Modern Russian language. Rosenthal D.E., Golub I.B., Telenkova M.A.

M.: 2002

This textbook was written in accordance with the modern Russian language program for philological departments and, unlike well-known manuals, contains all sections of the course taught in higher educational institutions.

The authors present theoretical material in a concise and compact form, adhering, as a rule, to traditional linguistic terms. This will make it easier to read the book and absorb the material. This method of presenting the material maintains connection with the school practice of studying the Russian language and is necessary when working with the book independently.

Nevertheless, the authors draw attention to the existence in Russian linguistics of different points of view on some issues of the theory of the Russian language, and highlight problems that cause controversy in the scientific world. This will help the reader understand difficult issues of Russian grammar and acquire the skills to study controversial, debatable problems. All this is important not only for mastering the system of the Russian literary language, but also for the development of linguistic thinking in the reader.

Theoretical information on the Russian language is reinforced with exercises, the sequence of which is determined by the methodological principle of moving from simple to complex. As illustrative material, excerpts from works of Russian classical and modern literature, as well as journalism and periodicals that arouse the interest of the modern reader, are used. The chapters, which are general in nature, provide questions for self-testing. The book makes it possible to learn Russian without a tutor.

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The course of modern Russian language contains a number of sections:
Vocabulary and phraseology study the vocabulary and phraseological (stable phrases) composition of the Russian language.
Phonetics describes the sound composition of the modern Russian literary language and the main sound processes occurring in the language.
Graphic arts introduces the composition of the Russian alphabet, the relationship between sounds and letters.
Spelling defines the rules for the use of alphabetic characters in the written transmission of speech.
Orthoepy studies the norms of modern Russian literary pronunciation.
Word formation explores the morphological composition of words and the main types of their formation.
Morphology- the doctrine of the basic lexical and grammatical categories of words (parts of speech).
Syntax- the study of phrases and sentences.
Punctuation- a set of rules for placing punctuation marks.

I don’t know who is the smartest in our country. The skinniest. The most arrogant. Let Guinness and other pathology lovers find out. But I know for sure who is the most literate. I know for certain the name of a person who, even in delirium, will write the quintessence with an “and” and will not miss a comma before the conjunction “so that.” In a matter of seconds, he will analyze the composition of a word of 29 letters and explain its etymology.

He knows what parcellation and lexico-phraseological analysis are.

He is 94 years old, but the pencil in his hand does not waver when, reading the morning newspapers, he once again marks errors in the margins - one, two, three.

Ditmar Elyashevich Rosenthal. The combination of letters alone is awe-inspiring. His works are a matter of admiration and amazement.

I remember back in the tenth grade, the teacher recommended that we prepare for the exam dictation using Rosenthal’s manual. Then there was a prestigious university, seminars on the modern Russian language and again: Rosenthal, Rosenthal, Rosenthal... You ask the teacher a logical question: “Why is it written this way and not that way?” and you get a logical answer: “And according to Rosenthal’s rule.” Did people before you write as God bestowed on their souls, without any rules?

Of course not. The rules have always existed, since the time of Lomonosov. I got the most menial work: finding sources, selecting, adding, systematizing, selecting examples.

- Do you think Russian is a difficult language?

The most difficult.

But what about Hungarian and Finnish, in which there are either 14 or 22 cases (it doesn’t matter how many, it’s still a lot)?

They are more structured and therefore easier to learn. In addition, Russian words are much more difficult to pronounce than, say, Finnish ones.

- What is the most difficult thing?

- Female, that is... no... masculine... that is...

Female. We say "veil", not "veil". But you are absolutely right. Both in life and in language, the masculine gender is stronger than the feminine. It is from him that the feminine forms are formed, and not vice versa: first there was a strict teacher, and only then his wife appeared, a beautiful teacher. A Russian person feels this, he doesn’t know in what place, but how can one explain the clan system to foreigners? Only with the average there are no problems: once you memorize it and you are free. The neuter gender is an established category.

- You mentioned the accent system. For several years now I have been tormented by the question of what is the right way: to start or to begin?

START is illiterate, no matter who pronounces it that way.

- On Wednesdays or on Wednesdays?

Say what you want, but it’s better on Wednesdays.

- How do you know that this is better?

Pushkin tells me.

This means that Alexander Sergeevich is still the most alive of all the living. But I wonder if it happens that you have disputes with modern literature professors, or is Rosenthal’s authority unquestionable?

