (see examples of clichés below)

Formal business style- this is the style of documents of different genres: international treaties, state acts, legal laws, regulations, charters, instructions, official correspondence, business papers, etc. But, despite the differences in content and variety of genres, the official business style as a whole is characterized by common and most important features. These include:

• 1) accuracy, excluding the possibility of other interpretations;
• 2) locale standard.

These features find their expression a) in the selection of linguistic means (lexical, morphological and syntactic); b) in the preparation of business documents.

Let's consider the features of vocabulary, morphology and syntax of the official business style.

Lexical features of official business style of speech

The lexical (dictionary) system of the official business style, in addition to general book and neutral words, includes:

• 1) language stamps (bureaucracy, clichés) : raise a question based on a decision, incoming and outgoing documents, control over execution is assigned upon expiration of the deadline.
• 2) professional terminology : arrears, alibi, black cash, shadow business;
• 3) archaisms : I certify this document.

In an official business style, the use of polysemantic words, as well as words with figurative meanings, is unacceptable, and synonyms are used extremely rarely and, as a rule, belong to the same style: supply = supply = collateral, solvency = creditworthiness, depreciation = depreciation, appropriation = subsidy and etc.

Official business speech reflects not individual, but social experience, as a result of which its vocabulary is extremely generalized. In an official document, preference is given to generic concepts, for example: to arrive (instead of arrive, arrive, arrive etc.), vehicle (instead of bus, plane, Zhiguli etc.), populated area (instead of village, town, village etc.) etc.

Morphological signs of official business style of speech

The morphological features of this style include the repeated (frequency) use of certain parts of speech (and their types). These include the following:

• 1) nouns - names of people based on a characteristic determined by the action ( taxpayer, tenant, witness);
• 2) nouns denoting positions and titles in the masculine form ( Sergeant Petrova, inspector Ivanova);
• 3) verbal nouns with a particle Not-(deprivation, non-compliance, non-recognition);
• 4) derived prepositions ( in connection with, due to, by virtue of, to the extent of, in relation to, on the basis of);
• 5) infinitive constructions: ( conduct an inspection, provide assistance);
• 6) present tense verbs in the meaning of a commonly performed action ( behind non-payment will be subject to a fine…).
• 7) compound words formed from two or more stems ( tenant, employer, logistics, repair and maintenance, above, below and so on.).

The use of these forms is explained by the desire of business language to accurately convey meaning and unambiguous interpretation.

Syntactic features of official business style of speech

The syntactic features of the official business style include:

• 1) the use of simple sentences with homogeneous members, and the rows of these homogeneous members can be very common (up to 8-10), for example: ... fines as an administrative penalty may be established in accordance with Russian legislation for violation of safety and labor protection rules in industry, construction, transport and agriculture;
• 2) the presence of passive structures ( payments are made at the specified time);
• 3) stringing the genitive case, i.e. use of a chain of nouns in the genitive case: ( results of the activities of the tax police authorities…);
• 4) the predominance of complex sentences, especially complex sentences, with conditional clauses: If there is a dispute about the amount of amounts due to the dismissed employee, the administration is obliged to pay the compensation specified in this article if the dispute is resolved in favor of the employee.

According to the themes and variety of genres in the style under consideration, two varieties are distinguished:

I - official documentary style

II - casual business style .

In turn, in the official documentary style one can distinguish

the language of legislative documents related to the activities of government bodies (the Constitution of the Russian Federation, laws, charters),

the language of diplomatic acts related to international relations (memorandum, communiqué, convention, statement).

In everyday business style there are

the language of official correspondence between institutions and organizations, on the one hand,

the language of private business papers - on the other.

All genres of everyday business style: official correspondence (business letter, commercial correspondence) and business papers (certificate, certificate, act, protocol, statement, power of attorney, receipt, autobiography, etc.) - are characterized by a certain standardization, facilitating their preparation and use and designed to save language resources, to eliminate unjustified information redundancy (see details 4.2; 4.3; 4.4).

Let us briefly consider one of the varieties of official documentary style - diplomatic substyle.

Diplomatic substyle

Diplomacy- is the art of resolving international disagreements by peaceful means; it is also a technique and skill that harmoniously affects international relations and is subject to certain rules and customs.

Diplomatic activity has always had a pronounced ritual character. The diplomatic profession is very old. Evidence of peace treaties is found among the most ancient historical monuments. One of the most important qualities of a diplomat is sociability. The society of diplomats is a limited circle of people, well selected, to some extent isolated, with its own strict rules of etiquette and professional courtesy. A diplomat must have tact.

The sphere of functioning of the diplomatic substyle is diplomacy and international relations. The diplomatic substyle includes the following genres: convention, communiqué, declaration, statement, memorandum, note, international agreement, etc.

Structural and logical diagram "Official business style of speech and its varieties"

Under the phonetic side of speech understand the pronunciation of sounds as the result of the coordinated work of all parts of the speech-motor apparatus.

The peripheral department of the speech motor analyzer is the speech apparatus, which includes:

– the respiratory apparatus that provides the energy basis for speech (diaphragm, lungs, bronchi, trachea, larynx);

An articulatory apparatus that converts sound originating in the larynx into a variety of speech sounds (oral and nasal cavities).

The phonemic aspect of speech is understood as the ability to distinguish and differentiate phonemes of the native language.

The phonemic aspect of speech is provided by the work of a speech-hearing analyzer. Its peripheral section is located in the organ of Corti and receives auditory information, including speech sounds.

In the book “Educating Children Correct Pronunciation” M. F. Fomicheva emphasizes that the perception and reproduction of the sounds of their native language is the coordinated work of the speech-auditory and speech-motor analyzers, where well-developed phonemic hearing allows the development of clear diction - mobility and fine differentiated work of articulatory organs, ensuring the correct pronunciation of each sound (1989).

In ontogenesis, the development and formation of the phonetic and phonemic aspects of speech occurs gradually.

In mastering speech, the main role belongs to hearing. Simultaneously with the development of hearing, the child develops vocal reactions: various sounds, various sound combinations and syllables. At 2–3 months. The child begins to hum at 3–4 months. - babble. At this age, the primary development of phonemic hearing occurs: the child listens to sounds, looks for the source of the sound, and turns his head towards the speaker.

By 6 months Clear sounds appear in the child's babble, but they are not yet stable enough and are pronounced in short sound combinations. Among vowels, the sound a clearly sounds, among consonants - p, b, m, k, t. At this time, the child understands the adult’s intonation well and reacts to the tone of voice.

By the age of one year, the child can well pronounce sounds that are simple in articulation: vowels - a, u, and and consonants - p, b, m, n, t, d, k, g.