Yes you. It still happens. We fight all the time. Just like the compilers of textbooks, it comes to the “Punctuation” section, and so it begins... The Russian language system is very flexible: you can put a comma, you don’t have to put it, there are cases when a punctuation mark is placed at the choice of the writer. But we are scientists to the core, we want to put everything into a system so that a writer, for example, a journalist, is not tormented by doubts about what to choose: a colon? dash? comma? Sometimes disputes go so far that respectable, honored people shout at each other, like deputies in the Duma, and then, all red, they run to calm down in the corridor.

-Have you ever argued until you are hoarse?

Certainly. Professor Shansky and I still do not agree on the sound “th”. I write everywhere that he is ordinary voiced, and Nikolai Maksimovich - that he is sonorous.

- Is this very important?

For me this is fundamental.

Ditmar Elyashevich is generally a man of principle. At the journalism department of Moscow State University, where he headed the department of stylistics of the Russian language for twenty-five years, everyone was aware of his remarkable principles. Even the lazy students were not afraid to take the exam, because they knew well: if Professor Rosenthal is on the admissions committee, then they will not get less than four points.
In life, Ditmar Elyashevich is small and frail. If you put all his works in one pile (about 400 articles and books), then their creator will not be visible behind them - the works have outgrown the master. But the master, even today, is head and shoulders above those who studied using his textbooks, received well-deserved A's, and then started teaching himself.

Ditmar Elyashevich, help the eternal dream of a poor student come true. Surely you can compose an ultra-complicated dictation so that even teachers make a bunch of mistakes in it?

- (Laughs). Now I’ll tell you the recipe - do it yourself at your leisure. You need to take Leo Tolstoy’s original text as a basis and cram in as many cases of writing “not” with adjectives and participles as possible. For some reason, we have recently decided that they obey the same rules, and they are sculpting things in the media that make the hair on your head stand on end.

- So the modern press is illiterate?

I would say this: newspapers do not bring the light of literacy to the world. There are many stylistic and punctuation errors, but what is most striking is that there are also spelling errors. I don’t understand how you can write “little”, but they do. True, one would always like to hope that such egregious cases are a defect in the production process or ordinary typos.

Here's a more serious example. Remember all the fuss about Yeltsin's supposed illness? Our journalists write: "... we hope that he will recover." And I hope too. Just not that he “WILL RECOVER” - that’s ignorant, but that he “WILL RECOVER.”

- It turns out that the democratic press is losing to the newspapers of previous years?

Don't worry. Under Stalin and Brezhnev, newspaper men also did not shine. The only thing that saved them then was the strict normalization and ideology of the language. True, even in conditions of censorship they managed to pamper me with examples of how not to write: “Wonderful is the scene of the meeting of loaded cars from one collective farm, in which girls are riding, with young Cossacks from another collective farm.” By the way, I took the example from Pravda. What you really should look up to is the printed publications of the past - the beginning of this century.

How do you feel about words of foreign origin? There is an opinion that we should try to replace them with Russian equivalents: call the broth clear soup, etc.

I am for the purity of the Russian language, but this does not mean getting rid of the borrowed words we are accustomed to. Listen to what I’m going to say now: I am a student at the Faculty of Philology at St. Petersburg University. Of the entire phrase, only one word is Russian - “ya”. All the rest are borrowed, but nevertheless we understand the meaning perfectly. Now mentally try to replace all words of foreign origin with Russian equivalents. You yourself will get confused, and the number of words in a sentence will approximately triple.

- Are there many borrowings in the Russian language?

A lot, about 30%. Get ready, in 5-6 years there will be twice as many of them: “dealers” and “distributors” are becoming firmly established in everyday life.

- What then to do with the immortal “Russian language is rich and powerful”?

Yes, it’s not that rich compared to other languages. Its complete dictionary, for example, contains only 200 thousand words, while in German, including, however, dialects, there are all 600 thousand.

200 thousand is still a lot.

But we don’t use them all. Now there is a clear tendency towards a decrease in the vocabulary of the Russian-speaking population. Ushakov’s four-volume academic dictionary, the most popular today, already contains only 88 thousand words, but we still have a lot of that. At best, we actually use 50-55 thousand.

- Well, has the Russian language given at least something to other languages?

Bolshevik, for example.

Ditmar Elyashevich lives in an apartment with a deteriorated layout. It seems to be a large room, a wide corridor, high ceilings, but somehow everything is arranged in a stupid way. Or maybe the house is uncomfortable because the old man lives alone? The son has his own family; granddaughter - married in Sweden. The most literate person in the country spends all his days in a chair (his legs almost gave out, and he can hardly move, pushing a chair in front of him). On the left is a TV, on the right are newspapers, on the table are dictionaries, and behind the glass of the bookcase are familiar names: Pushkin, Blok, Yesenin. Work continues. Professor Rosenthal has already taught Russian to several generations. And he will teach you more. Every evening, looking out the window, he sees his future students launching boats in a multi-colored gasoline puddle.

- Ditmar Elyashevich, were you born in Moscow?

Believe it or not, I first came to Russia when I was 16 years old. Russian is not my native language.

I was born in Poland. I went to a regular Polish gymnasium in Warsaw. Poland then (beginning of the century - Author) was part of the Russian Empire, and therefore at school we studied Russian without fail. I can’t say that as a child I was very fond of foreign languages, especially since my father always spoke German to us at home.

- Was he German?

No, but he adored Germany and worked there as an economist for many years. When he had children, he gave us German names. So I became Dietmar, and my brother became Oscar.

- How did you end up in Moscow?

They fled to relatives when Poland turned into a military training ground. This was during the First World War.

- And went to a Russian school?

- Were there any difficulties at first? Still a foreign language, although related to Polish.

I've always been pathologically literate.

- And your relatives: is literacy in your blood?

Well, my mother didn't have to write much. She was a housewife, although she spoke three languages ​​fluently: with my father in German, with me and Oscar in Polish and on the street in Russian. But my brother (he was an economist) made mistakes, and I corrected them when I read his works.

- What did you do after leaving school?

I entered Moscow University, the Faculty of History and Philology: over time, I became very interested in foreign languages.

- How many languages ​​do you know?

About 12. When I graduated from university, I knew six. Don't make such an astonished face - I was a completely average student. Some graduates were fluent in Arabic, Thai and Hindi. My set was standard: Latin, Greek, of course, English and French. Well, I learned Swedish.

- And you still remember?

Swedish? Of course not. I do not use it. In reality, I now remember three languages ​​that divided spheres of influence in my head: I speak Russian, count in Polish, and mentally express my emotions in Italian.

- In Italian?

Everyone knows me as a professor of Russian and often forgets that I wrote the very first university textbook on Italian. Classics of Italian literature were also published in my translations.

- Could you write 400 books on the grammar and spelling of the Polish language?

Could. But I had to thank Russia. Enlightenment is the best gratitude.

- You have lived all (almost all) of your life in Moscow. Do we Muscovites have our own special pronunciation?

Compared to St. Petersburg, Moscow pronunciation has always been considered reduced: Moscow is merchant, Petersburg is noble. True, now Muscovites are increasingly labeling themselves as “nobles”. It is no longer acceptable to say the old Moscow word “Korishnevyi”. It should be pronounced "brown". But “buloshnaya” and “of course” with “sh” remain a legal Moscow privilege.

- Do people in Moscow speak the same?

Traditionally, residents of Arbat spoke more correctly. From time immemorial, representatives of the Russian intelligentsia lived here, and therefore no unstandardized vocabulary was heard here, and no one confused “dress” with “put on.” Not like now.

It seems that, having written a mountain of books on how to speak and write correctly, Professor Rosenthal should forget normal human words and begin all his phrases with “would you be so kind…” However, Ditmar Elyashevich’s colleagues revealed a secret to me. It turns out that the famous professor did not disdain rude words. Once, while holding a department meeting, he noticed that the teachers were sneakily eating apples, and reacted “in our way”: “Not only do they not listen, they also eat them!” Rosenthal also respected student jargon.
"How are you?" - his colleagues asked.
“Normal,” answered the professor.

Let's return to your service at Moscow University. There are rumors that there was a time when the appointment to the position of head of the department was signed by the KGB...

Personally, the KGB did not offer to cooperate with me. Probably my origin and nationality aroused suspicion. But I knew for sure that in our team, under the guise of a nice stylist teacher, there was a representative of the authorities who was knocking upstairs about every step - mine and my colleagues.

This is probably why I always had the feeling that you take examples for your rules from the final materials of party congresses.

I had to use ideological examples. Approximately 30% of the vocabulary had to be of a certain direction, and the censor strictly monitored this. There was also a list of writers headed by Gorky and Sholokhov, whose works I was obliged to quote. Well, of course, it was impossible to do without Marx and Engels. I can imagine how many heads would roll if I decided to use examples from Solzhenitsyn or Mandelstam!

Let's summarize: you have 3 higher educations, you have written 400 textbooks and articles, edited dictionaries, taught at Moscow State University, headed the department of Russian language stylistics at the Faculty of Journalism...