The development and formation of pronunciation in all children occurs at different times. Some children pronounce more sounds and more clearly, while others pronounce fewer and less clearly. The quality of pronunciation depends on the condition and mobility of the organs of the articulatory apparatus, which is just beginning to actively function. A. I. Maksakov wrote about this more than once in his works. In the second year of life, children begin to actively pronounce the sounds e, s, and, but their hard consonants sound like soft consonants - t. d, s, s. Their ability to imitate the speech of adults increases, and their understanding of the speech of others intensively develops. By this time, the child begins to actively and independently use words with simple structure in speech.

In the third year of life, the mobility of the articulatory apparatus increases, but the child’s pronunciation does not yet correspond to the norm. At this age, the child tries to bring his pronunciation closer to the generally accepted one; he replaces sounds that are difficult to articulate with simple ones. For example, the sound ц is replaced by the sound ь or сь, the sounds ch and sch - by the sounds ь and з, respectively, the sounds l and r - by the sound l or y, hissing and hard whistling sounds - t, d. By the age of three, the articulation of the labial-dental muscles is clearly formed: f, em f, v. Phonemic perception at this time is already well developed: children almost do not mix words that sound similar and try to maintain the syllabic structure of the word.

In the fourth year of life, the articulatory apparatus is further strengthened, and muscle movements become more coordinated. Hard consonants and hissing sounds appear in speech, and words with a combination of several consonants are pronounced correctly. At this time, children notice errors in the pronunciation of others, easily distinguish sound combinations and words that are similar in sound, i.e., their phonemic perception further develops.

In the fifth year of life, the mobility of the articulatory apparatus increases in children. Most children correctly pronounce hissing sounds, sonorant sounds - l, r, rъ; for some of them, the pronunciation of whistling and hissing sounds remains unstable, they are interchangeable. In simple words, children clearly pronounce these groups of sounds, and in complex and unfamiliar words they replace them.

By the age of five, children's phonemic processes improve: they recognize sounds in a stream of speech, can choose a word for a given sound, distinguish between increasing or decreasing the volume of speech and slowing down or accelerating the tempo.

By the age of six, children are able to correctly pronounce all the sounds of their native language and words of various syllable structures. A well-developed phonemic ear allows a child to identify syllables or words with a given sound from a group of other words and differentiate phonemes that are similar in sound.

The pronunciation side of the speech of a child of the seventh year of life is as close as possible to the speech of adults, taking into account the norms of literary pronunciation.

As a rule, a child has a fairly developed phonemic perception and has some skills in sound analysis (determines the number and sequence of sounds in a word), which is a prerequisite for mastering literacy.

So, by the time a child enters school, his sound pronunciation has been formed, all aspects of speech are well developed, which gives him the opportunity to successfully master the program material at school.

Lexico-grammatical aspects of speech in children.

The lexical and grammatical side of speech refers to the dictionary and its grammatically correct use.

A dictionary is words (basic units of speech) denoting objects, phenomena, actions and signs of the surrounding reality.

There are passive and active dictionaries. A passive dictionary is understood as the ability to understand words, while an active one means their use in speech. The level of vocabulary development is determined by quantitative and qualitative indicators.

By the first year of life, the child begins to develop amorphous, babbling words consisting of stressed syllables. The so-called “root words” do not combine according to the rules of grammar and mean both actions and objects in a given situation.

By the age of two years, a child’s vocabulary contains about 300 words, where each word is associated with a specific object or action. At this stage, the passive vocabulary is larger than the active one: the child understands spoken speech well and follows the adult’s instructions.

The grammatical structure of a sentence is acquired by the child in stages. The following forms of words appear first: nominative case singular and plural, accusative case of nouns; imperative mood, 3rd person singular present tense form of verbs. The sentence includes up to three or four words.

By the age of three, a child’s vocabulary contains more than 1,000 words. Generalization words are formed that denote generic concepts.

The meanings of words are clarified. The volume of the vocabulary increases due to the enrichment of the child’s life experience and communication with surrounding adults.

Children learn the general rules of form formation; simple prepositions appear in their speech: in, on, at, with. A sentence consists of 5 - 6 words. Lexico-grammatical relations in it are expressed using prepositions and inflections. The agreement of adjectives with nouns in indirect cases is fixed.

By the age of four, the vocabulary increases to 1600-1900 words. Of these, according to A.N. Gvozdev, 50.2% are nouns, 27.4% are verbs, 11.8% are adjectives, 5.8% are adverbs.

At this stage, verbal control is formed. Complex prepositions appear: because of, from under. The agreement of the adjective with the noun is fixed. The sentence becomes more common, compound and complex sentences with conjunctions appear: so, because, which.

By the age of five, children master a set of words denoting basic geometric shapes, know the measurements of certain quantities, and define spatial relationships differentially and accurately. The dictionary consists of 2200 words.

With normal speech development, children by the age of five master all types of declension of nouns. Some difficulties relate to the use of nouns in the genitive and prepositional plural cases. By this time, children have mastered the basic forms of word agreement.

After five years, children identify parts of objects, compare them based on general and particular features, learn the properties of objects, and begin to use words denoting abstract concepts.

Thus, by the end of the preschool period, by the time they enter school, children have a fairly diverse vocabulary and a sufficient command of the grammatical structure of their native language.

Morphological side of speech

Grammatical structure is a system of interaction of words with each other in phrases and sentences. There are morphological and syntactic levels of the grammatical system.

The morphological level presupposes the ability to master the techniques of inflection and word formation.

Among the skills of inflection (formation) the following is tested:

The ability to correctly use the endings of plural nouns of the genitive case (the speech therapist begins the phrase, the child finishes: “Tanya has pencils, but Masha doesn’t ... (pencils),” or: “There are a lot of people living in the forest ... (bears, squirrels)" ", or: "In our room there are many... (tables, chairs)"); - ability to use prepositional case constructions (under the table, in the table, from the table).

Word formation skills are tested:

the ability to form words using suffixes (1. Where is the bread? - In the bread bin. Where is the salt put? What can you call a person who skis? Who works in the library? Who teaches children? 2. Whose tail? Whose ears? Whose hole ? 3. Tanya speaks loudly, and Misha can speak even... louder); the ability to form words using prefixes (Boy to the house... (approaches); from the house... (leaves); across the street... (crosses). A mushroom that grows under a birch tree... (boletus). To make a blanket it didn’t get dirty, they put it on... (duvet cover).

The child’s mastery of morphology begins with changing the word by case.

The assimilation of morphological norms of language contributes to the fact that the child’s speech begins, along with the function of communication, to perform the function of communication through correctly combined words in a sentence, when he masters the monologue form of coherent speech.

Children are helped to master ways of forming words using suffixes and verbs using prefixes.