I taught not only at Moscow State University, but also on TV. Valya Leontyeva, Volodya Kirillov - these are all my students. Before the broadcast, we gathered in the studio, did pronunciation exercises, and wrote tests. And after the broadcast, I sorted out their mistakes with them.

- And who was the best student?

I don't want to offend anyone. Everyone was talented, but Volodya especially. It is no coincidence that it was he who later defended himself and became a professor of the Russian language.

In general, tell all my students, especially my fellow journalists, that I remember them all, read them and silently scold them for their mistakes.

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UDC 811.161.1

BBK 81.2Rus-92.3

Valgina N.S.

Rosenthal D.E.

Fomina M.I.

Modern Russian language: Textbook / Edited by N.S. Valgina. - 6th ed., revised. and additional

Moscow: Logos, 2002. 528 p. 5000 copies

Reviewers: Doctor of Philology, Professor N.D. Burvikova,

Doctor of Philology, Professor V.A. Pronin

Contains all sections of the modern Russian language course: vocabulary and phraseology, phonetics, phonology and orthoepy. graphics and spelling, word formation, morphology, syntax and punctuation. In preparing this publication, achievements in the field of the Russian language over the past 15 years have been taken into account. Unlike the fifth edition (Moscow: Vysshaya Shkola, 1987), the textbook includes materials covering active processes in the modern Russian language, and the list of word formation methods has been expanded. trends in the use of forms of grammatical number, gender and case are noted, changes in syntax are taken into account.

For students of higher educational institutions studying in philological and other humanitarian areas and specialties.

ISBN ISBN 5-94010-008-2

© Valgina N.S., Rosenthal D.E., Fomina M.I., 1987

© Valgina N.S. Rework and addition, 2001

© “Logos”, 2002

Valgina N.S.

Rosenthal D.E.

Fomina M.I.

Modern Russian language

From the publisher

This textbook is intended primarily for students of philological specialties of higher educational institutions. But it is also designed for use in the educational process in a wide range of humanities - of course, primarily those where mastery of the expressive means of literary speech is a prerequisite for successful professional activity. It seems that in any case, the textbook will be useful to future lawyers, teachers, art historians, and journalists.

The peculiarity of the publication - the conciseness and compactness of the presentation of the material - takes into account the diversity of needs of the possible audience. Therefore, the duration of the lecture course, practical and independent studies using this textbook may vary depending on the direction, specialty of training of humanists, as well as the form of study: full-time, evening or correspondence.

The textbook contains all sections of the modern Russian language course; vocabulary and phraseology, phonetics, phonology and spelling, graphics and spelling, word formation, morphology, syntax and punctuation.

In preparing this publication, achievements in the field of the Russian language over the past fifteen years were taken into account. The wording of certain theoretical provisions has been changed, new concepts have been introduced, terminology has been clarified, illustrative materials and bibliography have been partially updated, active processes in the modern Russian language are highlighted, especially in the field of vocabulary and syntax.

The content of sections and paragraphs has been supplemented with new information, in particular: the position on the slightly changed status of the literary language has been substantiated; the list of word formation methods has been expanded; trends in the use of grammatical number forms are noted; Data is provided on sentences of real and unreal modality, coordination of the forms of subject and predicate, genitive sentences, as well as on the ambiguity of resolving the issue of homogeneity and heterogeneity of predicates, etc.

Thus, the title of the textbook - “Modern Russian Language” - reflects the essential features of the educational material presented in it. Moreover, the textbook to some extent reveals those trends that, as can be foreseen today, will determine the development of the Russian language in the 21st century.

This sixth edition was prepared by N.S. Valgina based on the stable textbook of the same name, which went through five editions.

Introduction

The modern Russian language is the national language of the great Russian people, a form of Russian national culture.

The Russian language belongs to the group of Slavic languages, which are divided into three subgroups: eastern - the languages ​​Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian; southern - languages ​​Bulgarian, Serbo-Croatian, Slovenian, Macedonian; Western - languages ​​Polish, Czech, Slovak, Kashubian, Lusatian. Going back to the same source - the common Slavic language, all Slavic languages ​​are close to each other, as evidenced by the similarity of a number of words, as well as the phenomena of the phonetic system and grammatical structure. For example: Russian tribe, Bulgarian tribe, Serbian tribe, Polish plemiê, Czech pl e mě, Russian clay, Bulgarian clay, Czech hlina, Polish glina; Russian summer, Bulgarian lato, Czech l e to, Polish lato; Russian red, Serbian kr A san, Czech kr a sn y; Russian milk, Bulgarian milk, Serbian milk, Polish mieko, Czech ml e ko, etc.

Russian National language represents a historically established linguistic community and unites the entire set of linguistic means of the Russian people, including all Russian dialects and dialects, as well as social jargons.

The highest form of the national Russian language is Russian literary language.

At different historical stages of the development of the national language - from the national language to the national - in connection with the change and expansion of the social functions of the literary language, the content of the concept of “literary language” changed.

Modern Russian literary language is a standardized language that serves the cultural needs of the Russian people; it is the language of state acts, science, the press, radio, theater, and fiction.

“The division of language into literary and folk,” wrote A.M. Bitter, means only that we have, so to speak, a “raw” language and processed by masters.”

The normalization of a literary language lies in the fact that the composition of the dictionary in it is regulated, the meaning and use of words, pronunciation, spelling and the formation of grammatical forms of words follow a generally accepted pattern. The concept of a norm, however, does not exclude in some cases variants that reflect changes that constantly occur in language as a means of human communication. For example, the following stress options are considered literary: far - far, high - high, otherwise - otherwise; gram, forms: waving - waving, meowing - meowing, rinsing - rinsing.

Modern literary language, not without the influence of the media, is noticeably changing its status: the norm is becoming less rigid, allowing for variation. It focuses not on inviolability and universality, but rather on communicative expediency. Therefore, the norm today is often not so much a ban on something as an opportunity to choose. The border between normativity and non-normativity is sometimes blurred, and some colloquial and colloquial linguistic facts become variants of the norm. Becoming a public domain, the literary language easily absorbs previously forbidden means of linguistic expression. It is enough to give an example of the active use of the word “lawlessness,” which previously belonged to criminal jargon.

Literary language has two forms: oral And written, which are characterized by features both from the lexical composition and from the grammatical structure, because they are designed for different types of perception - auditory and visual.

Written literary language differs from oral language primarily in the greater complexity of syntax and the presence of a large amount of abstract vocabulary, as well as terminological vocabulary, in particular international. Written literary language has stylistic varieties: scientific, official business, journalistic, and artistic styles.

Literary language, as a standardized, processed national language, is opposed to local dialects And jargons. Russian dialects are united into two main groups: the Northern Russian dialect and the Southern Russian dialect. Each group has its own distinctive features in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammatical forms. In addition, there are Central Russian dialects, which reflect the features of both dialects.

The modern Russian literary language is the language of interethnic communication of the peoples of the Russian Federation. The Russian literary language introduces all the peoples of Russia to the culture of the great Russian people.

Since 1945, the UN Charter has recognized the Russian language as one of the official languages ​​of the world.

There are numerous statements by great Russian writers and public figures, as well as many progressive foreign writers, about the strength, wealth and artistic expressiveness of the Russian language. Derzhavin and Karamzin, Pushkin and Gogol, Belinsky and Chernyshevsky, Turgenev and Tolstoy spoke enthusiastically about the Russian language.

The modern Russian language course consists of the following sections: vocabulary and phraseology, phonetics and phonology, spelling, graphics and spelling, word formation, grammar (morphology and syntax), punctuation.

Vocabulary And phraseology study the vocabulary and phraseological composition of the Russian language and the patterns of its development.

Phonetics describes the sound composition of the modern Russian literary language and the main sound processes occurring in the language; the subject of phonology is phonemes - the shortest sound units that serve to distinguish the sound shells of words and their forms.

Orthoepy studies the norms of modern Russian literary pronunciation.

Graphic arts introduces the composition of the Russian alphabet, the relationship between letters and sounds, and spelling- with the basic principle of Russian writing - morphological, as well as phonetic and traditional spellings. Spelling is a set of rules that determine the spelling of words.

Word formation studies the morphological composition of a word and the main types of formation of new words: morphological, morphological-syntactic, lexical-semantic, lexical-syntactic.

Morphology is the study of grammatical categories and grammatical forms of words. She studies the lexical and grammatical categories of words, the interaction of lexical and grammatical meanings of a word, and ways of expressing grammatical meanings in the Russian language.

Syntax- This is the study of sentences and phrases. Syntax studies the basic syntactic units - phrases and sentences, types of syntactic connections, types of sentences and their structure.

Punctuation is built on the basis of syntax - a set of rules for placing punctuation marks.