The development of the morphological aspect of speech is associated with a number of difficulties associated with the peculiarities of the Russian language.

First of all, the Russian language has a very complex system of noun endings, the place of stress in words is not fixed, and there is an extremely large variety of alternations of vowels and consonants in the stems of verbs. In addition, preschoolers find it difficult to master the gender of nouns and understand and use spatial prepositions and adverbs.

It is obvious that there are a great many difficult grammatical forms in the Russian language; many of them occur to children, and, naturally, lead to mistakes.

A.N. Gvozdev outlined the main periods in the formation of the grammatical structure of speech.

The third period is the period of assimilation of the morphological system of the Russian language, characterized by the assimilation of types of declensions and conjugations (3 years - 7 years). During this period, all single, stand-alone forms are assimilated to a greater extent. The system of endings is learned earlier, and the system of alternation in basics is learned later.

Syntactic side of speech.

The syntactic component of speech is the ability to compose sentences and combine words in a sentence in a grammatically correct manner.

Syntax is the variety of ways to construct simple and complex sentences. A.N. Gvozdev outlined the main periods in the formation of the grammatical structure of speech.

The first period is the period of sentences consisting of amorphous root words that are used in one unchanged form in all cases when they are used (1 year 3 months - 1 year 10 months).

The second period is the period of mastering the grammatical structure of a sentence, associated with the formation of grammatical categories and their external expression (1 year 10 months - 3 years).

The third period is the period of assimilation of the morphological system of the Russian language, characterized by the assimilation of types of declensions and conjugations (3 years - 7 years). During this period, all single, stand-alone forms are assimilated to a greater extent. The system of endings is learned earlier, and the system of alternation in basics is learned later. The sixth and seventh years of life are the stage of mastering the methods of grammatically correct construction of detailed coherent statements, the active development of complex syntax in the arbitrary construction of a monologue, the stage of the formation of grammatically and phonetically correct speech, the development of methods of isolating (awareness) sentences, words, sounds from speech.

Sentence structures (structural patterns) begin to form at an early age, when the child manipulates objects and toys.

The first sentences are structured in such a way that part of the information is transmitted by non-speech, non-verbal means (movements, facial expressions, gestures, gaze, touch, objective action), and part - verbally. These methods - speech and non-speech - coexist. Subsequently, their ratio changes in favor of speech.

Mastyukova E.M.

I agree E.M. Mastyukova stages of speech development correlate with the stages of mental development of the child as a whole, which are presented in the following logical sequence:

In infancy (from birth to one year): It is important to establish close emotional interaction between mother and child. By the end of the first year of life, he masters the initial understanding of speech addressed to him, begins to pronounce the first babbling words and relate them to faces and objects. It was during this period that the formation of speech as a means of communication began.

Already during this period, the baby reacts faster to a voice than to a sounding toy. By 6 months, the child, in the presence of an adult, gurgles more actively, and then babbles; from the second half of life, he begins to imitate the syllables pronounced by adults. At the age of 6 to 9 months, expressive communicative gestures appear, an initial understanding of addressed speech is formed, babbling is activated, self-imitation and imitation of adult sounds develop. By the end of the year, with appropriate training, the child understands and follows several verbal commands.

Pre-school (from 1 year to 3 years) the formation of a new type of communication based on the intensive development of speech. The baby begins to use the objects around him correctly and for their intended purpose. By the age of 3, the child communicates with others in detailed phrases. His active vocabulary increases significantly. The child constantly comments on his actions, begins to ask questions. Speech becomes the leading means of communication and development of thinking. He develops an interest in listening to fairy tales, stories, poems, i.e. understanding of speech begins to go beyond the immediate communication situation. An indicator of the normal development of children's speech at this age stage is the ability of a child by 3 years to construct sentences of 3-4 words or more and use familiar words in several grammatical forms. By the age of 3, the child begins to talk about himself in the first person, he develops a sense of “I”, i.e. the ability to separate oneself from the surrounding world.

In preschool age (from 3 to 7 years.) Play, indirect activity with objects, and speech are intensively developing, which contributes to the formation of abstract forms of thinking, arbitrariness of mental processes, the ability to form an internal plan of action and evaluate one’s own actions and behavior. An internal assessment is formed. The child can express his thoughts correctly.

Speech development factors: A game. Indirect activity with objects. Productive activity.

Leontyev A.A.

Based on the research of A.A. Leontyev, we can distinguish the leading periods of speech development: 1-preparatory (from birth to one year old) 2-pre-preschool (from 1 to 3 years old) 3-preschool (from 3 to 7 years old) 4-school (from 7 to 17 years old)

Preparatory stage

The period of walking is observed in all children. Already at 1.5 months and then at 2-3 months, the child exhibits vocal reactions in the reproduction of sounds such as: a-a-bm-bm, bly, uh-gu, boo, etc. At 4 months, sound sounds become more complex combinations: new ones appear, such as: agn-agn, la-ala, rn, etc. To develop humming skills, the mother is recommended to have visual communication, during which the child peers at the adult’s facial expressions and tries to reproduce it. At 7-8 months, children pronounce syllables like ba-ba, dyad-dya, etc., relating them to certain people around them. At 9-10 months, the volume of babbling words that the child tries to repeat after adults expands. At 8.5-9 months, babbling is modulated in nature with a variety of intonations.

Pre-school stage

The volume of babbling words is expanding. Speech activity increases. The words used by the child are polysemantic: at the same time, with the same babbling combination, the child denotes several concepts: “bang” - fell, lies, stumbled; “give” - give, bring, give; “bibi”, etc. After a year and a half, there is a growth in the children’s active vocabulary; the first sentences appear, consisting of amorphous root words: “Dad, di-dad, go;” By the age of 3, the child independently uses the simplest grammatical structures. By the end of the preschool period, children communicate with each other and others using the structure of a simple common sentence, while using the simplest grammatical categories of speech. The child masters the main grammatical forms of his native language and accumulates a certain vocabulary.

Preschool stage

This period is characterized by the most intensive speech development of children. There is often a qualitative leap in the expansion of vocabulary. The child begins to actively use all parts of speech, and word formation skills are gradually formed. After 3 years, children with a good level of speech development communicate freely not only using grammatically correct simple sentences, but also many types of complex sentences, but also many types of complex sentences, using conjunctions and allied words. At the age of 5-6 years, children’s statements are quite extensive, and a certain logic of presentation is captured. Often in their stories there appear elements of fantasy, a desire to invent episodes that did not actually happen. Thus, by the end of the preschool period, children should have developed phrasal speech, phonetically, lexically and grammatically correct.

School stage

Improvement of coherent speech continues. Children consciously learn the grammatical rules for the design of free statements and fully master sound analysis and synthesis. At this stage, written speech is formed

Gvozdev A.N.