VOCABULARY AND PHRASEOLOGY

Russian vocabulary

The concept of vocabulary and lexical system

Vocabulary is the entire set of words of a language, its vocabulary. The branch of linguistics that studies vocabulary is called lexicology(gr. lexikos - vocabulary + logos - teaching). There is a distinction between historical lexicology, which studies the formation of vocabulary in its development, and descriptive lexicology, which deals with issues of word meaning, semantics (gr. semantikos - denoting), volume, structure of vocabulary, etc., i.e. considering various types of relationships between words in a single lexical-semantic system. Words in it can be related by similarity or opposition of meanings (cf., for example, synonyms and antonyms), commonality of functions performed (cf., for example, groups of words in colloquial and book), similarity of origin or proximity of stylistic properties, as well as belonging to the same part of speech and etc. This kind of relationship between words in different groups, united by common features, is called paradigmatic(gr. par a deigma - example, sample) and are fundamental in determining the properties of the system.

A type of systemic connections is the degree of lexical compatibility of words with each other, otherwise the relationship syntagmatic(Greek syntagma - something connected), which often influence the development of new paradigms. For example, for a long time the word state in meaning was associated only with the word state as “the political organization of society headed by the government or its bodies.” Being a relative adjective in meaning, it was combined with a certain range of words like: system, border, institution, employee and under. Then its syntagmatic relations expanded: it began to be used in combination with words thinking, mind, person, action, deed etc., acquiring the qualitative-evaluative meaning “able to think and act broadly and wisely.” This, in turn, created the conditions for the emergence of new paradigmatic connections, which also influenced the development of new grammatical meanings and forms: since the word in certain cases performs the functions of qualitative adjectives, the formation of abstract nouns became possible from it - statehood, qualitative adverbs - state, antonyms - non-state, anti-state etc.

Consequently, both types of systemic relations are closely related to each other and form an overall complex lexical-semantic system, which is part of the general language system.

Semasiological characteristics of the modern lexical system

Lexical meaning of the word. Its main types

A word differs in its sound design, morphological structure and the meaning and meaning contained in it.

Lexical meaning of the word- this is its content, i.e. historically fixed in the minds of speakers the correlation between a sound complex and an object or phenomenon of reality, “formulated according to the grammatical laws of a given language and being an element of the general semantic system of the dictionary.”

The meaning of words does not reflect the entire set of known signs, objects and phenomena, but only those of them that help to distinguish one object from another. So, if we say: this is a bird, then in this case we are only interested in the fact that before us is a species of flying vertebrate animals, the body of which is covered with feathers, and the forelimbs are transformed into wings. These features help distinguish a bird from other animals, such as mammals.

In the process of joint labor activity, in their social practice, people learn objects, qualities, phenomena; and certain features of these objects, qualities or phenomena of reality serve as the basis for the meaning of the word. Therefore, to correctly understand the meaning of words, a wide acquaintance with the public sphere in which the word existed or exists is necessary. Consequently, extra-linguistic factors play an important role in the development of the meaning of a word.

Depending on which feature is used as the basis for the classification, four main types of lexical meanings of words can be distinguished in the modern Russian language.

By connection, correlation with the subject of reality, i.e. According to the method of naming or nomination (Latin nominatio - naming, denomination), direct or basic meanings and figurative or indirect meanings are distinguished.

Direct meaning is one that is directly related to an object or phenomenon, quality, action, etc. For example, the first two meanings of the word hand will be straight: “one of the two upper limbs of a person from the shoulder to the end of the fingers...” and “... as an instrument of activity, labor.”

Portable is a meaning that arises not as a result of direct correlation with an object, but through the transfer of direct meaning to another object due to various associations. For example, the following meanings of the word hand will be figurative:

1) (singular only) manner of writing, handwriting; 2) (plural only) labor force;

3) (plural only) about a person, a person (...with a definition) as the possessor, possessor of something; 4) symbol of power; 5) (only singular, colloquial) about an influential person who can protect and provide support; 6) (only singular) about someone’s consent to marriage, about readiness to marry.

Connections between words that have a direct meaning are less dependent on context and are determined by subject-logical relations, which are quite broad and relatively free. The figurative meaning depends much more on the context; it has a living or partially extinct imagery.

According to the degree of semantic motivation, meanings are divided into unmotivated(or non-derivative, idiomatic) and motivated(or derivatives of the former). For example, the meaning of the word hand- unmotivated, and the meanings of words manual, sleeve etc. - are already motivated by semantic and word-formation connections with the word hand.

According to the degree of lexical compatibility, meanings are divided into relatively free(these include all direct meanings of words) and unfree. Among the latter, there are two main types:

1) phraseologically related meaning is called one that occurs in words in certain lexically indivisible combinations. They are characterized by a narrowly limited, stably reproduced range of words, the connections of which are determined not by subject-logical relations, but by the internal laws of the lexical-semantic system. The boundaries of the use of words with this meaning are narrow. Yes, the word bosom the figurative meaning “sincere, sincere” is realized, as a rule, only in combination with the word friend (friendship);

2) syntactically determined meaning is called one that appears in a word when it fulfills an unusual role in a sentence. Context plays a significant role in the development of these meanings. For example, when using the word oak as a person characterizing: Eh, you oak, you still don’t understand anything- its meaning “dumb, insensitive” (colloquial) is realized.

A type of syntactically determined meaning includes the so-called structurally limited, which arises only under the conditions of using a word in a certain syntactic structure. For example, the relatively recently emerged meaning of “district, region, place of action” for the word geography due to its use in construction with a noun in the genitive case: geography of sports victories.

According to the nature of the nominative functions performed, the meanings are actually nominative and expressive-synonymous.

Nominative are those that directly, directly name an object, phenomenon, quality, action, etc. In their semantics, as a rule, there are no additional features (in particular, evaluative ones). Although over time such signs may appear. (In this case, various kinds of figurative meanings develop, but this group is distinguished according to a different classification criterion. See type 1.)

For example, words have a nominative meaning writer, assistant, make noise and many more etc.

Expressive-synonymous is the meaning of a word in the semantics of which the emotional-expressive feature predominates. Words with such meanings exist independently, are reflected in the dictionary and are perceived as evaluative synonyms for words that have their own nominative meaning. Wed: writer - scribbler, scribbler; assistant - accomplice; make noise - make noise. Consequently, they not only name the object, the action, but also give a special assessment. For example, chatter(simple) not just “to make noise,” but “to behave noisily, fussily, dissolutely, dishonestly.”

In addition to the indicated main types of lexical meanings, many words in the Russian language have shades of meaning, which, although closely related to the main one, still have differences. For example, along with the first direct meaning of the word hand Dictionaries also give its connotation, i.e. separated by a semicolon indicates “part of the same limb from the metacarpus to the end of the fingers.” (Compare in the dictionary the shades of meaning of the word book and many other words.)

The word as a lexical and grammatical unit of language

The word as the basic unit of language is studied in various branches of linguistics.

Yes, from the point of view phonetic the sound envelope is examined, those vowel and consonant sounds that make up the word are highlighted, the syllable on which the stress falls is determined, etc.

Lexicology(descriptive) first of all, it clarifies everything related to the meaning of the word: it clarifies the types of meanings, determines the scope of use of the word, stylistic coloring, etc. For (historical) lexicology, the question of the origin of a word, its semantics, sphere of use, stylistic affiliation, etc. is important. at different periods of language development.

From point of view grammatical the belonging of a word to one or another part of speech, the grammatical meanings and grammatical forms inherent in the word are revealed (see § 106 for more details), the role of words in a sentence. All this complements the lexical meaning of the word.

Grammatical and lexical meanings are closely related, so a change in the lexical meaning often leads to a change in the grammatical characteristics of the word. For example, in the phrase voiceless consonant word deaf(meaning “a sound formed only with the participation of noise alone, without the participation of the voice”) is a relative adjective. And in the phrase muffled voice word deaf(meaning “muffled, unclear”) is a qualitative adjective, having degrees of comparison, a short form. Consequently, the change in meaning also affected the morphological characteristics of the word.

Lexical meanings influence not only the ways of forming individual grammatical forms, but also the formation of new words. Thus, as a result of the historical development of the meanings of one word fur Two different words have appeared that mean different concepts: squirrel fur And blacksmith bellows(see § 5 about this).

The lexical meaning of a word can be unique (such words are called unambiguous), but it can also coexist with other lexical meanings of the same word (such words are called polysemantic).

Polysemy of the word

Polysemy, or polysemy(gr. poly - many + sma - sign), the property of words to be used in different meanings is called. Thus, the word core in modern Russian has several meanings:

1) the inner part of the fruit in a hard shell: And the nuts are not ordinary, all the shells are golden,kernels- pure emerald(P.); 2) the basis of something (book): Was destroyed on the Volgacorefascist army; 3) the central part of something (special): core atom; 4) an ancient gun shell in the form of a round cast body: Rollingkernels, bullets whistle, cold bayonets hang(P.). The semantic connection of the selected meanings is close, therefore they are all considered as meanings of the same word.