According to the point of view of A.N. Gvozdev, 3 stages are identified in the development of children's speech:

1. Period of sentences consisting of amorphous root words:

A) time of a one-word sentence

B) time of sentences of several words.

2. period of mastering the grammatical structure of a sentence:

A) time of formation of the first phonemes

B) time of use of the inflectional system of the Russian language.

C) time for mastering function words.

3. The period of mastering the morphological system of the Russian language.

According to the point of view of A.N. Gvozdev, the formation of speech begins with the assimilation of the sound composition of the language and occurs along with the expansion of the vocabulary. The number of sounds correctly pronounced by a child is closely related to the child’s stock of words actively used. In his opinion, by the 3rd age all basic forms of coherent speech take place in a child’s speech. A child in preschool age fully masters the conversational style of speech, but grammatical elements remain unmastered by him. The acquisition of grammatical elements characteristic of a literary language occurs at school age.

Practical answer

Practical part:

Question: Determine the level of general speech underdevelopment in a child of senior preschool age using the following example: speech deficiency is clearly manifested in all components, communication is carried out through the use of a constant, although still distorted and limited, stock of commonly used words; the names of objects, actions, and individual characteristics are differentiated; a preschooler uses only simple sentences consisting of 2-3, rarely 4 words; vocabulary significantly lags behind the age norm; There are gross errors in the use of grammatical structures. Suggest methods for a more in-depth study of the child’s speech development level. (SK-1).

Practical answer:

The child has level 2 general speech underdevelopment.

The following methods can be suggested:

1. Methodology for examining the active vocabulary of senior preschool age. Filicheva T. B., Chaveleva N. A., Chirkina G. V.

Goal: to determine the vocabulary stored in the child’s active memory.

1. Methodology for examining coherent speech Glukhova V.P.

Purpose: a comprehensive examination of the coherent speech of children with ODD.

1. Methodology T.A. Fotekova's speech examination consists of three series.

Episode 1: Explores the background to writing. It includes tests for language and sound-letter analysis, which require determining the number of words in a sentence, the number of syllables and sounds in a word, etc.

Second series: aimed at assessing writing. First graders must write letters, their name and two words (table, trunk) under dictation. Students in grades 2-3 are offered a short dictation.

Episode Three: Tests reading skills.

Colloquial vocabulary - words, being literary, give speech a colloquial rub (gasp, cheap, scold). Lexical features have shown, including for colloquial speech, special methods of nomination (contraction, suffixes). Conversational style is associated with the sphere of everyday communication. X has the advantages of the oral form of expression (except for private correspondence of everyday nature), the large role of intonation and facial expressions. In everyday communication there is no relationship between the speakers, the contact between them is direct, and the speech is unprepared. Widely use neutral words, but do not use bookish words. It is standard to use words with a colloquial stylistic connotation (joking, chattering), it is possible to use emo-evaluative words: endearing, familiar, reduced, and words with specific evaluative suffixes (granny, sunshine). Actively upgrading phraseological units. Often, words formed by condensing a word into 1 word or a long one into a shortened one (unfortunate, ambulance, condensed milk) Morphologist norm with 1 side corresponds to the general literal norm, with other has its own characteristics (in oral a overcome im.p. - even where in letters it is impossible: Child, look; often truncated forms of function words (even so that). The norm of the verb allows you to form non-creatures in normative book speech forms with with the meaning of repetition (sat, used to say) or one-time (pushed, dolbanul) In the colloquial style, up-e pruch and gerund are inappropriate. More often, a preposition with the ending -у (on vacation), plural h with the ending -a (reprimand) is formed. the norm is an up-e sentence, in which a component is missing but is easily restored (He-back, me-incomplete) Such sentences are called elliptic. Simple sentences predominate, words-sentences are often used (clear. No. possible )as well as interjections and interjection phrases (here’s another! Mommy! Oh!)

Colloquial vocabulary

16. Functionally colored vocabulary of the Russian language.

letter styles languages, first of all, by comparison on the basis of their vocabulary. composition, because It is in the vocabulary that the differences between them appear.

Vocabulary of official affairs style: special formality and dryness

differences: 1) widely used vocabulary, 2) a group of highly specialized legal. terminology (sanction, legal order), 3) words-clericalism

The sphere of speech motivates the use of the words client, patient, recipient, sender, invoice + various. denominative prepositions.

Scientific vocabulary style:

The coloring of this style is: 1. highly specialized terms, 2.general scientific terminology (used in all sciences and used in other functional styles: classification, method, argument, monograph.

In scientific the text contains a lot of abstract information. words: process, period, opportunity (phenomenon, relationship, meaning) “Split tale” is widely used (to have an impact, to be analyzed).

Decree. St. scientific speech does not assume that scientific. speech should You must be emotionless: moderately expressive, emotional.

Vocabulary of journalistic style

Groups of words:

specialist. journalistic terminology (newspaper): interview, report...

social-political terminology: discrimination, genocide, action.

emots. colored words: notorious, predatory, plutocracy.

Vocabulary of artistic speech

The most diverse layers of vocabulary: it is very difficult to determine the special word, poetic words (crown, muse, enchantment, pride, immortality, cherish, flame, now, truly, forever).

Colloquial vocabulary

By the way, the character for colloquial. speech, usually in contrast. book-letters vocabulary (words that are used mainly in literary and written speech).

In the list of books The vocabulary includes many international borrowing words, Slavicisms (words borrowed from the Slavic language)\, the language of religions. harak-ra (bless, resurrection, transfiguration).

Razg. vocabulary - such words that are literary, adj. speeches colloquial character (gasp, fidgety, dressed up).

Lexic. specially manifested in the fact that it has its own characteristics. ways:

semantic acquisition (record book, minibus, mineral water);

contracted verb combinations (where did your son go, as noted yesterday);

name of the situation: situation, act-I at the moment (your son has completely abandoned chemistry);

Various stylistic colors of vocabulary in colloquial and bookishness is clearly realized when comparing synonyms and neutrals. vocabulary (in all styles and genres);

Oral vocabulary decomposition speech varies according to the degree of literature:

decomposition vocabulary, do not violate the literature. normal;

colloquial vocabulary, standing on the verge of literature: non-rude - permissible in the mouth. speech (jabbering, blurting out), rude (vulgarisms) - trash, nonsense, snout.

Paths,

Lexical means

Syntactic means.

Let us consider which specific language means are included in each group. Don’t be intimidated by the volume of theoretical material; I’m sure you are familiar with these concepts. It is only necessary to systematize knowledge on this topic.

TRAILS:

TROPES is a generalized name for stylistic devices that consist of using a word in a figurative meaning.

METAPHOR - a type of allegory, transfer of meaning from one word to another based on similarity of characteristics, a hidden comparison in which there is no comparative phrase. For example: The bird cherry tree is pouring snow. (snow is like blooming bird cherry brushes). The red sun rolled down like a wheel behind the blue mountains (the sun is like a wheel).

Meaning: increases the accuracy of poetic speech and its emotional expressiveness.

METONYMY - replacement of one word or concept with another that has a causal or other connection with the first. For example: Here on new waves All flags will visit us. (the metonymy "all flags" replaces the verbose expression "ships of all countries flying different flags")

Meaning: technique of short expressive speech, saving lexical means.

IRONY (pretense) - the use of a word or expression in the opposite sense to the literal one, for the purpose of ridicule. For example: Ay, Moska, I know she is strong, That she barks at an elephant.

Meaning: creating a comic effect.

HYPERBOLE (exaggeration) - a figurative expression consisting of exaggeration of size, strength, beauty, etc. For example: ... the rocks trembled from their blows, the sky trembled from the menacing song.

Meaning: the imagery of satirical works is built on hyperboles. Hyperbolization is a source of humor, a means of ridicule.

PERSONIFICATION is a type of metaphor, the transfer of human properties to inanimate objects and abstract concepts. For example: Evening illuminated a star with a blue candle Above my road.

Meaning: increases the emotional expressiveness of the text.

SYNECDOCHE (generalization) is a special case of metonymy, the designation of a whole through its part. For example: Swede, Russian stabs, chops, cuts.

Meaning: gives speech brevity and expressiveness, enhances the expression of speech and gives it a deep generalizing meaning.

LITOTA (simplicity) is a figurative expression that downplays the size, strength, or significance of the described object or phenomenon. For example: Your Pomeranian, a lovely Pomeranian, is no bigger than a thimble.

Meaning: the simultaneous use of litotes and hyperbole sharply and strongly emphasizes the created image. Stylistic device of double negative. Serves as a means to create a satirical and humorous effect.

EPITHET - a figurative definition of an object or action. For example: On the shore of desert waves He stood full of great thoughts.

Meaning: Creates a visible image of an object, phenomenon, forms an emotional impression, conveys a psychological atmosphere, mood. Characterizes, explains some property, quality of a concept, object or phenomenon; the writer's worldview is embodied. An epithet in the description of nature as a means of expressing feelings, mood. An expression of a person's inner state.

ANTONOMASY (renaming) is a trope consisting in the use of a proper name in the meaning of a common noun, a type of metonymy. For example: in the Russian language, the use of the words Donquixote, Don Juan, Lovelace, etc. in a figurative sense has been established.

Meaning: This trope is often used in journalism. It is based on a rethinking of the names of historical figures, writers, and literary heroes. In fiction it is used as a means of figurative speech.

ALLEGORY - an allegorical image of an object or phenomenon with the aim of most clearly showing its essential features (in fables, riddles). The expression of an abstract concept or idea in a specific artistic image. For example: in fables and fairy tales, stupidity, stubbornness are embodied in the image of a Donkey, cowardice - a Hare, cunning - a Fox. The allegorical meaning can receive an allegorical expression: “autumn has come” can mean “old age has come.”

Meaning: widely used in Aesopian language - a manner that reveals resourcefulness in the invention of reservations, omissions and other deceptive means. Used to bypass censorship. With the help of allegory, ideas of deep philosophical content are expressed figuratively.

PERIPHRASE or PERIPHRASE (descriptive expression) is a stylistic device consisting of replacing the usual one-word name of an object or phenomenon with a descriptive expression. For example: Leo is the king of beasts. A sad time, the charm of the eyes (instead of “autumn”).

Meaning: essential aspects, characteristic features of an object or phenomenon are emphasized.

ARTISTIC SYMBOL - figurative words that replace the name of a life phenomenon, the concept of an object with its conventional designation, reminiscent of this phenomenon and giving it a new, deeper meaning. For example: Rain is a symbol of sadness and tears. The cuckoo is a symbol of a lonely, yearning woman. Birch is a symbol of Russia.

Meaning: gives the word a new, deeper meaning.

LEXICAL MEANS:

1. HOMONYMS are words that have different meanings, but are identical in pronunciation and spelling. For example, the water supply system systematically fails, and the repairmen do not have any system to work with.

Meaning: add liveliness and expressiveness to the language. They can give a comic coloring, ambiguity, and the nature of a pun. For example: A person with good command of the language is required to apply stamps.

2. SYNONYMS are words of the same part of speech that are close to each other in meaning. Synonyms form a synonymous series, for example, to feel fear, to be afraid, to be apprehensive, to be frightened, to be afraid, to be horrified, to be cowardly.

Meaning: indicate the richness of the language, serve to more accurately express thoughts and feelings.

3. ANTONYMS are words of the same part of speech that are opposite in meaning. For example, early - late, fall asleep - wake up, white - black.

Meaning: make speech bright, emotional. Serve to create contrast.

4. PARONYMS - words with the same root, similar in sound, but not the same in meaning. For example: imprints and typos (have different prefixes), unresponsive and irresponsible (have different suffixes).

5. COMMON VOCABULARY - words known to all speakers of Russian, used in all styles of speech, stylistically neutral. For example, spring, water, earth, night.

Meaning: denotes vital objects, actions, signs, phenomena.

5. DIALECTISM - these are words belonging to a specific dialect. Dialects are Russian folk dialects that contain a significant number of original words known only in a certain area. For example: kochet - rooster, gutarit - talk, beam - ravine.

Meaning: they evoke in the reader more vivid ideas about the place where the described events develop for the purpose of the character’s speech characteristics.

6. PROFESSIONALISM - these are words that are used in various fields of production, technology, etc. and which have not become generally used; terms - words that name special concepts of any sphere of production or science; professionalisms and terms are used by people of the same profession, in the same field of science. For example, abscissa (mathematics), affricates (linguistics); window - free time between lessons in the teacher's speech.

Meaning: used in fiction and journalism as an expressive means to describe a situation, create a production landscape, or verbally describe a certain sphere of human activity.

7. JARGONISM - words limited in their use to a certain social or age environment. For example, they distinguish between youth (ancestors - parents), professional (nadomae - undershooting the landing sign), and camp jargon.

Meaning: jargon is used in works of fiction for the purpose of verbal characterization of characters and creating the desired flavor.

8. ARGO - a dialect of a certain social group of people (originally a thieves' language - "Fenya"), created for the purpose of linguistic isolation (Argonisms are used as a symbol, like an encrypted code, so that people who do not belong to this group cannot understand the meaning of these words). For example: ballerina - master key; kipish - disorder, shu; nix - danger; raspberry - stash.