Word pipe, for example, in phrases water pipe or Spyglass has the meaning of “a long, hollow, usually round object.” Pipe A brass musical instrument with a strong ringing timbre is also called: My creator! deafened, louder than anypipes! (Gr.). This word is also used in such a special meaning as “a channel in the body for communication between organs,” for example, Eustachianpipe.

Thus, in the process of its historical development, a word, in addition to its original meaning, can acquire a new, derivative meaning.

The ways of forming the meanings of words are different. A new meaning of a word can arise, for example, by transferring the name based on the similarity of objects or their characteristics, i.e. metaphorically (from the gr. metaphora - transfer). For example; by similarity of external characteristics: nose(person) - nose(ship), shapes of objects: apple(Antonovskoe) - apple(eye), according to the similarity of sensations, assessments: warm(current) - warm(participation), etc. It is also possible to transfer names based on the similarity of the functions performed (i.e. functional transfers): feather(goose) - feather(steel), conductor(official accompanying the train) - conductor(in technology, a device that guides a tool).

A new meaning can arise as a result of the appearance of associations by contiguity (so-called metonymic transfers, Greek metonymia - renaming). For example, the name of a material is transferred to a product made from this material: chandelier frombronze(name of material) - An antique store was selling an antiquebronze(product made from this material). Various kinds of co-impliations also arise in a metonymic way (Gr. synekdochē), i.e. naming an action and its result in one word, cf.: do embroidery- exhibition of artistic embroidery; parts and the whole (and vice versa), cf.: flashedpeacoatswith caps and grayovercoats(i.e. sailors and infantrymen; in this case, the person is named after the part of his clothing), etc.

Different meanings of a word, as well as their shades, make up its so-called semantic structure and serve as a vivid example of the manifestation of systemic connections within one word. It is this type of relationship that allows writers and speakers to widely use polysemy, both without any special stylistic designation, and for a specific purpose: to give speech expressiveness, emotionality, etc.

In the event of a break or complete loss of semantic connections between different meanings, it becomes possible to call completely different concepts, objects, etc. with an already known word. This is one of the ways to develop new words - homonyms.

Lexical homonyms, their types and role in the language

Homonyms(gr. homos - identical + onyma - name) are words that are different in meaning, but identical in sound and spelling. In lexicology, two types of lexical homonyms are studied: complete and incomplete, or partial.

Modern Russian language - Rosenthal D.E., Golub I.B., Telenkova M.A. - 2002.

This textbook was written in accordance with the modern Russian language program for philological departments and, unlike well-known manuals, contains all sections of the course taught in higher educational institutions.
The authors present theoretical material in a concise and compact form, adhering, as a rule, to traditional linguistic terms. This will make it easier to read the book and absorb the material. This method of presenting the material maintains connection with the school practice of studying the Russian language and is necessary when working with the book independently.

My first 1000 English words - Memory technique - Litvinov P.P. - 2007.

The purpose of the manual is to develop and improve the skills of quickly memorizing English words. The form of presenting the material, based on the original author's methodology, will help not only significantly expand your vocabulary within a short period of time, but also improve your speech literacy in English.
For students of schools, colleges, lyceums, students of preparatory courses, as well as for a wide range of people studying the language on their own.
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Encyclopedia of Security - 3 - Chapter 4 - Gromov V.I., Vasiliev G.A.

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English tests - Koshmanova I.I. - 2004.

The collection contains tests of four difficulty levels designed to test spelling, grammar, vocabulary and word usage. The tests presented in the collection are similar to those offered for entrance exams in educational institutions. The tests are varied in structure and provided with keys.

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Tests to prepare for the Unified State Exam in English - Duda N.V.

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Repeating English verb tenses - 5-11 grades - Klementieva T.B. - 1996.

If you want to systematize your knowledge in the field of using aspectual and tense forms of an English verb, a book by the famous psychologist and teacher T.B. will help you. Klementieva, author of the most popular textbooks for secondary schools. The manual allows you to independently master the material and check the results of your work. The book is addressed to middle and high school students, students of non-linguistic specialties at universities, and all students of English.

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Scientific and business correspondence - English - Bass E.M.

Scientific and business correspondence - English language - Bass E.M. - 1991.

The book, consisting of 10 thematic sections, contains sample letters relating to various situations that arise when conducting scientific and business correspondence; they use words, phrases and expressions characteristic of correspondence in English.
In order to consolidate vocabulary and grammar, the book includes material for translation both from English into Russian and from Russian into English, as well as a Russian-English dictionary.
For everyone who conducts scientific and business correspondence in English.