Meaning: used in works of fiction for the purpose of verbal characterization of a character or creating a special flavor.

9. EMOTIONALLY COLORED WORDS - words expressing attitudes towards objects, signs, actions, etc. For example: a nag (not just a horse, but a bad horse), to lie (not just to tell a lie, but to tell it brazenly), to crave (not just to desire, but to desire passionately).

Meaning: serve to express the speaker’s attitude to what he is talking about, as well as to characterize the speaker.

10. ARCHAISMS - obsolete words that have modern synonyms that have replaced them in the language. For example: young - young, gold - gold; eye - eye, mouth - lips, behold - see.

Meaning: used to create the flavor of antiquity when depicting antiquity. They perform a vivid stylistic role, acting as a means of creating civil-patriotic pathos of speech. They are the source of the sublime sound of speech.

11. HISTORISM - words that served as the name of disappeared objects. concepts, phenomena. For example: tivun - an official in ancient Rus', hryvnia - the monetary unit of Kievan Rus, footman - a person who served in rich houses.

Meaning: they serve to create the flavor of antiquity, a bygone era, and give the description of past times historical authenticity.

12.NEOLOGISM - new words that appear in the language. For example: video phone, airbus, Internet.

Meaning: serve to denote those new concepts. which appeared in connection with the development of social relations, science, culture, and technology. They are a kind of technique for enhancing expressiveness.

13. BORROWED WORDS - words that came into the Russian language from other languages. For example: charter, sail, cedar (from Greek); sandwich, sprats, landscape (from German); veil, coat, taxi (from French); tenor, opera, flute (from Italian); sailor, cabin, boat (from Dutch); basketball, coach, comfort (from English).

Meaning: source of dictionary replenishment.

14. OLD SLAVANisms - borrowings from a closely related language associated with the baptism of Rus' and the development of spiritual culture.

Peculiarities:

a) combinations RA, LA, LE, corresponding to the Russian ORO, OLO, ERE. For example: temper - temper, gate - gate, gold - gold, shore - shore, captivity - full.

b) a combination of ZhD, corresponding to the Russian Zh. For example: leader, clothes, need.

d) suffixes STVIE, CHY, YNYA, TVA, USH, YUSCH, ASH, YASCH. For example: action, helmsman, pride, battle, burning, carrying.

e) prefixes IZ, IS, NIZ. For example: go away, overthrow. Meaning: they recreate the flavor of the era, giving an ironic touch.

15. TRADITIONAL POETIC WORDS - a group of words that was formed at the turn of the 18th-19th centuries and was used mainly in poetry. The main source is Slavicisms. For example: breg, voice, right hand, forehead, cheeks, fire, bush, lily, roses, myrtle, hand, golden, mellifluous, tree, spring, star.

Meaning: in the past, highly expressive vocabulary, without which not a single poetic work could do. In modern language, ironic use, stylization.

16. FOLK POETIC WORDS - words characteristic of oral folk poetry. For example: baby, share, little road, azure, sad, mediocre, ant, dumushka.

Meaning: create an emotional impression, serve as a means of expressing the national Russian character.

17. CONVERSATIONAL VOCABULARY - these are words. which are used in everyday speech, have a casual character and therefore are not always appropriate in written and book speech. For example: soda (sparkling water), blond (blonde, person with very blond hair), bubblegum (chewing gum).

Meaning: in book speech, this context is given a colloquial tone. Used in works of fiction for the purpose of speech characterization of characters.

18. COLLAR WORDS - words. expressions characterized by simplicity, a touch of rudeness and usually serving to express harsh assessments. Colloquial words stand on the border of literary language and are often undesirable even in ordinary conversation. For example: bashka (head), dreary (unpleasant), get confused (strengthen your consciousness).

Meaning: a means of speech characterization of heroes.

19. BOOK VOCABULARY - words that are used primarily in written speech, used in scientific works, official and business documents, and journalism. For example: hypothesis (scientific assumption), genesis (origin), addressee (person to whom the letter is sent).

Meaning: a means of speech characterization of heroes and phenomena.

20. TERMS - words or combinations of words denoting special concepts used in science, technology, and art. For example: leg, hypotenuse, morphology, conjugation, verb.

Meaning: serve for an accurate, strictly scientific definition of scientific and special concepts. Used to characterize the depicted environment and language.

21. PHRASEOLOGISTS - stable combinations of words that usually have a holistic meaning. For example: work with your sleeves rolled up, take care of it like the apple of your eye, put a spoke in your wheel.

Meaning: add brightness and expressiveness to speech.

22. WINGED WORDS - bright and apt expressions of writers, scientists, public figures, as well as folk proverbs and sayings. For example: Not for horse feed. How little has been lived, how much has been experienced.

Meaning: as a figurative means of revealing the inner appearance of a character, characteristics of his speech manner.

23. EMOTIONAL-EXPRESSIVE VOCABULARY - words that are evaluative in nature (as opposed to neutral vocabulary). For example: words with a positive connotation - valiant, radiant; words with a negative connotation - upstart, nonsense.

Meaning: the use of emotionally expressive vocabulary is associated with a specific task, a certain stylistic orientation of the text.

SYNTACTIC MEANS

Rhetorical appeal- a conditional address to someone within the framework of a monologue. This request does not open a dialogue and does not require a response. In reality, this is a statement in the form of an address. So, instead of saying, “My city is mutilated,” a writer might say, “My city! How they mutilated you!”

This makes the statement more emotional and personal.

Syntactic means can be divided into 2 groups:

1. related to repetitions

multi-union,

asyndeton,

syntactic parallelism,

gradation

2. not related to repetitions

a rhetorical question,

rhetorical exclamation

rhetorical appeal

parcellation,

inversion,

paraphrase,

LEXICAL-SYNTACTIC MEANS

1. Oxymoron is a technique when one concept is defined through its impossibility. As a result, both concepts partially lose their meaning, and a new meaning is formed. The peculiarity of an oxymoron is that it always provokes the generation of meaning: the reader, faced with a blatantly impossible phrase, will begin to “complete” meanings. Writers and poets often use this technique to say something briefly and succinctly. In some cases, the oxymoron is striking (“Living Corpse” by L.N. Tolstoy, “Hot Snow” by Yu. Bondarev), in others it may be less noticeable, revealing itself upon a more thoughtful reading (“Dead Souls” by N.V. Gogol - after all, the soul has no death, the “dead green branches” of Pushkin’s anchar - after all, the green foliage of a tree is a sign of life, not death).

2. Catachresis is a deliberately illogical statement that has an expressive meaning. “Yes, she’s a fish! And her hands are kind of white, like fish.” It is clear that a fish cannot have arms; the metaphor is based on catachresis.

3. Antithesis - a sharp opposition of something, emphasized syntactically. A classic example of antithesis is Pushkin’s characterization of the relationship between Lensky and Onegin:

They got along. Wave and stone

Poetry and prose, ice and fire

Not so different from each other.

Let us note that in Pushkin the emphasized antithesis is partially removed by the next line, which makes the situation ambiguous.

Secondly, analyze the list of terms listed in the task. Group them:

Mark the trails with the letter "T"

lexical means - "L",

syntactic means - "C".

Here's what we came up with (list of terms from the 2013 demo project):

1. anaphora - C

2. metaphor - T

3. hyperbole - T

4. professional vocabulary - L

5. parcellation - C

6. lexical repetition - C

7. opposition - C

8. epithets - T

9. contextual synonyms - L

Thus, the search area for the specified language tool has narrowed noticeably.

The assignment says that the first 3 means are paths.

There are 3 of them in the list: metaphor, hyperbole, epithets.

All we have to do is arrange them in the right order.

We recall the definitions of these linguistic means and re-read the examples indicated in brackets.

We compare definitions with examples.

We arrange the numbers in the correct order: 2,8,3.

It remains to determine the last linguistic means. It is not specified which group it belongs to. Therefore, we exclude only trails from the list, because... There should be no repetition of numbers.

We have 6 concepts left. Let's re-read the examples again. The situation becomes clearer when we turn to these proposals. We are talking about linguistic means number 6.

Mission accomplished!

2. Find the words in the text of the review: tropes, lexical means, syntactic means.

4. Group concepts.

5. Remember the definitions of these concepts and compare them with examples.

6. Arrange the numbers in the correct order.

The normative aspect of written business speech has specifics. It manifests itself in the fact that business speech must comply with both the norms of the literary language and the traditions of the official business style.

According to the norms of the literary language, in written business speech the lexical, morphological and syntactic norms for the use of language units must be observed. In accordance with the tradition of the official business style, written business speech is distinguished not only by the objectivity and transpersonal nature of the presentation; bookish coloring of the units used, syntactic completeness and completeness of sentences, a high degree of standardization, but also stylistic isolation (the impossibility of penetration of units of other styles), as well as the presence of words and expressions not accepted in other styles (so-called clericalisms). Words forward, above, below, above, proper, prohibited, deed, punishability etc. in situations not related to written business communication are perceived as inappropriate, and their use is qualified as a speech error.

It should be noted that the excessive use of clerical templates in written business speech is also considered its shortcoming, for example, in a sentence A mandatory element of winter road maintenance is the process of clearing it of precipitation in the form of snow. clericalisms not only unreasonably lengthen the sentence, but also obscure its meaning.

It is considered undesirable, for example, to begin the text of a business message (for example, a memo) with the expression For your information. It is more appropriate, experts believe, to begin the text with a justification of the reason, the reason for its compilation, using the constructions In connection with..., Based on....

In official business style and more broadly, in official business communication forms of codified written speech are used, since only they can ensure the accuracy of information transfer. Codified speech is speech strictly regulated by the norms of the literary language, characteristic of official communication situations.

Lexical norms of business writing. The norms of word usage in business style correspond to general literary norms:

1) accuracy of word usage;

2) compliance with the norms of lexical compatibility;

3) the use of words taking into account their stylistic coloring (affiliation);

4) the use of words taking into account their belonging to the active/passive vocabulary according to the characteristics - outdated, modern, new.

Accuracy of word usage– the ability to use words in accordance with the lexical meanings that are assigned to them in the literary language.

Ignorance of the meaning of the word used can lead to a violation of the accuracy of the statement. For example, the expression “to make the situation worse” is erroneous, because verb aggravate has the meaning “To strengthen, increase the strength, intensity of something.” It is correct to use it in the phrases “aggravate attention” (increase attention), “aggravate the insult” (intensify the insult), etc., which emphasize the intensification of some state, action, manifestation. In combination with the word situation it is more accurate to use the verb complicate.

Verb puzzle, having the meaning “To cause confusion, bewilderment”, has recently begun to be often used in the unusual meaning of “Give a task, set a task.” In this case, the phrase of the manager Must puzzle you, addressed to subordinates, sounds ambiguous. The norm of precise word usage has been violated.

Lexical errors are one of the most widespread types of violations of speech norms in document texts (in terms of frequency they rank third after grammatical and spelling errors). Thus, the accuracy of word usage is violated in the sentence Creation of a regulatory framework for organization homeowners. Word organization matter: 1) organization, internal discipline; 2) public association or government agency. In this context, it is used explicitly without regard to its lexical meaning. The “regulatory framework” is not created so that “homeowners were organized”, but in order for them to “appear”. In this case it would be appropriate to use a verbal noun appearance instead of organization.

In the last decade, in the field of economics, politics, and in the field of information technology, English-language vocabulary has begun to be actively used, the expansion of which in Russian speech has been noted by a number of linguists. Futures loans, clearing, consulting, accounting, franchising, leasing, holding, realtor, broker, dealer, distributor, charter, tender, offshore, futures and many other terms have already gone beyond the boundaries of narrow professional use. However, even these frequently used words, which should be familiar, are not always used correctly.

Today, a “manager” is often called, in fact, an advertising or insurance agent or salesperson. Meanwhile, a manager is a manager or economic director of an enterprise.

In the same way, the lexical meaning of the words “presentation” and “business plan” is blurred. The word “presentation” often replaces the word “opening,” and “business plan” is a business plan or action plan (see the dictionary for the meaning of these words).

Synonyms in business writing. Synonyms are often used in business papers - words (terms) with the same or similar meaning. Synonymous words are rarely completely identical. As a rule, they differ in shades of meaning, lexical compatibility or stylistic coloring. Inattention to the features of synonymous terms can lead to a semantic error in the document. When using synonymous terms, it is important to keep in mind which side of the concept needs to be highlighted in the context. Even such synonymous terms as contract, agreement, agreement, They differ somewhat in meaning and scope of use. Labor law deals with employment contract or contract; in civil law conclude contracts; foreign trade transaction is denoted by the word Contract; can be scientific and technical cooperation, and tariff – agreement. Errors in the use of synonymous words often arise from the fact that a polysemantic word can be synonymous with another only in one of its meanings. For example, a word typical for business texts request in one of the meanings it is synonymous with the word requirement. You can write: ... all customer requests (requirements) were satisfied. At the same time the word request has no inherent meaning in the word requirement values ​​(norm, order to which someone or something must conform): requirements(but not request) to product quality; requirements for applicants to work. But in a cover letter it is customary to write: We are sending a response to your request from..., but not to your requirement...

Ignorance or inaccurate knowledge of the lexical meaning of a word is the cause of such errors as failure to distinguish paronymous words and speech redundancy.

Paronyms- These are words that are similar in sound but different in meaning: guaranteed - guaranteed, effective - effective, economical- economical, insurer - insured etc.

Let's compare the use of ambiguous verbs introduce And provide:

introduce - 1) present, report: provide a list of employees, provide evidence; 2) introduce someone: introduce a new employee to the team; 3) apply (for promotion, for reward): submit for the next rank; 4) compose, discover: provide significant value; 5) mentally imagine: imagine (yourself) a picture of the battle; 6) depict, show: present it in a funny way.

provide - 1) to put at someone’s disposal, use: provide vehicles; 2) give the right, opportunity to do, implement something: grant leave, give the floor; 3) allow you to act independently or leave unattended: leave to oneself; leave things to chance.

Pleonasm (from the gr. pleonasmos - excess) is a type of speech redundancy, which is caused by a partial coincidence of the meanings of words: joint cooperation(cooperation - joint problem solving), price list(price list - reference book, list of prices for products), by mutual consent(mutual means mutual), open vacancy.

Another type of speech redundancy is tautology (from the gr. tautologia from tauto - the same + logos - word) - the unjustified repetition of words of the same root or words close in meaning in one sentence or speech fragment.

Tautology is most often the result of verbal negligence or poor editorial editing: For the fastest registration formalities (lexical compatibility is still broken here - documents are prepared).

Develop and approve Regulations on approval procedure for preparing and issuing title documents to land plots to HOA members(both types of speech redundancy coexist here). Tautology and pleonasm are easily eliminated by editing: Develop and approve the Regulations on the procedure for preparing and issuing documents to members of the HOA for the right to own a land plot.

This makes the phrase easier to understand, allowing the new text to meet demands for accuracy, specificity, and clarity that the unedited text did not meet. Moreover, the expression "title documents" generally meaningless, since the document cannot but be legal. Consolidating legal relations is the main function of the document.

Especially often the pronoun acts as an extra word: ours with you project, ours with you cooperation.

Yes, in a sentence Please accept my invitation and I hope that you will find time to attend the meeting during which We we can determine with you specific development paths our cooperation an overabundance of pronouns clutters the phrase, making it difficult to perceive.

Norms of lexical compatibility. The violation of lexical norms is especially noticeable in set phrases and terminative phrases. In a sentence Develop and approve regulations on the procedure for transferring residential buildings and other real estate elements lexical error made . Word element has the meaning « component, part of something." For example, element of the periodic table of Mendeleev, element of society. There is a terminative phrase real estate object. The violation in this case turns out to be twofold: firstly, the term is reproduced incorrectly, as a result of which it is not presented in the text; secondly, the word “element” was used without taking into account the lexical meaning and rules of lexical compatibility.

Errors of this kind are quite common in document texts: take new approaches while accept Can decisions, resolutions, A new approaches to solving emerging problems need to find.

In a sentence Agreement comes into force from the moment it is signed and will remain in force until discontinued either party a lexical error was made due to a lack of compatibility . Agreement can't be terminated he can be concluded or terminated A stop negotiable relationship.

A carelessly composed phrase in the text of the contract or an incorrectly chosen word can lead to conflict situations.

In order to accurately determine the lexical meaning of a particular word, in case of difficulty, you need to turn to explanatory dictionaries.

There are dozens of types of explanatory dictionaries, of which the following are especially necessary for business communication: economic dictionaries, dictionaries of foreign words, explanatory dictionaries of the Russian language, dictionary of paronyms, dictionaries of lexical compatibility. It should be noted that you need to use dictionaries that have been published in recent years - the processes taking place in the lexical structure of the modern Russian language are so active.

Stylistic coloring of words. In the language of documents, a word should be used taking into account its stylistic coloring (belonging to a particular style). The concept of stylistic coloring is usually associated with the attachment of a word to a particular area of ​​language use, to a particular functional style.

We can say that each word in the language has its own “passport”, which indicates how and where it is used, what is the scope of its use. Thus, clericalisms and procedural vocabulary have a bright stylistic coloring: proper, given, hereby, specified, executor, petition etc. This purely bookish vocabulary is practically not used in oral speech: we well feel its bookish and written flavor. And colloquial vocabulary, as already noted, penetrates into the texts of documents precisely because colloquial expressions and professionalisms are not recognized as such.

Professionalisms are words, expressions that are limited to the scope of use within the framework of a certain industry or profession. Professionalisms - colloquial names for a particular phenomenon must be distinguished from book and written vocabulary:

Professionalisms are most often words with a truncated base, most often formed using the suffixes -k/ka-, -ik-. Such vocabulary, appropriate in an informal setting of business communication, is absolutely inappropriate in the language of documents.

When using words, it is important to take into account their classification into the active/passive vocabulary according to the characteristics of outdated, modern, new.

Archaic words and speech patterns. Words and expressions that have fallen out of use (archaisms and historicisms) should not be used in documents. Outdated words and phrases in document texts should be replaced with their modern equivalents.

The departure of words and expressions from active speech practice is a natural process. However, words often receive new life by returning to speech from the historical past. Not so long ago, such words as returned and sounded in a new way: Duma, head, council, bailiff, governor, jury, gentlemen and etc . It should be noted, however, that these words compete today with parallel foreign words: parliament, mayor, prefecture, police, department, president, premier, municipality etc. Both words are appropriate in the modern practice of business communication, and only time will tell which of them will remain in speech and which will disappear.

Completely new words - neologisms - also appear in business speech, as in language in general. Usually they are built according to old models and samples. It is known that verbal nouns (words formed from a verb) are very common in clerical speech: execution, signing, decision, decree. And these words are becoming more and more common. In this group of clerical terms, we can especially highlight words that are rarely found in other styles of speech, namely: verbal nouns with the prefix NOT ( non-compliance, non-compliance, non-recognition and etc) . This group of terms is extremely productive; it is constantly replenished with words formed according to the traditional model: NOT + verbal noun.

However, not all words from this group are appropriate in the document. For example, in business writing the word “lack” occurs, which can easily be replaced by the generally accepted word “lack.” Quite often, following the clerical style, authors come up with words that do not have legal rights to be used in speech, since the language already has designations for these concepts. So, instead of a made-up word progress the phrase should be used positive changes, instead of an unsuccessfully coined word extinction It’s better to use the well-known one - exception, instead of elaboration - criticism.

Thus, the emergence of new words in business speech and the loss of old ones is a natural phenomenon, since new concepts require their linguistic embodiment. However, neologisms should be treated with great caution. Those new words that can be replaced by common literary words or “legalized” terms are inappropriate. The use of new words in the text of a document should be based on an assessment of whether this word is the only term in a given field or whether it names a concept that already has a stable designation in modern Russian.